Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering

Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

1.0 Introduction to Power Plant Engineering

1.1 The Sources of Energy
Various energy sources are at our disposal to meet the growing energy demands worldwide.
These sources can be broadly categorized into two groups: commercial or conventional
energy sources, and non-commercial or non-conventional energy sources. While most
developed nations heavily rely on conventional energy sources, developing countries in Asia
and Africa depend on a mix of both types.

Energy sources can be classified primarily into two categories: renewable and non-renewable
energy sources.

1. Renewable energy sources:

Renewable energy sources are provided by nature and are inexhaustible. They encompass
direct solar radiation harnessed through solar collectors and cells, as well as indirect solar
energy in the forms of wind power, hydropower, ocean energy, and sustainable biomass
resources.

2. Non-renewable energy sources:

Non-renewable energy sources are either naturally occurring or synthetically produced by
humans. These resources are finite and non-replenishing. Conventional energy sources like
nuclear power and fossil fuels fall under this category.

Advantages and disadvantages of renewable energy sources:

Advantages:
(i) They originate from nature and are considered boundless.
(ii) These sources are environmentally friendly and produce no pollution.
(iii) If effectively harnessed in developing nations, they can lead to substantial savings in
foreign exchange and the creation of employment opportunities.
(iv) Their flexibility allows for swift and uncomplicated deployment.
(v) Over an extended timeframe, they prove cost-effective.

Disadvantages:
(i) Some of these sources, such as solar, wind, tidal, and hydro energy, are intermittent in
availability, necessitating supplementary support from non-renewable energy sources.
(ii) Achieving complete commercialization on a large scale can be challenging.
(iii) The initial costs are elevated due to nascent technologies that are still in their preliminary
stages.
(iv) These sources are not evenly distributed across the globe, leading to geographical
disparities in access.

By transforming our energy landscape, renewable sources offer a promising avenue for
sustainable development, despite their inherent challenges.

1.1.1 Commercial Energy Sources

The following are conventionally accessible forms of energy:
(i) Fossil fuels, which can exist in solid, liquid, or gaseous states.
(ii) Hydroelectric power, derived from the energy stored in water.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

(iii) Nuclear energy.

Table 1.1 General Consumption of Total Energy

Source of
Contribution (%) Overall (%)
Energy
Coal 32.50
Gas 19.00 92
Uranium 0.13
Hydro 2.00
Oil 38.40
Wood 6.60 8
Cow Dung 1.20
Waste 0.50

1. Coal
Coal stands as the most prevalent energy source employed since the inception of
industrialization. Contemporary steam boilers primarily utilize coal in its diverse forms as a
primary fuel. Variations of coal rank include peat, lignite, bituminous, and anthracite.

Figure 1.1 illustrates a thermal power plant that employs steam as its working fluid. The
arrangement encompasses a steam generator, a condensing turbine mechanically linked to a
generator, a condenser fitted with a condensate extraction pump, and a feedwater tank
supported by a feed pump. Within a coal-fired thermal power plant, coal is combusted within
a boiler furnace. The ensuing heat is harnessed to transmute water, the operational fluid, into
superheated steam within the boiler or steam generator. The elevated-pressure steam propels
the primary engine, often a steam turbine.

Figure 1.1 Typical Steam Power Plant

The principal engine's rotation is synchronized with an electric generator that accompanies it.
This interplay converts mechanical energy into electrical energy, which is then channelled to
different nodes via power distribution systems.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

Subsequent to the steam's expansion within the turbine, it condenses back into water within
a surface condenser. The resulting condensate is pumped back to the feedwater tank. The
feedwater within the tank is heated by extracting a portion of steam from the turbine. This
preheated feedwater is propelled to the boiler using a feed pump.

While coal reserves are anticipated to last for approximately 200 years, their combustion
yields a relatively lower calorific value, and their transportation cost-effectiveness is
compromised. Their incineration generates pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO) and
carbon dioxide (CO2), consequently contributing to ecological imbalances.

2. Natural Gas
Due to a lack of a readily available market, natural gas is underutilized and often burned in
significant quantities. The costs associated with transporting natural gas exceed those of oil.
Extensive reserves are believed to exist in remote and inaccessible regions. Gaseous fuels fall
into the following categories:
(i) Gases with fixed compositions, such as acetylene, ethylene, and methane.
(ii) Industrial gases, including producer gas, coke oven gas, blast furnace gas, and water
gas.

3. Hydropower (Water)
Hydropower holds immense potential as a source of energy, primarily intended for
hydroelectric power generation. The potential energy of water is harnessed by converting it
into mechanical energy using hydraulic turbines, the prime movers. The operating costs of
such plants are comparatively lower than other types of power plants. This renewable and
non-depleting energy source is unique in that it does not contribute to pollution.

Figure 1.2 illustrates a high-head hydraulic power plant. In a hydroelectric power plant,
water is stored behind a dam to create a reservoir. Tunnels transport water from the reservoir
to penstocks, large-diameter pipes that direct water to the turbines. Protective trash racks
prevent foreign objects from entering the tunnels. A surge tank before the valve house
prevents sudden pressure changes in the penstock. Water flow is controlled in the valve
house, which is electrically driven. Thus, the potential energy of water propels the hydraulic
turbine, connected to an electric generator in the powerhouse. The used water is then released
to the tailrace.

4. Nuclear Power
All matter comprises atoms held together by binding energy. Controlled fission of heavier,
unstable atoms like U235, Th232, and Pu239 releases an enormous amount of energy. This is
achieved using only a small quantity of nuclear fuels. Notably, the energy released from
fissioning one kilogram of U235 equals the heat produced by burning 4,500 kilograms of
coal. This efficiency enhances the appeal of nuclear energy. The energy from nuclear fission
is used to generate steam in heat exchangers, propelling turbo-generators. Three nuclear
power generation systems are considered: utilizing natural uranium, plutonium, or thorium.
Uganda is contemplating a bolstering of its electricity generation capacity by integrating
nuclear power into its energy mix. The sustainable provision of nuclear fuel for Uganda's
Nuclear Power Programme necessitates the acquisition of uranium. This initiative marks the
commencement of an exploration endeavor aimed at assessing the viability of uranium
deposits, with an initial focus on the regions of Kyambogo, Lwansala, and Kyataba B within
the Sembabule district.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

Detailed studies have pinpointed areas with promising uranium prospects, demonstrating the
potential to harbor economically feasible resources. These prospects have been uncovered
across several districts, including Sembabule, Buhweju, Gomba, Kiboga, Mbarara, Hoima,
Kabarole, Kamwenge, Iganga, and Tororo. This information comes from a recent report dated
April 20, 2023.

Figure 1.2 Typical Hydraulic Power Plant

5. Agricultural and Organic Wastes

This category encompasses a variety of materials, such as sawdust, bagasse, animal dung,
paddy husk, and corn stems, which significantly contribute to energy consumption.

6. Petroleum Oil
Oil singularly caters to nearly 40% of global energy demands. Given the current rate of
consumption and an available resource of 250,000 million tons, its sustainability is projected
to extend for only 100 years, barring the discovery of additional oil reserves. Petroleum
contributes significantly to this reserve, forming a substantial portion of the oil supply.

1.2 Factors Impacting Site Selection

1.2.1 Steam Power Plants Site Factors
Choosing an appropriate location for a thermal power plant is crucial for its long-term
efficiency. Site selection involves multiple considerations, aiming to balance various
requirements for sustainable plant operations. Although meeting all criteria at a single
location might be challenging, an ideal site should combine feasible elements to ensure the
plant's economic viability over time. The following major factors are key in selecting suitable
sites for major power plants:

1. Coal Availability
Ample coal supply is essential due to high consumption. Proximity to coal sources, or cost-
effective transport options, such as sea routes and rail connections, are significant factors.

2. Transportation Facilities

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

With high daily coal consumption, transportation systems must ensure a continuous supply
and storage capabilities, both during construction and operation periods.

3. Land Availability
Space is needed for ash disposal, coal storage, power plant structures, residential areas, and
other amenities. Generally, around 3-4 acres per MW of generated power is required.

4. Water Supply
Large water volumes are needed for cooling and ash-handling systems. Proximity to water
bodies, like rivers, lakes, or seas, is vital, while maintaining a safe distance from flood-prone
areas.

5. Labor Availability
Skilled and unskilled labor availability and proper transportation infrastructure for labor
movement are essential for efficient plant operation.

6. Geology and Soil Type

Stable land free from equipment-induced vibrations and geological hazards is crucial. Soil
and rock layer testing ensures sound foundation, and the site should be away from
earthquake-prone areas.

7. Distance from Populated Areas

Minimizing negative environmental impacts is crucial, requiring placement away from
national parks, wildlife areas, and dense populations to avoid polluting sensitive ecosystems.

8. Proximity to Load Centre

Locating near load centres reduces transmission and distribution losses, lessens power loss,
and minimizes transmission costs.

9. Climatic Conditions
Studying climate factors like temperature, humidity, and wind direction is essential for
optimizing component placement and performance, such as cooling towers and chimneys.

Launching Uganda's Nuclear Power Programme seeks to expand electricity generation

through nuclear means, relying on sustainable uranium supply. The exploration process will
commence in regions like Kyambogo, Lwansala, and Kyataba B in the Sembabule district.
Prospects of economically viable uranium resources have also been identified in districts like
Sembabule, Buhweju, Gomba, Kiboga, Mbarara, Hoima, Kabarole, Kamwenge, Iganga, and
Tororo, as indicated in an April 20, 2023 report.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

2.0 Hydro-Electric Power Plant Site Factors

In hydroelectric power plant selection, multiple structures like dams and powerhouses play a
role. Various layouts are studied to determine economic viability. Site investigations occur in
two stages:
1. Preliminary Investigation: Assessing feasibility and choosing alternatives.
2. Final Investigation: Detailed study to confirm suitability and enable final design.

Investigations encompass:
1. Hydrological:
a) Water availability and storage based on runoff data or calculated from rainfall data.
b) Water head determined by topography.
c) Groundwater stability and required precautions.
2. Topographical: Mapping catchment area features.
3. Geological: Selection based on basin size, outlet, foundation strength, spillways, land
preservation, dam construction material, proximity to load centres, access, and pollution
impact.

Addressing water pollution effects includes considering water quality impact on dam
structure, machinery, and personnel, as well as sedimentation and environmental
compatibility.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

3.0 Nuclear Power Plant Site Factors

For nuclear power plants, geological, meteorological, hydrological, topographical, transport,
and radiological investigations are crucial. Key factors for siting a nuclear station include:
1. Cooling Water Availability
2. Transportation Facilities
3. Distance from the Load Centre
4. Safety
5. Radioactive Waste and Disposal
6. Foundation Requirements

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

4.0 Layouts of Power Plants

This section outlines layouts of major power plant types.

Figure 1.3 Coal-Fired Steam/Thermal Power Displaying Working Systems

4.1 Steam Turbine Plant Layout

Figure 1.3 depicts a coal-fired thermal power station's layout comprising four key systems:
1. Coal- and ash-handling system
2. Air and flue gas system
3. Cooling water system
4. Feed water and steam generation system
A steam power plant operates on the Rankine cycle. Generated steam expands in the turbine,
exhausts into the condenser, and is returned to the boiler along with feed water. High-pressure
steam drives the turbine, generating mechanical energy and, in turn, electric power.
Efficiency is enhanced by utilizing economizers, air preheaters, superheaters, and feed water
heaters.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

1. Coal- and Ash-Handling System

Crushed coal from the yard fuels the furnace via coal hoppers. Combustion products and
unburned coal are stored in the ash storage site.

2. Air and Flue Gas System

Forced draft fans deliver air to the furnace. Flue gases circulate, heating tubes, then pass
through economizer and air preheater tubes. Induced draft fans expel exhaust gases through
the chimney.

3. Cooling Water System

Condenser, condensate extraction pump, cooling tower, and circulation pump comprise this
system. Open systems discharge water into rivers; closed systems utilize cooling towers.

4. Feed Water and Steam Generation System

Feed water pump, steam generator, superheater, condenser, and hot well form this system.
Superheated steam powers prime movers, with exhaust steam condensing in the condenser.
Lost water is replaced from external sources, treated in a feed water treatment plant.

For the full specifics on each power plant type, refer to the respective layouts and systems.

4.2 Layout of Hydro-Electric Plant

Water, abundant and cost-effective, possesses significant energy potential. High-level
potential energy drives electrical generation in hydro-electric power stations.

The layout of hydro-electric power stations is influenced by plant type. For vertical turbines,
optimal placement is in a line parallel to the turbine house's length, with spacing determined
by scroll case size or alternator diameter. Horizontal turbines suggest perpendicular or
parallel arrangement to the turbine house's length. Adequate space for machine repair and re-
erection, as well as a repair bay, is crucial. Refer to Figure 1.4 for a standard layout of a water
plant with vertical machines.

Figure 1.4 Layout of Hydro-Electric Plant

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

4.3 Layout of Diesel Plant

Refer to Figure 1.5 for layouts of high-capacity diesel power plants. In all cases, generating
units are aligned parallelly. Adequate space surrounding units is crucial for maintenance. Fuel
storage tanks may be placed outside to prevent fire hazards. Provision for future expansion is
recommended. The engine room requires proper ventilation. Instruments must be integrated
for operator guidance, ensuring reliability, economy, and safety.

Figure 1.5 Layout of a Diesel Power Plant

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

4.4 Layout of a Nuclear Plant

In Figure 1.6, the layout of a standard nuclear power plant is depicted. The key components
are labeled as follows:
1. Reactor Building; 2. Group 1 Service Building; 3. Group 2 Service Building; 4.
Reactor Auxiliary Building; 5. Maintenance Building; 6. Turbine Building; 7.
Administration Building; 8. Pump House; 9. Group 2 Pump House

(a)

(b)
Figure 1.6(a) Layout of a Nuclear Power Plant, and (b) Layout of a Nuclear Power Station

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

4.5 Layout of a Gas Turbine Plant

Figure 1.7 illustrates a standard gas turbine plant layout. An air filter purifies incoming air,
which proceeds to the low-pressure (LP) compressor. After compression, air travels through
the inter-cooler, and then enters the high-pressure (HP) compressor. Compressed air passes
through a heat exchanger, and hot air proceeds to the combustion chamber. Combustion
products enter the low-pressure turbine, expanding and performing useful work.

Figure 1.7 Layout of a Gas Turbine

Figure 1.8 Combined Cycle Power Plant

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

4.6 Merits of Different Power Plants

In this section, we explore the advantages and disadvantages of various power plant types:
steam, gas, diesel, hydro, and nuclear.

4.6.1 Gas Turbine Plant Advantages and Disadvantages

1. Advantages over diesel plants:
1. Less vibration due to balanced units.
2. Higher mechanical efficiency (95%) compared to diesel.
3. Better torque characteristics.
4. Higher power-to-air ratio.
5. Lighter weight, lower capital cost.
6. Components can be individually designed and tested.
7. Faster turbine speeds (4,000–100,000 rpm).
8. Simplified lubrication and ignition systems.
9. Suitable for various fuels.
Disadvantages over diesel plants:
1. Lower overall cycle efficiency.
2. Costlier due to specialized materials.
3. Higher maintenance costs.
4. Less suited for solid fuels.
5. Less economical for base load.

2. Advantages over steam power plants:

1. No ash handling required.
2. Smaller buildings and materials needed.
3. Lower cooling water requirement.
4. Higher thermal efficiency.
5. Lower operating cost.
6. Suitable as peak-load plants.
7. Less auxiliaries needed.
8. Faster start-up and response.

4.6.2 Nuclear Plant Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:
1. Requires less space.
2. Low fuel consumption.
3. Low fuel transportation cost.
4. Reliable operation.
5. Not weather-dependent.
Disadvantages:
1. High initial and maintenance costs.
2. Unsuitable for varying loads.
3. Radioactive waste disposal challenge.
4. Requires trained operators.

4.6.3 Diesel Plant Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:
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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

1. No standby losses, flexible fuel range.

2. Quick manufacturing and installation.
3. Automation potential.
4. Compact and lightweight.
5. Suitable for remote areas.
6. Fast start-up.
7. Suitable for peak-load operation.
Disadvantages:
1. Inefficient for large capacities.
2. Noise pollution.
3. Fuel limitations.
4. High lubrication cost.
5. Shorter life compared to steam plants.
6. Higher repair and maintenance costs.

4.6.4 Hydro-Electric Power Plant Advantages

Advantages:
1. Low operating cost.
2. Stable cost per unit of energy.
3. Long life expectancy.
4. Environmentally friendly.
5. No fuel handling or pollution.
6. Reliable response to load changes.

Disadvantages:
1. High initial capital cost.
2. Long erection time.
3. Dependent on water availability.
4. Remote sites require long transmission lines.

Hydroelectric power plants are generally advantageous due to their low operating costs,
stable energy costs, long life expectancy, and environmental benefits.

4.7 What are Carbon Credits?

Carbon credits, also known as carbon offsets, are a financial mechanism designed to
incentivize and promote activities that help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate
climate change. The concept is rooted in the effort to combat global warming and the
accumulation of greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere.

Here's how carbon credits work:

1. Emission Reduction Projects: Certain activities, technologies, and practices can lead to
the reduction or removal of greenhouse gas emissions from the atmosphere. These activities
can range from renewable energy projects (such as wind, solar, and hydroelectric power) to
afforestation (planting trees) and energy efficiency improvements.

2. Certification and Verification: Organizations or projects that carry out such emission
reduction activities can apply for certification and verification of their emissions reductions.
Independent third-party organizations assess and verify the emission reduction claims to
ensure their accuracy and credibility.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

3. Carbon Credits Issuance: Once verified, these organizations or projects receive carbon
credits based on the amount of emissions they have reduced or removed. Each carbon credit
represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) emissions.

4. Trading and Sale: Carbon credits can be bought and sold in the carbon market.
Companies or entities that exceed their allowed emissions levels can purchase these credits to
offset their excess emissions. On the other hand, organizations that have reduced more
emissions than required can sell their surplus credits.

5. Offsetting Emissions: The purchased carbon credits are used to offset the buyer's
emissions. By doing so, the overall emissions balance of the buyer remains within the
allocated limit, while the emission-reducing activities funded by the purchased credits
contribute to the global reduction of greenhouse gases.

6. Impact on Climate Change: The underlying idea is that while it may be challenging for
some industries to eliminate emissions, they can compensate for their emissions by
supporting activities that remove or prevent emissions elsewhere. This creates an economic
incentive for emission reduction projects and encourages sustainable practices.

Carbon credits serve as a tool to create financial value for environmentally friendly
initiatives and promote the transition to a low-carbon economy. However, they have also
faced criticism and concerns, including issues related to the integrity of some offset projects,
the potential for "greenwashing," and the complexity of accurately measuring emissions
reductions.

To be effective, carbon credits require robust standards, accurate measurement

methodologies, and transparent verification processes to ensure that the emission reductions
claimed through offset projects are genuine and contribute to meaningful climate action.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

Tutorial Question 1
1.1 Objective Questions
1. The energy radiated by the Sun on a bright sunny day is approximately
(a) 700 W/m2 (b) 800 W/m2 (c) 1 kW/m2 (d) 2 kW/m2
2. The main source of production of biogas is
(a) human waste (b) wet cow dung (c) wet livestock waste (d) All of the above
3. The overall efficiency of the thermal power plant is equal to
(a) Rankine cycle efficiency (b) Carnot cycle efficiency (c) Regenerative cycle efficiency (d)
boiler efficiency × turbine efficiency × generator efficiency
4. In the fuel cell, the following energy is converted into electrical energy.
(a) Mechanical (b) Chemical (c) Heat (d) Sound
5. Uganda’s first nuclear power plant was installed at
(a) Ishaka (b) None (c) Kampala (d) None of the above
6. The commercial sources of energy are
(a) solar, wind, and biomass (b) fossil fuels, hydropower, and nuclear energy (c) wood,
animal wastes, and agriculture wastes (d) None of the above
7. Solar thermal power generation can be achieved by
(a) using focusing collector or heliostats (b) using flat plate collectors (c) using a solar pond
(d) any of the above system
8. Rankine cycle efficiency of a good steam power plant may be in the range of
(a) 15 – 20 percent (b) 35 – 45 percent
(c) 70 – 80 percent (d) 90 – 95 percent
9. A steam power station requires space
(a) equal to diesel power station
(b) more than diesel power station
(c) less than diesel power station

Answers
1. b 2. d 3. a 4. b 5. d 6. c 7. c 8. b 9. b

1.2 Review Questions

1. (a) With the help of a block diagram, draw the layout of the principal power plants.
(b) Discuss the various factors to be considered for the site selection of
i. Steam power plant
ii. Gas turbine plant
iii. Hydro-electric plant
iv. Nuclear Plant
2. Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of a gas turbine plant versus steam and
diesel engine plants.
2b. Order the relative advantages of a gas turbine plant versus steam and diesel engine plants.

The relative advantages of a gas turbine plant compared to steam and diesel engine plants can
vary depending on specific applications and requirements. Here's an ordered list of some
advantages of gas turbine plants over steam and diesel engine plants, considering a general
perspective:
1. High Power-to-Weight Ratio: Gas turbine plants have a much higher power-to-
weight ratio compared to both steam and diesel engine plants. This makes them
suitable for applications where space and weight constraints are critical, such as
aviation and marine propulsion.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

2. Quick Start-Up and Shutdown: Gas turbines can be started and stopped rapidly,
making them ideal for peak load and grid stabilization. Steam plants, in contrast,
require more time for heating and cooling.
3. Lower Emissions: Gas turbines typically produce lower emissions, especially in
terms of greenhouse gases and particulate matter, making them more environmentally
friendly. Diesel engines, especially older models, can have higher emissions.
4. Fuel Flexibility: Gas turbines can burn a wide range of fuels, including natural gas,
diesel, and aviation fuels. Diesel engines are more fuel-specific, requiring high-
quality diesel fuel.
5. Reduced Maintenance: Gas turbines generally have lower maintenance requirements
compared to diesel engines, which have more complex mechanical systems. Steam
plants also require more maintenance due to the presence of boilers.
6. Higher Efficiency at Partial Load: Gas turbines often maintain higher efficiency
even at partial loads, which is advantageous in applications with variable power
demands. Diesel engines can suffer efficiency losses at partial loads.
7. Smaller Footprint: Gas turbine power plants require less space compared to steam
power plants, which need extensive boiler systems and cooling infrastructure.
8. Less Vibration: Gas turbines are typically better balanced and produce fewer
vibrations compared to diesel engines, contributing to longer equipment life.
9. Lower Lubrication Requirements: Gas turbines have simplified lubrication systems
compared to diesel engines, reducing maintenance needs.
10. Scalability: Gas turbine plants can be easily scaled up or down to match changing
power requirements, while steam and diesel plants may require significant
modifications for scalability.
11. Lower Initial Capital Cost: For certain applications and power levels, gas turbine
plants may have a lower initial capital cost compared to steam power plants.
12. Reduced Heat Loss: Gas turbines have a lower heat loss compared to steam plants,
which often require extensive insulation.
13. Less Water Usage: Gas turbine plants consume less water compared to steam power
plants, which require significant amounts of water for cooling and steam generation.
It's important to note that the advantages listed above can vary depending on factors like the
specific design of the power plant, the quality of maintenance, and the fuel source. The
choice between gas turbines, steam, or diesel engines should consider the specific needs of
the application, environmental concerns, and economic factors.

3. Draw a general layout of a steam power plant showing the different circuits and systems
and explain them.
4. What are the different sources of energy? Classify them.
Energy sources can be classified into two broad categories: renewable and non-renewable.
These categories are based on whether the source of energy can be naturally replenished over
a short period of time or not. Here's a classification of different energy sources:
Renewable Energy Sources:
1. Solar Energy: Generated from the sun's radiation using solar panels or solar thermal
systems.
2. Wind Energy: Captured by wind turbines as wind moves their blades.
3. Hydropower: Generated by the flow of water through turbines in dams or rivers.
4. Biomass Energy: Produced from organic materials like wood, crop residues, and
organic waste.
5. Geothermal Energy: Derived from the Earth's internal heat through geothermal
power plants.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

Non-Renewable Energy Sources:

1. Fossil Fuels:
• Coal: Mined from the earth and used for electricity generation and industrial
processes.
• Natural Gas: Extracted from underground reservoirs and used for heating,
electricity, and as a fuel.
• Oil (Petroleum): Used for transportation, heating, and as a source for
petrochemicals.
2. Nuclear Energy: Generated through nuclear reactions in nuclear power plants.
3. Others:
• Tar Sands: A heavy, viscous form of petroleum extracted from sand or rock.
• Shale Gas and Oil: Extracted from shale rock formations using hydraulic
fracturing (fracking).
Alternative Energy Sources:
1. Tidal Energy: Generated by the rise and fall of tides in coastal areas.
2. Wave Energy: Captured from the motion of ocean waves.
3. Fuel Cells: Devices that convert chemical energy into electricity, often using
hydrogen as a fuel.
4. Ocean Thermal Energy: Utilizes temperature differences in ocean water to generate
power.
5. Hydrogen Energy: Hydrogen gas can be used as a clean fuel in fuel cells or for
energy storage.
Secondary or Stored Energy Sources:
1. Electricity: Generated from various primary sources like coal, natural gas, nuclear,
wind, and solar power.
2. Batteries: Store electrical energy for portable devices, vehicles, and backup power.
3. Chemical Energy: Stored in fossil fuels, biomass, or hydrogen, which can be
converted into other forms of energy.
It's important to note that renewable energy sources are considered more environmentally
friendly and sustainable in the long term compared to non-renewable sources, which are finite
and contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. The choice of energy source depends on factors
like availability, cost, environmental impact, and technological advancements.

5. Review the possibilities of various renewable energy sources as potential contenders for
power generation.
6. Discuss the principal types of power plants, their special features, and their applications.
7. Write a short note on the present status and future trends of power generation in the
Uganda context.
8. How cycle efficiency can be increased in combined power cycles?
9. Discuss briefly resources and the development of power in Uganda.
10. Explain the present status of power generation in Uganda.
11. What is the role played by private and government organizations in power sectors?
12. What do you understand by carbon credits? Discuss.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

5.0 Fossil Fuel Steam Generators

The steam generator, a sealed vessel, is crucial for producing steam at a consistent pressure to
meet process needs. The resulting steam can be wet, dry saturated, or superheated. In
contemporary power plants, a common practice is to employ a single boiler per turbine,
simplifying piping systems and enhancing boiler and turbine control. These boilers are
typically designed to function either above or below critical pressure (221.2 bar), referred to
as supercritical and sub-critical boilers respectively. Supercritical boilers are also termed
once-through boilers. The main role of a steam generator or boiler is to maintain a constant
pressure by balancing steam generation with consumption. In thermal power stations, coal
serves as the primary combustion source, producing heat that generates steam to drive the
turbo-generator.

5.1 Boiler Classification

There several classifications- Classification based on arrangement, classification based on
usage, et cetera.

5.1.1 Fire Tube and Water Tube Boilers

Boilers are classified into fire tube and water tube categories based on the arrangement of
their tubular heating surface.

1. Fire Tube Boilers: Combustion products pass through tubes, surrounded by water.
Suitable for moderate pressure (16–20 bar) operation, these boilers generate 3–8 tons of
steam per hour for process heating. Examples include Cochran, Lancashire, Cornish,
locomotive, and Scotch marine boilers.

2. Water Tube Boilers: Hot flue gases envelop water tubes. These boilers, used for power
generation, operate at high pressures. Examples are Babcock–Wilcox and Sterling boilers.

Figure 2.1 Difference between Fire Tubes and Water Tubes: (a) Fire Tube Boiler Tubes; (b)
Water Tube Boiler Tubes

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

5.1.2 Stationary and Mobile Boilers

Boilers are classified as stationary or mobile based on usage.

1. Stationary Boilers: Used for process heating or power generation at one location.
Examples include Babcock–Wilcox and fluidized bed combustion (FBC) boilers.

2. Mobile Boilers: Portable, used in locomotives and ships. Examples are locomotive and
marine boilers.

5.1.3 Internally and Externally Fired Boilers

Boilers are categorized as internally or externally fired based on furnace placement.

1. Internally Fired Boilers: Furnace within the boiling water zone. Example: Lancashire
boiler.
2. Externally Fired Boilers: Furnace outside the boiling water zone. Example: Babcock–
Wilcox boiler.

Figure 2.2 Operational Principle of Fire Tube and Water Tube Boilers (a) Principle of Fire
Tube Boiler (b) Principle of Water Tube Boiler

5.1.4 Horizontal, Vertical, and Inclined Tube Boilers

Boilers are classified as horizontal, vertical, or inclined based on heating tube orientation.
1. Horizontal Tube Boilers: Heating tubes run horizontally. Example: Lancashire boiler.

2. Vertical Tube Boilers: Heating tubes are vertical. Example: Cochran boiler.

3. Inclined Tube Boilers: Heating tubes inclined to horizontal. Example: Babcock–Wilcox

boiler.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

5.1.5 Boilers by Heat Source

Boilers are classified by the source of heat generation:
- Fuel combustion (solid, liquid, or gas)
- Waste gas heat
- Electrical energy
- Nuclear energy

5.1.6 Natural and Forced Circulation Boilers

Boilers can be categorized as natural circulation or forced circulation based on water
movement.

- Natural Circulation Boilers: Water circulation via convection currents from heat.
Example: Babcock–Wilcox boiler.

- Forced Circulation Boilers: External pump-driven water circulation. May be one-time

through or with controlled recirculation. Used in high-pressure environments. Examples: La-
Mont, Velox, Benson boilers.

Modern power plants commonly use forced circulation boilers for their high steam-raising
capacity.

5.4 BOILER PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS

The overall efficiency of the plant is defined by the ratio of plant output expressed as follows:
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
𝜂𝜂0 = × 100
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝜂𝜂0 =
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 (𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾)

𝜂𝜂0 =
𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 ∗ 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓
where 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 = mass of fuel burnt/s, kg/s, 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 = calorific value of fuel, kJ/kg.
Considering the Rankine cycle, we can define both boiler and turbine efficiencies as follows:
Boiler efficiency,
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
𝜂𝜂𝑏𝑏 =
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡. 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝜂𝜂𝑏𝑏 =
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤

𝜂𝜂𝑏𝑏 = × 100
𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 ∗ 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓

ℎ1 − ℎ𝑤𝑤
𝜂𝜂𝑏𝑏 = × 100
𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 × 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓
Where ℎ1 is enthalpy of superheat (KJ/Kg), ℎ𝑤𝑤 is the enthalpy of feed water (KJ/Kg), 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 is
the mass of fuel burnt (Kg), 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 is the calorific value of fuel (KJ/Kg)

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

Review Question(s)
Question 1: Calculate the overall efficiency (𝜂𝜂0 ) of a power plant that generates 1000 kW of
energy when burning fuel with a calorific value (𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 ) of 40,000 kJ/kg. The mass of fuel burnt
(𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 ) is 0.05 kg/s.
Answer:
Given: Energy generated = 1000 kW, 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 = 40000 kJ/kg, 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 = 0.05 kg/s

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝜂𝜂0 = = (1000) / (0.05 * 40000)
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝜂𝜂0 = 50%
Question 2: Calculate the boiler efficiency (𝜂𝜂𝑏𝑏 ) if the total heat of feed water is 1800 kJ/kg,
the enthalpy of superheat (ℎ1 ) is 2800 kJ/kg, the enthalpy of feed water (ℎ𝑤𝑤 ) is 800 kJ/kg,
and the mass of fuel burnt (𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 ) is 0.1 kg/s. The calorific value of the fuel (𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 ) is 45,000
kJ/kg.
Answer:
Given: Total Heat of feed water = 1800 kJ/kg, ℎ1 = 2800 kJ/kg, ℎ𝑤𝑤 = 800 kJ/kg, 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 = 0.1
kg/s, 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 = 45000 kJ/kg
ℎ1 − ℎ𝑤𝑤
𝜂𝜂𝑏𝑏 = × 100
𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 × 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓
𝜂𝜂𝑏𝑏 = (2800 - 800) / (0.1 * 45000) × 100
𝜂𝜂𝑏𝑏 = 44.4%
Question 3: Calculate the turbine efficiency (𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡 ) if the enthalpy of superheat (ℎ1 ) is 3200
kJ/kg, the enthalpy of feed water (ℎ𝑤𝑤 ) is 1000 kJ/kg, the mass of fuel burnt (𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 ) is 0.08 kg/s,
and the calorific value of the fuel (𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 ) is 42,000 kJ/kg.
Answer:
Given: ℎ1 (enthalpy of superheat) = 3200 kJ/kg, ℎ𝑤𝑤 (enthalpy of feed water) = 1000 kJ/kg,
𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 (mass of fuel burnt) = 0.08 kg/s, 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 (calorific value of the fuel) = 42000 kJ/kg

𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ℎ1 − ℎ𝑤𝑤

𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡 = × 100 = × 100
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓

𝑤𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 × (ℎ1 − ℎ𝑤𝑤 ) = 0.08 × (3200 − 1000) = 176 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑠𝑠

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 × 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 = 0.08 × 420000 = 3360 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑠𝑠

176
𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡 = × 100
0.08 × 42000

𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡 = 5.24%

Question 4: Calculate the overall efficiency (η0 ) of a power plant if it generates 500 kW of
energy, the mass of fuel burnt (𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 ) is 0.04 kg/s, and the calorific value of the fuel (𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 ) is
38,000 kJ/kg.
Answer:
Given: Energy generated = 500 kW, 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 = 0.04 kg/s, 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 = 38000 kJ/kg
η0 = (Energy generated (KW)) / (𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓 * 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 )

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

500
𝜂𝜂0 =
0.04 ∗ 38000
𝜂𝜂0 = 32.9%

5. Explain the working of a Loeffler boiler with a neat sketch.

6. Identify the classes of boilers based on the arrangement of the tubular heating surfaces.
Explain the working of each boiler type with a neat sketch.

6.0 Major Electrical Equipment in Power Stations

Power stations are complex facilities that require a variety of electrical equipment to generate
and transmit electrical energy efficiently. Here's an elementary idea about some of the major
electrical equipment used in power stations:

Figure 6.1 Power Plant Station

6.1 Generators (Turbo- and Hydro-)

1. Turbo-Generators: Turbo-generators are used in thermal and nuclear power stations.

These generators are coupled with steam turbines, which are rotated by the high-pressure
steam produced by boilers. The mechanical energy from the turbine is converted into
electrical energy by the generator.

- Components: Turbo-generators consist of a rotor (rotating part) and a stator (stationary

part). The rotor contains a field winding supplied with DC current, and the stator has
armature windings.

2. Hydro-Generators: Hydro-generators are used in hydroelectric power stations.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

They are similar to turbo-generators but are coupled with water turbines driven by falling or
flowing water.

6.1.1 Exciters (Including Brushless Excitation and Static Excitation

System)

1. Exciters: Exciters are devices that provide the initial DC voltage to the generator's field
winding, allowing it to generate electricity. They ensure the generator starts producing
electricity when it comes online.

2. Brushless Excitation: In brushless exciters, brushes and slip rings are replaced by a
rotating diode assembly, eliminating maintenance issues associated with brushes.

3. Static Excitation System: Static excitation systems use solid-state components to provide
precise control of the generator's field current. They are known for their reliability and
accuracy.

Exciter is a small generator, mounted on the same shaft as that of the main generator, which
produces DC power for the main generator field winding.

6.2 Generator-Transformer and Unit-Auxiliary Transformer

1. Generator-Transformer: Generator-transformers step up the voltage generated by the

generator to the high voltage needed for efficient long-distance transmission.

2. Unit-Auxiliary Transformer: Unit-auxiliary transformers provide power to the auxiliary

equipment and control systems within the power station.

6.2.1 Layout of Auxiliary Supply Systems

The layout of auxiliary supply systems in a power station includes various subsystems such
as:
- Switchyard: The switchyard connects the generator's output to the grid and includes circuit
breakers, isolators, and transformers.

- Control Room: The control room houses the monitoring and control equipment for the
entire power station.

- Auxiliary Power System: This system provides power to auxiliary equipment like pumps,
fans, and motors required for the operation of the power station.

- Battery Backup: Battery banks provide backup power for essential control and safety
systems in case of a grid outage.

6.3 Elements of Instrumentation in Power Station

Instrumentation Elements of Instrumentation in Power Stations

Instrumentation plays a critical role in power stations by ensuring the safe, efficient, and
reliable operation of electrical and mechanical systems. It involves a wide range of devices

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

and systems designed to monitor, control, and protect various components in a power station.
Here, we'll discuss several key elements of instrumentation in power stations and provide
examination questions with answers.

1. Turbovisory Instruments:
 Definition: Turbovisory instruments are specialized instruments used to monitor
and control gas turbines and steam turbines in power plants. Turbovisory means
Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation
 Components: These instruments include sensors for measuring parameters such
as temperature, pressure, speed, and vibration. They also feature control systems
to adjust operating conditions.
 Importance: Turbovisory instruments ensure the turbines operate within safe
limits, optimize efficiency, and provide early warnings of potential issues.

Examination Question 1: Explain the role of turbovisory instruments in power stations.

Provide examples of parameters monitored and their significance.
Answer 1: Turbovisory instruments are crucial for monitoring and controlling gas turbines
and steam turbines in power stations. They help maintain safe operating conditions, optimize
performance, and provide early warnings of potential problems. Parameters monitored
include temperature, pressure, speed, and vibration. For instance, temperature sensors ensure
that turbine components do not overheat, while vibration sensors detect mechanical issues
that could lead to damage.

2. Interlocking & Sequence Control Systems:

 Definition: Interlocking and sequence control systems are used to coordinate
and control the startup, shutdown, and operational sequences of various
equipment and processes in a power station.
 Components: These systems consist of relays, programmable logic controllers
(PLCs), and software that define the logical relationships and sequences of
operations.
 Importance: Interlocking and sequence control systems enhance safety,
prevent equipment damage, and ensure efficient operation by enforcing
predefined operational sequences.

Examination Question 2: How do interlocking and sequence control systems contribute to

the safe and efficient operation of a power station? Provide examples of their applications.
Answer 2: Interlocking and sequence control systems play a crucial role in power stations by
enforcing predefined operational sequences. They ensure that equipment starts up and shuts
down in the correct order, preventing unsafe conditions and equipment damage. For example,
in a steam power plant, these systems ensure that pumps start before the boiler ignites to
avoid thermal shock.

3. Remote Control & Telemetry:

 Definition: Remote control and telemetry systems allow operators to monitor
and control power station processes and equipment from a remote location.
 Components: These systems involve sensors, communication networks, and
control interfaces that transmit data and control signals over long distances.
 Importance: Remote control and telemetry systems improve efficiency, reduce
the need for on-site personnel, and enable rapid response to emergencies.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

Examination Question 3: Discuss the advantages of remote control and telemetry systems in
power stations. Provide examples of processes or equipment that benefit from remote
monitoring and control.
Answer 3: Remote control and telemetry systems offer several advantages in power stations.
They enable operators to monitor processes and equipment from a distance, reducing the need
for on-site personnel and improving safety. Examples of processes benefiting from remote
control include adjusting generator load, monitoring emissions, and controlling cooling
systems.

4. Electrical Instruments:
 Definition: Electrical instruments are devices used to measure, monitor, and
control electrical parameters within a power station, such as voltage, current,
and frequency.
 Components: These instruments include voltmeters, ammeters, power
analyzers, and protective relays.
 Importance: Electrical instruments ensure that electrical systems operate
within safe limits, help balance loads, and protect equipment from faults.

Examination Question 4: Explain the role of protective relays in electrical instrumentation

within power stations. Provide an example of a fault scenario where protective relays are
essential.
Answer 4: Protective relays are crucial components of electrical instrumentation in power
stations. They detect abnormal electrical conditions, such as overcurrent or short circuits, and
initiate protective actions like tripping circuit breakers. For instance, in the event of a short
circuit, a protective relay will quickly disconnect the affected circuit to prevent equipment
damage and maintain system integrity.

Figure 6.1 Protective Relay

5. Data Acquisition System (DAS):

 Definition: A Data Acquisition System (DAS) is a comprehensive system used
to collect, store, and analyze data from various sensors and instruments
throughout the power station.
 Components: DAS components include sensors, data loggers, communication
interfaces, and data analysis software.
 Importance: DAS enables real-time monitoring, historical data analysis, and
decision-making based on the collected information, leading to better
operational efficiency and maintenance.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

Examination Question 5: Discuss the functions and benefits of a Data Acquisition System
(DAS) in a power station. How can historical data analysis help improve power plant
performance?
Answer 5: A Data Acquisition System (DAS) is essential for collecting data from sensors and
instruments in a power station. It provides real-time monitoring, historical data storage, and
analysis capabilities. Historical data analysis helps identify trends, equipment degradation,
and inefficiencies. By analyzing historical data, power plant operators can make informed
decisions about maintenance schedules, load balancing, and system upgrades, ultimately
leading to improved performance and reliability.
Incorporating these elements of instrumentation into power station design and operation is
critical for ensuring safety, efficiency, and reliability in power generation processes. These
elements, when properly integrated and maintained, contribute to the overall success of
power stations and their ability to meet the demands of electrical and mechanical systems.

6.4 Combined Working of Power Plants: Advantages and Need for

Coordination
Combined working of power plants refers to the synchronized operation of multiple power
generation units within a region. Advantages include:

1. Load Balancing: Combined operation allows for better load balancing across units,
reducing strain on individual plants.

2. Efficiency: Different types of plants, such as thermal, hydro, and renewable, can
complement each other to maximize overall efficiency.

3. Redundancy: If one plant encounters issues, others can compensate, ensuring a continuous
power supply.

4. Economic Benefits: Combined operation can lead to cost savings through shared
infrastructure and optimized fuel usage.

Coordination is essential for:

- Synchronizing unit start-up and shutdown procedures.

- Coordinating load changes to prevent grid instability.
- Ensuring fuel availability for each plant.

6.5 Control of Active and Reactive Power-Load-Frequency Control (Brief Idea)

1. Active Power Control: Active power (real power) is controlled to match generation with
load. Turbine governors adjust steam flow to maintain frequency.

2. Reactive Power Control: Reactive power (VARs) is controlled to maintain voltage levels.
Voltage regulators and capacitors are used to manage reactive power.

3. Load-Frequency Control: To maintain grid frequency, power plants adjust generation in

response to load changes. Turbine governors and control systems play a crucial role.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

Exam Questions and Answers

Question 1: Explain the role of exciters in a power generation system.

Answer: Exciters provide the initial DC voltage to the generator's field winding, enabling it to
generate electricity. They ensure the generator starts producing electricity when it comes
online.

Question 2: What is the purpose of a unit-auxiliary transformer in a power station?

Answer: A unit-auxiliary transformer provides power to the auxiliary equipment and control
systems within the power station, ensuring their proper functioning.

Question 3: Describe the advantages of combined working of power plants.

Answer: Combined working of power plants offers load balancing, improved efficiency,
redundancy, and economic benefits. It allows different types of plants to complement each
other for optimized operation.

Question 4: Briefly explain load-frequency control in power systems.

Answer: Load-frequency control is the regulation of active power to match generation with
load, maintaining grid frequency. Turbine governors adjust steam flow to achieve this
balance.

7.0 Power Economic Considerations: Performance of Power

Stations and Economic Factors
Introduction: Power generation is a critical aspect of modern society, and it plays a pivotal
role in economic development. Efficient power generation is essential to ensure a stable
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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

supply of electricity while keeping costs manageable. In this discussion, we will explore the
significance of economic considerations in power generation, focusing on load factor,
diversity factor, plant capacity factor, cost of generation, and load curves. Additionally, we
will include practical end-of-semester examination questions for undergraduate engineering
students to reinforce their understanding of these concepts.

7.1 Load Factor:

Load factor is a measure of how efficiently a power station operates over a specific period,
often a year. It is defined as the ratio of the average load to the maximum load during a given
period.
Mathematically, it is represented as:

Load Factor = (Average Load) / (Maximum Load)

Significance: A high load factor indicates that a power station is operating efficiently, with a
consistent and high utilization rate of its capacity. This is economically beneficial as it
maximizes the return on investment.

7.2 Diversity Factor:

Diversity factor represents the ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands of various
loads to the maximum demand on the power station.
Mathematically:

Diversity Factor = (Sum of Individual Maximum Demands) / (Maximum Demand on Power

Station)

Significance: A high diversity factor indicates that the total maximum demand on the power
station is less than the sum of the individual maximum demands. This allows for cost savings
as the power station can be designed for a lower maximum capacity.

7.3 Plant Capacity Factor:

Plant capacity factor is the ratio of the actual output of a power plant to its maximum
potential output if it were operating at full capacity continuously. It is expressed as a
percentage:

Plant Capacity Factor = (Actual Output) / (Maximum Potential Output) * 100

Significance: A high plant capacity factor signifies efficient and continuous operation,
leading to lower per-unit costs of electricity generation.

7.4 Cost of Generation and Classifications:

The cost of generation refers to the expenses incurred in producing electrical energy. It can be
classified into two main categories:
1. Fixed Costs: These are costs that remain constant regardless of the level of electricity
generated, including capital costs, insurance, and depreciation.
2. Variable Costs: These costs vary with the level of electricity generation and include
fuel, maintenance, and operational expenses.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

Significance: Understanding the cost components is crucial in determining the overall

economics of power generation and pricing strategies.

7.5 Load Curves:

Load curves represent the variation of load (demand for electricity) over a specific period,
typically 24 hours. They help in analyzing the daily, weekly, and seasonal patterns of
electricity consumption.

Figure 7.5 Load Curve

Significance: Load curves assist in optimizing power generation, scheduling maintenance,

and planning for capacity expansion, all of which have significant economic implications.

Practical End-of-Semester Examination Questions:

1. Calculate the load factor for a power station with an average load of 500 MW and a
maximum load of 750 MW over a year.
2. If a power station has a diversity factor of 0.8 and a maximum demand of 1,000 MW,
calculate the sum of individual maximum demands.
3. A power plant has an actual output of 300 MWh in a day and a maximum potential
output of 500 MWh. Calculate the plant capacity factor.
4. Explain the difference between fixed costs and variable costs in the context of power
generation. Provide examples of each.
5. Analyze a load curve representing a typical day in a residential area. Identify the peak
demand period and suggest strategies for cost-effective power generation to meet this
demand.

These examination questions are designed to assess students' understanding of the concepts
and their ability to apply them in real-world scenarios, preparing them for practical
challenges in the field of engineering and power generation.
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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

Here are the solutions to the examination questions :

1. Calculate the load factor for a power station with an average load of 500 MW and a
maximum load of 750 MW over a year.

Load Factor = (Average Load) / (Maximum Load) Load Factor = 500 MW / 750 MW

Load Factor = 2/3 or approximately 0.67 (rounded to two decimal places)

2. If a power station has a diversity factor of 0.8 and a maximum demand of 1,000 MW,
calculate the sum of individual maximum demands.

Sum of Individual Maximum Demands = (Diversity Factor) x (Maximum Demand on Power

Station)

Sum of Individual Maximum Demands = 0.8 x 1,000 MW Sum of Individual Maximum

Demands = 800 MW

3. A power plant has an actual output of 300 MWh in a day and a maximum potential
output of 500 MWh. Calculate the plant capacity factor.

Plant Capacity Factor = (Actual Output) / (Maximum Potential Output) * 100 Plant Capacity

Factor = (300 MWh) / (500 MWh) * 100 Plant Capacity Factor = 60%

4. Explain the difference between fixed costs and variable costs in the context of power
generation. Provide examples of each.
• Fixed Costs: These are costs that remain constant regardless of the level of electricity
generation. They include capital costs, insurance, depreciation, and salaries of
permanent staff. Fixed costs do not change with the amount of electricity produced.
Example: The cost of building a power plant, such as the construction of a thermal power
station or the purchase of generators, is a fixed cost. The annual salary of the plant manager is
also a fixed cost.
• Variable Costs: These are costs that vary with the level of electricity generation.
They include fuel costs, maintenance, and operational expenses. Variable costs
increase or decrease as the electricity output changes.
Example: The cost of coal or natural gas used for power generation is a variable cost because
it depends on the amount of fuel consumed. Maintenance costs, such as repairs to equipment,
increase as the power plant operates for longer durations.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

5. Analyze a load curve representing a typical day in a residential area. Identify the
peak demand period and suggest strategies for cost-effective power generation to meet
this demand.
To analyze the load curve, you would typically plot electricity demand over a 24-hour period.
The peak demand period is the time of the day when electricity consumption is highest. It
often occurs in the evening when people return home from work or school.
Strategies for cost-effective power generation during peak demand:
• Load Shifting: Encourage consumers to shift their energy-intensive activities to off-
peak hours. For example, running dishwashers, washing machines, and charging
electric vehicles during non-peak hours can help reduce peak demand.

Figure 6.2 Load in a Customers Residence

• Energy Storage: Implement energy storage systems (such as batteries) to store
excess energy during off-peak hours and release it during peak demand periods,
reducing the strain on the power grid.
• Demand Response Programs: Implement programs that allow utilities to remotely
control certain appliances or reduce energy consumption during peak periods in
exchange for incentives or lower rates.
• Distributed Generation: Invest in distributed generation sources like solar panels on
rooftops to generate electricity locally, reducing the load on the central grid during
peak hours.
• Efficiency Measures: Promote energy-efficient technologies and building designs to
reduce overall energy consumption, especially during peak hours.
•
By implementing these strategies, power generation can be optimized to meet peak demand
more efficiently and cost-effectively, ultimately benefiting both consumers and the power
grid.

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 Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

8.0 Substations
A substation is a crucial component in an electrical power system that plays a vital role in the
generation, transmission, and distribution of electrical energy. It serves as an interface point
between different voltage levels and helps in the efficient and safe transfer of electrical
power. Substations perform various functions, including voltage transformation, switching,
protection, and control.

8.1 Classifications of Substations

Substations can be classified based on various criteria:

1. Voltage Level:
i. Step-up Substation: These substations increase the voltage level of electricity
generated at power plants for efficient long-distance transmission.
ii. Step-down Substation: These substations reduce the voltage level of electricity for
distribution to consumers.

2. Purpose:
i. Generating Substation: Located at power plants, they transform generated power for
transmission.
ii. Transmission Substation: Transmit electricity over long distances.
iii. Distribution Substation: Distribute electricity to consumers.
iv. Switching Substation: Control the flow of electricity by switching between different
feeders and lines.

3. Configuration:
i. Conventional Substation: Comprises various components, such as transformers,
circuit breakers, and switches, in a single location.
ii. Gas Insulated Substation (GIS): Uses sulfur hexafluoride gas for insulation,
allowing for compact designs.
iii. Air Insulated Substation (AIS): Uses air as the insulating medium and is larger in
size compared to GIS.

4. Location:
i. Indoor Substation: Housed within a building or enclosed area.
ii. Outdoor Substation: Open-air substations without buildings.

8.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Outdoor Substations

Advantages:
i. Cost-Effective: Outdoor substations are generally more cost-effective to build and
maintain than indoor substations.
ii. Easier Expansion: They offer flexibility for expansion as additional equipment can be
added more easily.
iii. Reduced Fire Risk: There is a lower risk of fire hazards compared to indoor substations.
iv. Accessibility: Technicians can access equipment more easily for maintenance and
repairs.
Disadvantages:
i. Weather Exposure: Outdoor substations are vulnerable to adverse weather conditions,
such as rain, snow, and extreme temperatures.
ii. Vandalism and Theft: Equipment may be exposed to vandalism or theft.

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 Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

iii. Space Requirements: Outdoor substations require more land space compared to indoor
substations.
iv. Insulation Challenges: Outdoor equipment may require special insulation to withstand
outdoor conditions.

8.3 Selection and Location of Site

Selecting the right site for a substation is crucial for its efficiency and reliability. Factors to
consider include:
i. Proximity to Load Center: Substations should be located close to load centers to
minimize transmission losses.
ii. Accessibility: Easy access for maintenance and repairs is essential.
iii. Environmental Impact: Assess the impact on the environment and take necessary
measures to mitigate it.
iv. Security: Ensure the site is secure to prevent unauthorized access and vandalism.
v. Future Expansion: Consider the potential for future expansion and land availability.

8.4 Excitation Systems

Excitation systems are an integral part of generators in power plants. They provide the
necessary field current to generate electricity. Excitation systems can be classified into two
main types:
1. Brushless Excitation System: This system uses a rotating rectifier to convert the
generator's AC output into DC for field excitation.
2. Static Excitation System: In this system, solid-state devices like thyristors are used for
rectification, and it eliminates the need for brushes and slip rings.

8.1 Examination Questions and Answers

Q1: Explain the primary functions of a substation in an electrical power system.

Answer: Substations serve as interface points between different voltage levels, performing
functions such as voltage transformation, switching, protection, and control. They also enable
efficient power transfer between generating stations and end-users.

Q2: Compare step-up and step-down substations, highlighting their respective roles in power
transmission.
Answer: Step-up substations increase voltage levels for efficient long-distance transmission
from power plants, while step-down substations reduce voltage for local distribution to
consumers.

Q3: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of outdoor substations compared to indoor
substations.
Answer:
Advantages of Outdoor Substations:
• Cost-effective.
• Easier expansion.
• Reduced fire risk.
• Accessibility for maintenance.
Disadvantages of Outdoor Substations:
• Vulnerable to weather conditions.
• Prone to vandalism and theft.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

• Require more land space.

• May need special insulation.

Q4: Explain the factors to consider when selecting the location for a substation.
Answer: Factors to consider include proximity to load centers, accessibility, environmental
impact, security, and potential for future expansion.

Q5: Define excitation systems in power generation and describe two main types.
Answer: Excitation systems provide field current to generators. Two main types are:
• Brushless Excitation System: Uses a rotating rectifier.
• Static Excitation System: Utilizes solid-state devices like thyristors.

Practical End-of-Semester Examination Questions:

1. Explain the classifications of substations based on voltage levels and functions. Provide
examples for each category.
2. Compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of outdoor substations
compared to indoor substations. Give specific scenarios where each type is preferred.
3. Discuss the factors to consider when selecting a site for a new substation. How does the
choice of location impact the overall power system?
4. Describe the role of excitation systems in power generation. Explain the differences
between static excitation systems and brushless excitation systems.
5. Given a hypothetical urban area with increasing power demand, propose a suitable type
of substation (e.g., high-voltage or medium-voltage) and justify its location based on
load distribution and accessibility.

These examination questions are designed to assess students' knowledge of substation

classifications, their ability to analyze advantages and disadvantages, and their understanding
of the factors influencing substation site selection and the role of excitation systems in power
generation and distribution.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

Here are the answers to the examination questions:

1. Explain the classifications of substations based on voltage levels and functions.

Provide examples for each category.

Voltage Level Classification:

• High-Voltage Substations: These substations operate at high voltage levels, typically
above 100 kV. They are used for transmission and may include step-up transformers.
Examples include grid substations connecting power plants to the transmission
network.
• Medium-Voltage Substations: Operating at voltages between 1 kV and 100 kV, these
substations are primarily used for distribution. Examples include distribution
substations that reduce voltage for local distribution.
• Low-Voltage Substations: These substations operate at voltages below 1 kV and are
found at the distribution level, often serving residential areas.
Functional Classification:
• Step-up Substations: These substations increase voltage for long-distance
transmission. For example, a step-up substation may raise the voltage generated by a
power plant for efficient transmission.
• Step-down Substations: These substations reduce voltage to levels suitable for local
distribution. They are commonly found in residential and commercial areas.

2. Compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of outdoor substations

compared to indoor substations. Give specific scenarios where each type is preferred.

Advantages of Outdoor Substations:

• Lower construction costs.
• Easier maintenance access.
• Space efficiency for large equipment.
• Reduced fire risk.
Disadvantages of Outdoor Substations:
• Vulnerability to weather.
• Security concerns.
• Limited environmental control.
Scenario: Outdoor substations are preferred in rural areas with ample space and lower
security risks, where cost efficiency is critical.
Advantages of Indoor Substations:
• Better environmental control.
• Enhanced security.
• Protection from weather.
• Suitable for urban areas.
Disadvantages of Indoor Substations:
• Higher construction costs.
• Limited space for equipment.
• Complex ventilation and cooling systems.
Scenario: Indoor substations are preferred in densely populated urban areas where
environmental control, security, and aesthetics are important.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

3. Discuss the factors to consider when selecting a site for a new substation. How does
the choice of location impact the overall power system?

Factors to consider when selecting a substation site include:

• Proximity to load centers.
• Accessibility for construction and maintenance.
• Environmental impact and regulations.
• Security considerations.
• Grid connectivity and transmission line routes.
The choice of location impacts the power system by affecting efficiency, reliability, and cost.
A well-chosen site minimizes transmission losses, enhances reliability, and optimizes grid
performance.

4. Describe the role of excitation systems in power generation. Explain the differences
between static excitation systems and brushless excitation systems.

Solution
Excitation systems control the voltage and reactive power output of generators, ensuring grid
stability. Static excitation systems use solid-state components, while brushless excitation
systems use brushes and slip rings.
Differences:
• Static Excitation: Uses solid-state devices like thyristors, provides precise control, and
has low maintenance. Suitable for large generators.
• Brushless Excitation: Employs rotating exciter machines, suitable for smaller
generators, and may require more maintenance.

5. Given a hypothetical urban area with increasing power demand, propose a suitable
type of substation (e.g., high-voltage or medium-voltage) and justify its location based
on load distribution and accessibility.

Proposal: In the hypothetical urban area with increasing power demand, a medium-voltage
substation would be suitable. It should be strategically located near the load centers to
minimize distribution losses. Additionally, it should be easily accessible to maintenance
personnel for efficient servicing and upgrades. This approach ensures a reliable power supply
to meet the growing urban demand while optimizing operational efficiency and reliability.

Question 1: Substation Classification

A power company is planning to set up a new substation to distribute electricity to a growing
urban area. They have two options: an outdoor substation and an indoor substation. Explain
the advantages and disadvantages of each type, and based on the factors of weather exposure,
cost-effectiveness, security, and space requirements, recommend the most suitable type for
this urban area.
Answer:
Advantages of Outdoor Substations:
• Cost-Effective: Outdoor substations are generally more cost-effective to build and
maintain than indoor substations.
• Easier Expansion: They offer flexibility for expansion as additional equipment can be
added more easily.
• Reduced Fire Risk: There is a lower risk of fire hazards compared to indoor
substations.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

• Accessibility: Technicians can access equipment more easily for maintenance and
repairs.
Disadvantages of Outdoor Substations:
• Weather Exposure: Outdoor substations are vulnerable to adverse weather conditions,
such as rain, snow, and extreme temperatures.
• Vandalism and Theft: Equipment may be exposed to vandalism or theft.
• Space Requirements: Outdoor substations require more land space compared to
indoor substations.
• Insulation Challenges: Outdoor equipment may require special insulation to withstand
outdoor conditions.
Based on the factors of weather exposure, cost-effectiveness, security, and space
requirements, an indoor substation is recommended for the urban area. Indoor substations
provide better protection against adverse weather conditions, enhance security, and are
suitable for urban areas where land space may be limited.

Question 2: Substation Site Selection

A power company is planning to build a new distribution substation to serve a rapidly
growing industrial area. Describe the factors the company should consider when selecting the
site for the substation and explain how the choice of location can impact the overall power
distribution efficiency.
Answer:
Factors to Consider When Selecting a Substation Site:
1. Proximity to Load Center: The substation should be located as close as possible to the
load center to minimize transmission losses and ensure efficient power distribution.
2. Accessibility: Easy access for maintenance and repairs is essential to minimize
downtime and ensure reliable service.
3. Environmental Impact: The company should assess the environmental impact of the
site selection and take necessary measures to mitigate it, such as addressing soil
contamination or protecting natural habitats.
4. Security: The chosen site should be secure to prevent unauthorized access, vandalism,
and theft.
5. Future Expansion: Consider the potential for future expansion and ensure that there is
available land for additional equipment and capacity.
The choice of location impacts the overall power distribution efficiency by:
• Minimizing Transmission Losses: Proximity to the load center reduces transmission
losses and ensures that power is efficiently delivered to consumers.
• Enhancing Reliability: A well-chosen site with easy accessibility and maintenance
reduces downtime and enhances the reliability of the power distribution network.
• Optimizing Grid Performance: The site's location can impact the overall performance
of the power grid, ensuring that it meets the increasing demand of the industrial area.

Excitation System Calculation

Question 1:
A power plant has a generator with a capacity of 200 MVA (Mega Volt-Amperes). The
generator operates at a power factor of 0.8 lagging. Calculate the field current required for
excitation if a brushless excitation system is used.
Answer:
To calculate the field current (𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 ), we can use the formula:

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

𝑆𝑆
𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 =
𝑉𝑉 × 𝑃𝑃𝐹𝐹 × √3

Where:
 S is the apparent power (MVA) = 200 MVA
 V is the line voltage (kV) = Assume 11 kV
 𝑃𝑃𝐹𝐹 is the power factor = 0.8 (lagging)

First, convert the apparent power from MVA to kVA: 200 MVA = 200,000 kVA

Now, calculate the field current:

𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 = 200,000 kVA / (11 kV * √3 * 0.8)

𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 ≈ 13,157 A (Amperes)

So, the field current required for excitation is approximately 13,157 Amperes.

Question 2: A power plant has a generator with a rated capacity of 100 MVA. The generator
is equipped with a static excitation system that provides a field current of 800 A at rated
conditions. Calculate the field voltage provided by the excitation system.

Solution 2: The field voltage (𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹 ) provided by the excitation system can be calculated using
Ohm's law:
𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹 = 𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 ∗ 𝑅𝑅𝐹𝐹
Where:
 𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹 is the field voltage (in volts).
 𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 is the field current (in amperes).
 𝑅𝑅𝐹𝐹 is the field resistance (in ohms).
Assuming that the field resistance (𝑅𝑅𝐹𝐹 ) is known, we can calculate the field voltage:

𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹 = 800A ∗ 𝑅𝑅𝐹𝐹

Let's assume 𝑅𝑅𝐹𝐹 = 4 ohms for this example:

𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹 =800A ∗ 4ohms = 3200V

So, the field voltage provided by the static excitation system is 3200 volts.

Question 3: A hydroelectric power plant uses a brushless excitation system for its generator.
The generator has a rated capacity of 50 MVA. If the field current is 400 A, calculate the
field voltage provided by the brushless excitation system.

Solution 3: The field voltage (𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹 ) provided by the brushless excitation system can be
calculated using Ohm's law, just like in Solution 1:
𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹 = 𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 ∗ 𝑅𝑅𝐹𝐹
Assuming that the field resistance (𝑅𝑅𝐹𝐹 ) is known, we can calculate the field voltage:
𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹 = 400A∗ 𝑅𝑅𝐹𝐹

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

Let's assume 𝑅𝑅𝐹𝐹 = 10 ohms for this example:

𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹 = 400A∗10ohms = 4000V
So, the field voltage provided by the brushless excitation system is 4000 volts.

Question 4: A power plant's generator has a static excitation system with a field resistance
(𝑅𝑅𝐹𝐹 ) of 5 ohms. If the field voltage (𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹 ) is 3000 V, calculate the field current (𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 ) provided by
the excitation system.

Solution 4: The field current (𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 ) provided by the static excitation system can be calculated
using Ohm's law:
𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 =𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹 / 𝑅𝑅𝐹𝐹
Where:
• 𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 is the field current (in amperes).
• 𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹 is the field voltage (in volts).
• 𝑅𝑅𝐹𝐹 is the field resistance (in ohms).
Using the provided values:
𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 = 3000V / 5ohms = 600A
So, the field current provided by the static excitation system is 600 amperes.

Noteworthy:
These calculations demonstrate how field voltage, field current, and field resistance are
related in the context of excitation systems in power plants. They are crucial for ensuring the
proper operation and control of generators.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

Please note that designing and constructing a power generation plant is a complex task that
involves various engineering disciplines and safety considerations. This outline is a
simplified representation for educational purposes:

Design and Construction of a Simple Power Generation System

1. Power Source Selection:
• In this simplified design, we will use a small internal combustion engine as the power
source. These engines are commonly used in portable generators.

2. Fuel Supply:
• Select a suitable fuel source for the engine, such as gasoline or diesel. Ensure safe
storage and supply mechanisms.

3. Combustion Engine:
• Acquire a small internal combustion engine capable of converting fuel into
mechanical energy.

4. Alternator (Generator):
• Choose an alternator (generator) that can be coupled to the engine's output shaft. This
component will convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.

5. Coupling Mechanism:
• Design and install a coupling mechanism to connect the engine's output shaft to the
alternator. This enables the transmission of mechanical energy from the engine to the
generator.

6. Cooling System:
• Integrate a cooling system for the engine to manage its operating temperature. This
may involve air or liquid cooling, depending on the engine type.

7. Exhaust System:
• Create an exhaust system to safely release combustion byproducts and manage noise.
Ensure proper ventilation to prevent harmful emissions.

8. Control Panel:
• Implement a control panel with user-friendly features for starting, stopping, and
monitoring the power generation system. It should include safety mechanisms.

9. Voltage Regulation:
• Add voltage regulation components to ensure a stable electrical output within
acceptable voltage limits.

10. Distribution and Wiring:

• Establish an electrical distribution system for transmitting power from the generator
to end-users or equipment. Use suitable wiring and safety measures.

11. Safety Features:

• Incorporate safety features, such as overcurrent protection, circuit breakers,
emergency shut-offs, and fire prevention measures.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

12. Testing and Commissioning:

• Prior to operation, thoroughly test and commission the power generation system.
Ensure it functions correctly and safely.

13. Maintenance Plan:

• Develop a maintenance plan to regularly inspect and service the engine, generator,
and all components. This ensures long-term reliability.

14. Environmental Considerations:

• Consider environmental regulations and implement measures to reduce emissions and
minimize environmental impact.

15. User Training:

• Provide training to users or operators on the safe and efficient operation of the power
generation system.

Please note that this is a simplified and conceptual design. In a real-world scenario, power
generation plants are highly complex, require adherence to safety regulations, and may
involve multiple power sources, transmission, and extensive engineering and design work.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

PRACTICAL 1: Design and Construct a simple power generation system/plant using

MATLAB

Designing and constructing a complete power generation system in MATLAB is a complex

task, as it involves various components such as generators, turbines, control systems, and
more. However, THIS will guide you through a simplified example of a power generation
system using MATLAB, focusing on key components like a generator and load.

In this example, we'll create a simple generator model and a basic load. We'll use MATLAB
Simulink for this task. Simulink is a powerful tool for modeling dynamic systems.

Step 1: Launch MATLAB and Open Simulink: Open MATLAB and click on the
"Simulink" button in the MATLAB Toolstrip to open the Simulink library.

Step 2: Create a New Model: In Simulink, go to "File" -> "New" -> "Model." This will
create a new Simulink model.

Step 3: Build the Power Generation System:

1. Generator Model:
• Drag and drop a "Sine Wave" block from the Simulink library. This block will
represent the generator's output voltage.
• Add a "Scope" block from the library to visualize the generator's voltage
output.
2. Load Model:
• Drag and drop a "Resistor" block from the Simulink library. The resistor will
represent a simple electrical load.
• Connect the output of the generator (Sine Wave block) to the input of the
resistor.
• Connect the output of the resistor to the "Scope" block.
3. Parameters:
• Double-click on the "Sine Wave" block to set its parameters, such as
frequency, amplitude, and phase.
• Double-click on the "Resistor" block to set its resistance.

Step 4: Simulate the System: Now that you've created the power generation system, you can
simulate it to see how the generator's voltage output interacts with the load.
• Click the "Run" button or use the "sim" command in the MATLAB Command
Window to run the simulation.

Step 5: Analyze Results: After running the simulation, you can view the generator's voltage
output and how it affects the load by checking the output in the "Scope" block.
This is a highly simplified example, and real power generation systems are much more
complex. You can expand on this model by adding components like turbines, controllers, and
feedback loops to make it more realistic.

Keep in mind that MATLAB Simulink offers extensive libraries for modeling electrical,
mechanical, and control systems, allowing you to build more advanced power generation
systems if needed. The provided example is just a starting point for understanding the basic
principles of modeling in Simulink.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

Designing and constructing a simple power generation system using Wolfram

SystemModeler can be a complex task due to the software's capabilities and limitations.
However, I can provide you with a simplified example of a basic power generation system
using Wolfram SystemModeler. In this example, we'll create a simple model of a thermal
power plant with a steam turbine.
Please note that this is a simplified model for educational purposes. Real-world power plants
are far more complex.
1. Components of the Power Plant:
• Steam Generator (Boiler)
• Steam Turbine
• Generator
• Condenser
• Pump
• Control System
2. Model Description:
We'll create a steady-state model of a basic thermal power plant where heat is generated in
the boiler, converted into mechanical energy by the steam turbine, and then into electrical
energy by the generator. The condenser and pump complete the cycle.
3. Steps to Create the Model:
a. Create Components:
In Wolfram SystemModeler, create components for each part of the power plant, such as
SteamGenerator, SteamTurbine, Generator, Condenser, and Pump. You can define the
relevant parameters, equations, and constraints for each component.
b. Connect the Components:
Connect these components in a way that represents the flow of steam and energy in the power
plant. The steam generated in the SteamGenerator is sent to the SteamTurbine, which drives
the Generator.
c. Define Equations:
Define the governing equations for each component to model their behavior. For example,
the SteamGenerator might use energy balance equations to describe heat transfer from fuel to
water, and the SteamTurbine could use equations that relate steam flow to mechanical power
output.
d. Control System:
Add a control system to maintain system stability and control parameters such as steam
pressure, temperature, and electrical output.
4. Simulation and Analysis:

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

Simulate the model to observe the behavior of the power plant under different conditions.
You can analyze system performance, energy efficiency, and other relevant parameters.
5. Visualization:
Use SystemModeler's visualization tools to create diagrams and plots that represent the
behavior of your power generation system.
6. Optimization and Testing:
You can further optimize your model and test its behavior under various scenarios to ensure it
operates as expected.
Please note that this is a simplified overview of what a power plant model might entail in
Wolfram SystemModeler. Designing a complete and accurate model for a real-world power
plant can be a complex task and would require in-depth knowledge of the specific plant's
design and operation. Additionally, you may need access to detailed data and plant
specifications.
Wolfram SystemModeler provides extensive documentation and tutorials to help you create
more complex and accurate models. You can refer to these resources to build a
comprehensive power generation system model.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

Practice 2: Designing a simplified 10 kW thermal power plant

model in MATLAB Simulink
Date: October 31, 2023
Creating a detailed 10 kW thermal power plant model in MATLAB Simulink involves
several components and subsystems. Below is a simplified representation of such a model.
Please note that this is a basic example for educational purposes, and real-world power plants
are significantly more complex.
Here is a step-by-step guide to creating the model:
1. System Architecture:
• Create a new Simulink model.
2. Boiler and Steam Generation:
• Create a subsystem named "Boiler."
• Inside the "Boiler" subsystem:
• Use a Signal Source block to represent fuel input (e.g., a set point for
fuel flow rate).
• Create a block representing the combustion process. For simplicity,
you can use a MATLAB Function block to model the combustion
process.
• Use Mathematical Function blocks to calculate steam properties like
pressure, temperature, and mass flow rate based on the combustion
process.
3. Turbine and Generator:
• Create a subsystem named "Turbine and Generator."
• Inside the "Turbine and Generator" subsystem:
• Use a Mechanical Rotational Translational Converter block to
represent the turbine. Connect this block to the "Boiler" subsystem.
• Use an Electrical Rotational Translational Converter block to model
the generator. Define electrical parameters such as voltage and current.
Connect the generator to the electrical grid interface.
4. Condenser and Cooling System:
• Create a subsystem named "Condenser."
• Inside the "Condenser" subsystem:
• Create a block representing the phase change of steam to water.
• Implement a cooling system using Heat Exchanger blocks to dissipate
heat. Connect the condenser to the cooling system.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

5. Fuel Supply and Combustion:

• Create a subsystem named "Fuel Supply and Combustion."
• Inside the "Fuel Supply and Combustion" subsystem:
• Use Signal Source blocks to represent fuel handling and supply (e.g., a
fuel pump).
• Model the combustion process using a MATLAB Function block,
considering factors like air-fuel ratio.
6. Control and Protection Systems:
• Create a subsystem named "Control and Protection."
• Inside the "Control and Protection" subsystem:
• Implement control systems using Control System Toolbox blocks (e.g.,
PID Controller blocks).
• Add Protection System blocks (e.g., Alarms or Relays) to monitor
variables and ensure safe operation.
7. Electrical Grid Interface:
• Create a subsystem named "Electrical Grid Interface."
• Inside the "Electrical Grid Interface" subsystem:
• Use Power Electronics blocks to represent the connection to the grid.
• Implement control strategies (e.g., a Power Control block) to match
power output to grid demand.
8. Heat Recovery:
• Create a subsystem named "Heat Recovery."
• Inside the "Heat Recovery" subsystem:
• Use Heat Exchanger blocks to simulate heat recovery processes and
increase overall plant efficiency.
9. Emissions Control:
• Create a subsystem named "Emissions Control."
• Inside the "Emissions Control" subsystem:
• Model emissions control systems using relevant blocks (e.g., Filters or
Converters).
10. Sensors and Instrumentation:
• Include sensors as Sensor blocks (e.g., Temperature Sensor or Pressure
Sensor) and connect them to relevant parts of the model.

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Lecture Notes for ELE4212 Power Plant Engineering
Dr. Bubu Pius E. email: bubupius.e@kiu.ac.ug; bubulizer@gmail.com

• Use Scope blocks for instrumentation to visualize and monitor various

parameters (e.g., temperature, pressure, power output).
11. Simulation and Analysis:
• Configure simulation settings for your model, including simulation time and
solver settings.
• Implement variations and load changes by adjusting the setpoints or control
parameters.
• Use Scope blocks and Data Logging tools to analyze results and optimize
performance and efficiency. You can visualize key parameters such as
temperature, pressure, power output, and emissions.
This simplified Simulink model represents the key components of a thermal power plant.
Please note that this is a basic representation, and real-world power plants require more
detailed and accurate modeling.

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