CHAPTER 2

DRUGS

DRUGS
A drug, as defined, is a chemical substance used as a medicine or in making medicines
that affects the body and mind and has the potential for abuse. Without advice or a prescription
from a physician, drugs can be harmful.

HOW DRUGS WORK?

Most drugs act within a cell rather than on the surface of a cell or in the extracellular
fluids of the body. Similar to normal body chemicals, a drug enters a cell and participates in a
few steps of the normal sequence of a cellular process. Thus, drugs may later interfere with or
replace chemicals in normal cellular life, hopefully for the betterment of the person. The actual
action of a particular drug depends on its chemical makeup.
When two drugs are taken together or within a few hours of each other, they may interact
with unexpected results. This is one reason a physician should always know the names of all
drugs one is using. A dose of a drug is the amount taken at one time. The doses taken become an
extremely important part of drug abuse. The amount of drug in a dose can be described as:
1. Minimal dose – amount needed to treat or heal, that is, the smallest amount of a drug that
will produce a therapeutic effect.
2. Maximal dose – largest amount of a drug that will produce a desired therapeutic effect,
without any accompanying symptoms of toxicity.
3. Toxic dose – amount of drug that produces untoward effects or symptoms of poisoning.
4. Abusive dose – amount needed to produce the side effects and action desired by an
individual who improperly uses it.
5. Lethal dose – amount of drug that will cause death.

ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION

1. Oral Ingestion – taken by the mouth and must pass through the stomach before being
absorbed in the bloodstream.
2. Inhalation – a drug in gaseous form enters the lungs and is quickly absorbed by the
capillary system. It is the second most commonly-used route of drug administration.

1
 3. Injection – administered into the body by the use of a syringe or hypodermic needle in
the following ways:
a. Subcutaneous – a drug is administered by injecting the drug just below the
surface of the skin. This is sometimes called ‘Skin Popping”.
b. Intramuscular – administration involves the injection of a drug into a large
muscle mass that has a good blood supply, such as the gluteus maximus,
quadriceps, or triceps.
c. Intravenous - this is the most efficient means of administration which involves
depositing a drug directly into the bloodstream. This is also the most rapid method
of drug administration.
4. Snorting – inhalation through the nose of drugs not in gaseous form. It is done by
inhaling a powder of liquid drug into the nasal coats of the mucous membrane.
5. Buccal – drugs are administered by placing it in the buccal cavity just under the lips.
6. Suppositories - drug is administered through the vagina or rectum in a suppository form
and the drug is also absorbed into the bloodstream.
7. Topical – this refers to the application of drugs directly to a body site such as the skin.
8. Iontophoresis – the introduction of drugs into the deeper layers of the skin by the use of
special type of electric current for local effect.

TYPES OF DRUG DEPENDENCE

1. Physical Dependence - can only be discernible when a drug intake is decreased or
stopped and an involuntary illness called the withdrawal syndrome occurs.
2. Psychological Dependence - exhibited when a user relies on a drug to achieve a feeling
of well-being. The most extreme form of this is the obsession of the user with the drug,
thus focusing virtually all his interest and activity on obtaining and using it. It also arises
from the ability to satisfy some emotional or personality needs of an individual.

CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS
1. Natural Drugs – are active ingredients, secondary metabolic products of plants and other
living system that may be isolated by extraction. (e.g., Raw opium, Marijuana, Coca bush)

2
 2. Synthetic Drugs – are artificially produced substances, synthesized in the laboratory for
the illicit market, which are almost wholly manufactured from chemical compounds in
illicit laboratories. (e.g., Methamphetamine, barbiturates)

DRUGS ACCORDING TO PHARMACOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION (EFFECTS)

1. Stimulants - are drugs which increase alertness of physical disposition.
2. Depressants – are drugs which depress or lower the functions of the Central Nervous
System.
3. Hallucinogens – are drugs which affect sensation, thinking, self-awareness, and emotion.

a.) Depressant
Also known as downers, these are drugs that act on and depress the central nervous
system, causing initial relaxation that leads to drowsiness and sleep. The use of downers results
in impairments of judgment, hearing, speech, and muscle coordination. They dull the minds and
slow down the body's reactions to such an extent that accidental deaths and suicides usually
happen.

1. Narcotics
Are drugs that relieve pain and produce profound sleep or stupor. Medically, they are
potential painkillers, cough depressants, and active components of anti-diarrheal
preparations. Opium and its derivatives like morphine, codeine, and heroin, as well as the
synthetic opiates meperidine and methadone, are classified as narcotics.
Though some people still refer to all drugs as “narcotics,” today “narcotic” refers to
opium, opium derivatives, and their semi-synthetic substitutes. (DEA Drug Fact Sheet, 2020)
a. Opium – a highly addictive non-synthetic narcotic that is extracted from the
poppy plant, Papaver somniferum. The opium poppy is the key source for many
narcotics, including morphine, codeine, and heroin.
b. Morphine - a non-synthetic narcotic with a high potential for abuse and is derived
from opium. It is used for the treatment of pain. It is effective as a painkiller six
times potent than opium.
c. Codeine – a derivative of morphine, commonly available in cough preparations.
These cough medicines have been widely abused by the young whenever

3
 narcotics are difficult to obtain. Withdrawal symptoms are less severe than those
from other drugs.
d. Heroin - Heroin is processed from morphine, a naturally occurring substance
extracted from the seed pod of certain varieties of poppy plants grown in: Mexico,
South America, Southeast Asia (Thailand, Laos, and Myanmar), and Southwest
Asia (Afghanistan and Pakistan). It is three to five times more powerful than
morphine.
e. Demerol – Classified as a Narcotic Analgesic. Demerol is used to treat moderate
to severe pain and has effects similar to Morphine. Although Demerol is only one-
tenth as potent as Morphine, it is short-acting and has a high risk of abuse.
f. Methadone – a synthetic narcotic with a morphine-like effect. It is used for the
withdrawal treatment of heroin dependents since it relieves the physical craving
for heroin.
2. Barbiturates
Barbiturates are depressants that produce a wide spectrum of central nervous system
depression, from mild sedation to coma. It is used as sedatives, hypnotics, anesthetics, and
anticonvulsants. These drugs are also of value in the treatment of epilepsy and hypertension.
It is lethal when combined with alcohol.

3. Tranquilizers
Tranquilizers are drugs that are used to reduce anxiety, fear, tension, agitation, and
related states of mental disturbance. It is used to treat nervous disorders or calm psychotic
patients.

4. Volatile Solvents
Gaseous substances are popularly known to abusers as "gas" or ‘teardrops". Examples
are plastic glues, hair spray, finger nail polish, lighter fluid, rugby, paint, thinner, acetone,
turpentine gasoline, kerosene, varnishes, and other aerosol products. Inhaling volatile
substances can result in a decreased rate of breathing, decreased heart rate, and loss of
consciousness, possibly leading to coma or death.

4
 5. Alcohol
The king of all drugs with the potential for abuse Most widely used, socially
accepted, and extensively legalized drug throughout the world. Alcohol is classified as a
Central Nervous System Depressant. It slows brain function by affecting the neurotransmitter
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid). GABA slows brain activity, resulting in slurred speech,
relaxation, coordination problems, and drowsiness, and alcohol amplifies the effects of
GABA on the brain’s receptors.

b.) STIMULANTS
Drugs which induce alertness, wakefulness, elevated mood, increased speech, mental and
motor activity, relieve fatigue or boredom and decreased appetite.

1. Amphetamine
Usually prescribed to reduce appetite and relieve minor cases of mental depression. It
is also used to treat Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This drug is
representative of a broad class of stimulants known as "pep pills". The most common and
widely used preparations of the drug are methamphetamine, amphetamine sulfate, and
dextroamphetamine, which are known and sold under such trade names as Benzedrine and
Dexedrine. These drugs achieve their effect by increasing the amount and activity of the
neurotransmitter noradrenaline within the brain, thus causing psychic effects.

2. Methamphetamine Hydrochloride
It is a white, odorless, and crystalline powder with a bitter taste. It is popularly known
as "poor man’s cocaine". It is considered the most abused stimulant in the Philippines. At
present, this chemical has no known medically acceptable use. Other commonly used street
names for this are “shabu”, “ubas”, “siopao”, “sha”, and “ice”. It is the drug of choice for
90% of the Filipino drug users. Shabu is commonly made from cheap medicines
containing ephedrine. Ephedrine is extracted from Ephedra plant which is the main
component of methamphetamine hydrochloride.
Note: Amphetamines are prescription drugs from the stimulant class of substances
that are used in medicine to treat certain conditions. Methamphetamine, also a

stimulant, is an illicit street drug that has no medical usage.

5
 3. Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)
It is more commonly known as "Ecstasy". It is a synthetic drug with a white, yellow,
or brown color and comes in the form of either a tablet, capsule, or powder. Its tablet form
comes in various designs and shapes; hence, it is dubbed "designer drugs". It first became
popular in the US as a recreational drug, followed later by Europe, and eventually gained
popularity in other parts of the world, including the Philippines. Owing to its expensiveness,
most abusers are categorized among the elite, yuppies, and nocturnal partygoers.
Note: MDMA acts as both a stimulant and a psychedelic, producing an
energizing effect, distortions in time and perception, and enhanced enjoyment of tactile
experiences. (DEA Drug Fact Sheet, 2020)

4. Cocaine
Is a powerful stimulant derived from the leaves of the coca plant, which is native to
South America. Cocaine, in its pure form, is also white and made up of shiny, colorless
crystal, which is understandably called "snow" in junkie jargon. It is one of the strongest
short-acting stimulants.

5. Caffeine
Is a drug that stimulates your brain and nervous system. Caffeine is found in many
drinks such as coffee, tea, soft drinks and energy drinks. Chocolate also contains caffeine.
Energy drinks often have more caffeine and sugar than soft drinks.

6. Nicotine
An active component in tobacco that acts as a powerful stimulant of the Central
Nervous System.

c.) HALLUCINOGENS
More popularly known as "psychedelics". This is a group of natural or synthetic
psychoactive drugs that produce reactions such as perceptual alterations and changes in the state
of consciousness. These drugs generally produce a marked distortion of the senses and alter the
way time is perceived by the user. They produce hallucinations or visions, hence the name.
Chronic use led to bizarre and anti-social thoughts as well as disorientation and confusion. These
drugs work by stimulating the Central Nervous System and inhibiting the flow of serotonin, an
important neurotransmitter in the brain.

6
1. Marijuana
Is a mind-altering (psychoactive) drug produced by the Cannabis Sativa plant.
Marijuana has over 480 constituents. THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) is believed to be
the main ingredient that produces the psychoactive effect. It is the most abused hallucinogen
in the Philippines because it can be grown extensively in the country.

2. Hashish and Hashish Oil

Are drugs made from the cannabis plant that are like marijuana but more potent.
Hashish (hash) consists of the THC-rich resinous material of the cannabis plant, which is
collected, dried, and then compressed into a variety of forms, such as balls, cakes, or cookie-
like sheets. Pieces are then broken off, placed in pipes, mixed with tobacco, placed in pipes
or cigarettes, and smoked.
Note: Hashish is a concentrated form of cannabis that has been used for centuries
for its psychoactive effects. While Marijuana, also known as cannabis, pot, weed, Mary
Jane, and ganja, is a plant that has been used for medicinal, spiritual, and recreational
purposes for thousands of years. The cannabis plant contains a variety of compounds,
including cannabinoids, which interact with the body’s endocannabinoid system to
produce a range of effects. While they both come from the same plant, they have a few
distinct differences. (Stockton, E., 2023)

3. Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)

Is a synthetic chemical made from a substance found in ergot, which is a fungus that
infects rye (grain). When small doses are taken, it can produce mild changes in perception,
mood, and thought. Larger doses may produce visual hallucinations and distortions of space
and time. Patients who use LSD can reportedly have feelings of "hearing colors" and "seeing
sounds."

4. Psilocybin
Is a hallucinogenic substance obtained from certain types of mushrooms that are
indigenous to tropical and subtropical regions of South America, Mexico, and the United
States. Psilocybin effects are similar to other hallucinogens, such as mescaline and peyote.

7
 5. Peyote and Mescaline
Peyote is a small, spineless cactus. The active ingredient in peyote is the hallucinogen
mescaline. Mescaline can be extracted from peyote or produced synthetically.

6. Phencyclidine (PCP)
Phencyclidine, or phenyl cyclohexyl piperidine (PCP), was first developed in the
1950s to be used as an intravenous anesthetic in the United States, but its use in humans was
discontinued because it caused patients to become agitated, delusional, and irrational. Today,
individuals abuse PCP because of the mind-altering, hallucinogenic effects it produces. It is
popularly known as "angel dust".

FORENSIC DRUG ANALYSIS

Refers to the process of identifying and quantifying specimens of illegal drugs. These
forensic drug tests are carried out via screening and confirmation for the purpose of analysis. A
Forensic Drug Chemist is a specialist who conducts chemical analyses of evidence confiscated
during criminal investigations, which involve dangerous drugs and clandestine labs.

STEPS IN CONDUCTING QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

1. PHYSICAL TEST
- This kind of test is performed by describing the physical properties of a specimen by
ocular inspection, weighing, or through a microscopic exam.
- Instruments used in physical tests, such as an analytical balance and a microscope
2. CHEMICAL (COLOR) TEST
- A specific reagent or series of reagents is used for a presumptive test.
- Color reaction is expected to occur in order to determine the presence of a dangerous
drug.
- Simon’s test, Marquis test
3. CONFIRMATORY TEST
- There are three types of confirmatory tests:
1. thin layer chromatography (TLC)
2. Spectrophotometry
3. gas chromatography mass spectrophotometry

8
URINE TESTING
- Alcohol – 10-12 hours
- Methamphetamine – 2-5 days
- Barbiturates – 7 days
- Marijuana – 1-30 days
- Cocaine – 1-3 days
- Morphine – 2-5 days
- Heroin – 2-3 days

POSITIVE RESULT
a. General Test - MARQUIS TEST Red-Orange Color
b. Specific Test - SIMON'S TEST Blue Color

SIMON'S REAGENT:
- Simon's 1 - Sodium Carbonate Solution.
- Simon's 2 - Ethanolic Acetaldehyde Solution.
- Simon's 3 - Sodium Nitroprusside Solution.