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Cambridge IGCSE™

ECONOMICS 0455/22
Paper 2 Structured Questions October/November 2021

2 hours 15 minutes

You must answer on the enclosed answer booklet.

* 9 5 2 4 8 9 4 5 1 1 *

You will need: Answer booklet (enclosed)

INSTRUCTIONS
● Answer four questions in total:
Section A: answer Question 1.
Section B: answer three questions.
● Follow the instructions on the front cover of the answer booklet. If you need additional answer paper,
ask the invigilator for a continuation booklet.
● You may use a calculator.

INFORMATION
● The total mark for this paper is 90.
● The number of marks for each question or part question is shown in brackets [ ].

This document has 8 pages. Any blank pages are indicated.

DC (DH) 314876/1
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Section A

Read the source material carefully before answering Question 1.

Source material: India’s airline industry

Air India fact file

total revenue 2018 $2.2 bn
total cost 2018 $2.9 bn
number of passengers carried in 2018 16.4 m
number of passengers carried in 2017 14.8 m
share of India’s international and national air travel market in 2018 13%
share of India’s international and national air travel market in 1994 100%

Air India is owned by the Indian government. The entry of new firms into India’s air travel market has
reduced Air India’s ability to set price. The state-owned firm faces competition not only from other
airlines but also from other forms of transport including trains and ships.

In 2017 the Indian government tried, unsuccessfully, to sell Air India to the private sector. A successful
sale would have raised money for the Indian government and might have increased the airline’s
efficiency.

It is predicted that India will have the third largest airline industry by 2025. The growth in the industry
may affect the current account position of India’s balance of payments. Table 1.1 shows the current
account position in India and four other countries.

Table 1.1 The current account position of the balance of payments of selected countries in 2017

Country Current account Current account

($ bn) % of GDP
Brazil –9.8 –0.5
China 164.9 1.4
India –48.7 –1.9
Kenya –5.4 –6.8
Russia 35.4 2.2

A rise in both the number of routes flown and the quality of the passenger experience may increase
the number of tourists visiting India. A larger Indian airline industry is likely to increase the ease of
movement of people and goods into and out of India. This might attract more multinational companies
(MNCs) and reduce firms’ costs of production.

India’s air travel market faces a number of challenges. India has Asia’s highest airline fuel tax. Some
economists suggest that this should be increased further to increase tax revenue and to reduce market
failure. The airlines’ other costs are rising but it is difficult for them to raise prices. This is because
India’s air passengers are among the most price-sensitive in the world. Some airlines stop their costs
rising any further by improving their staff training, introducing new technology and improving their pilots’
working conditions. The airlines’ ability to hire pilots is influenced by, among other factors, the quality of
education and other job opportunities.

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Answer all parts of Question 1. Refer to the source material in your answers.

(a) Calculate, in $, Air India’s loss in 2018. [1]

(b) Identify two substitutes for air travel. [2]

(c) Explain one characteristic that suggests that Air India was a monopoly in 1994. [2]

(d) Explain two reasons why a government may privatise an industry. [4]

(e) Analyse how India’s position on the current account of its balance of payments in 2017
compares with the other four countries. [4]

(f) Analyse how a successful airline industry can promote economic growth. [5]

(g) Discuss whether the Indian government should increase the tax on airline fuel. [6]

(h) Discuss whether more people will apply to be pilots for Indian airlines in the future. [6]

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Section B

Answer any three questions.

Each question is introduced by stimulus material. In your answers you may refer to the material and/or
to other examples you have studied.

2 A number of countries, including Morocco, capture water from fog. Water is used in the primary,
secondary and tertiary sectors. In recent years, Morocco has increased the quantity and quality
of its resources and has moved more of them into the tertiary sector. The quantity, quality and
composition of a country’s resources are influenced by a number of factors, including its birth rate.
Morocco’s birth rate fell from 19.9 in 2016 to 18.7 in 2018.

(a) Define a free good. [2]

(b) Explain, with examples, the difference between the secondary sector and the tertiary sector.
[4]

(c) Analyse, using a production possibility curve (PPC), the effect of an increase in the quality of
its resources on an economy. [6]

(d) Discuss whether or not a fall in a country’s birth rate will benefit an economy. [8]

3 Two of Uzbekistan’s main industries are cotton and gas. Uzbekistan is the world’s seventh largest
producer, and fifth largest exporter, of cotton. The Uzbek government has tried to influence the
cotton industry’s price elasticity of supply. It has also nearly ended the use of child labour in cotton
production. The country’s output of gas increased by 7% in 2018 and its average cost of gas
production fell.

(a) Identify two determinants of price elasticity of supply. [2]

(b) Explain two advantages to an economy of ending child labour. [4]

(c) Analyse how average cost can change as output increases. [6]

(d) Discuss whether or not an economy would benefit from allocating more of its resources to
agriculture. [8]

4 In Tunisia, resource allocation decisions are made by both the public sector and private sector.
Tunisia’s GDP increased from 2014 to 2018 but its households saved less. Income levels can be
affected by changes in trade union activity and the foreign exchange rate. From 2014 to 2018,
Tunisia experienced a number of strikes organised by its largest trade union, the Tunisian General
Labour Union. There was also a significant fall in its foreign exchange rate.

(a) Identify two of the three resource allocation decisions. [2]

(b) Explain two reasons why households may save less even though their income has increased.
[4]

(c) Analyse how a trade union may benefit its members. [6]

(d) Discuss whether or not a fall in its foreign exchange rate will improve a country’s
macroeconomic performance. [8]

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5 The US operates a mainly market economic system. Life expectancy in the US fell in 2017, for the
third year in a row. Although the US has a high GDP per head, it also has a high level of income
inequality. The poor benefited from the US’s low and stable inflation rate. The government’s
supply-side policy measures were partly responsible for reducing inflationary pressure.

(a) Identify two ways a government could reduce income inequality. [2]

(b) Explain two advantages of a market economic system. [4]

(c) Analyse why life expectancy may decrease. [6]

(d) Discuss whether or not supply-side policy measures can reduce inflation. [8]

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