BBA (HM) SEMESTER-III

Semester-3

Paper-1: Hospitality Marketing

Paper-2: Human Resource and Organizational Behavior
Paper-3: Advance Housekeeping Operations
Paper-4: Basics of Food and Beverage Production
Paper-5: Advanced Course in Front Office Operations
Paper-6: Tourism Resources of India

Paper-1: Hospitality Marketing

UNIT I
Introduction to Marketing: Definition, difference in
selling/ marketing; core marketing
concepts; production, product, selling, marketing social
concept; Marketing
Environment.
Introduction to marketing
Marketing is dynamic and impactful. The details differ between industries, but
at its most basic marketing is how businesses reach prospective customers and
communicate the unique benefits of a product or service. It encompasses all the
activities that companies undertake to promote, sell, and distribute that product
or service. The goal is to generate sales and build a loyal customer base by
informing prospective and existing buyers about the offering.

Your target audience must first be aware that your product or service exists
before you can hope to inspire a purchase. An essential function in any business,
marketing supports efforts to acquire, keep, and grow customers.

But marketing does not end there — ongoing engagement also helps build
loyalty and establish a long-term relationship. Effective programs and campaigns
reach and engage audiences, differentiate the company from competitors, and
support larger business objectives, such as increasing sales or expanding to a
new market.

Marketing is a form of communication between a business house and its

customers with the goal of selling its products or services to them. Goods are not
complete products until they are in the hands of customers. Marketing is that
management process through which goods and services move from concept to
the customer. Marketing has less to do with getting customers to pay for a product
as it does with developing a demand for that product and fulfilling the customer’s
needs. According to the American Marketing Association (AMA) Board of
Directors, Marketing is the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating,
communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for
customers, clients, partners, and society at large. Dr. Philip Kotler defines
marketing as “the science and art of exploring, creating and delivering value to
satisfy the needs of a target market at a profit. Marketing identifies unfulfilled
needs and desires. It defines, measures and quantifies the size of the identified
market and the profit potential. It pinpoints which segments the company is
capable of serving best and it designs and promotes the appropriate products and
services.” Thus, marketing refers to all the activities involved in the creation of
place, time, possession and awareness utilities and beyond. MARKETING
CONCEPTS- TRADITIONAL AND MODERN Concept is a philosophy, attitude, a line
of thinking, an idea or notion to relating any aspects of divine and human
creations. The philosophy of an organization in the dynamic creation of marketing
is referred to as a marketing concept. Thus, marketing concept is a way of life in
which the resources of an organization are mobilized to create, stimulate and
satisfy the consumer at a profit.
SELLING vs. MARKETING
It is a common error committed when people say they are going for marketing
when they actually go to the market to purchase goods/ services. Well, it is simply
buying from consumers’ end and selling from the sellers’ end. Marketing is a
wider term than selling. Let us now see how selling differs from marketing .

Top 8 Difference Between Selling and Marketing

Selling Marketing

Definition

The selling theory believes that if companies and The marketing theory is a business plan,
customers are dropped detached, then the which affirms that the enterprise’s profit
customers are not going to purchase enough lies in growing more efficient than the
commodities produced by the enterprise. The opponents, in manufacturing, producing
notion can be employed argumentatively, in the and imparting exceptional consumer
case of commodities that are not solicited. value to the target marketplace.

Related to

Constraining customer’s perception of Leading commodities and services

commodities and services. towards the consumer’s perception.

Beginning point

Factory Marketplace
 Concentrates on

Product Consumer needs

Perspective

Inside out Outside in

Business Planning

Short term Long term

Orientation

Volume Profit

Cost Price

Cost of Production Market ascertained

Core Marketing Concepts

To understand the marketing function, we need to understand the following core
set of concepts. Needs, Wants, and Demands Needs are the basic human
requirements such as for air, food, water, clothing, and shelter. Humans also have
strong needs for recreation, education, and entertainment. These needs become
wants when they are directed to specific objects that might satisfy the need. A
U.S. consumer needs food but may want a Philly cheesesteak and an iced tea. A
person in Afghanistan needs food but may want rice, lamb, and carrots.Wants are
shaped by our society.

Demands are wants for specific products backed by an ability to pay. Many people
want a Mercedes; only a few are able to buy one. Companies must measure not
only how many people want their product, but also how many are willing and able
to buy it.
These distinctions shed light on the frequent criticism that “marketers create
needs” or “marketers get people to buy things they don’t want.” Marketers do not
create needs: Needs preexist marketers. Marketers, along with other societal
factors, influence wants. They might promote the idea that a Mercedes would
satisfy a person’s need for social status. They do not, however, create the need for
social status.

Some customers have needs of which they are not fully conscious or that they
cannot articulate. What does it mean when the customer asks for a “powerful”
lawn mower or a “peaceful” hotel? The marketer must probe further.We can
distinguish five types of needs:

1. Stated needs (The customer wants an inexpensive car.)

2. Real needs (The customer wants a car whose operating cost, not initial price, is
low.)
3. Unstated needs (The customer expects good service from the dealer.)
4. Delight needs (The customer would like the dealer to include an onboard GPS
navigation
system.)
5. Secret needs (The customer wants friends to see him or her as a savvy
consumer.)

Responding only to the stated need may shortchange the customer.18 Consumers
did not know much about cellular phones when they were first introduced, and
Nokia and Ericsson fought to shape consumer perceptions of them. To gain an
edge, companies must help customers learn what they want.

The Production:
During the industrial revolution era the focus was on the means of production,
and it assumed that the customers will want the product/service being offered. It
had no orientation towards incorporating the needs of potential buyers. Majorly
the products and services matched the thoughts and perceptions of the
manufacturer and the person owning the production unit. It relied on the notion
that if a product or service is abundantly available and is of lower cost it is bound
to generate sales therefore the focus was on achieving high production efficiency
& wide distribution coverage.
Production Concept is a concept where goods are produced without taking into
consideration the choices or tastes of the customers. It is one of the earliest
marketing concepts where goods were just produced on the belief that they will
be sold because consumers need them.
Managers focusing on this concept concentrate on achieving high production
efficiency, low costs, and mass distribution. They assume that consumers are
primarily interested in product availability and low prices. This orientation makes
sense in developing countries, where consumers are more interested in obtaining
the product than in its features.Ford, considered as one of the early champions of
this concept once remarked that Americans can get any car from Ford until it is
black. This is one of the most famous quotes in marketing stressing the
importance of Production concept.In a production-orientated business, the needs
of customers are secondary compared with the need to increase output. It is
natural that the companies cannot deliver quality products and suffer from
problems arising out of impersonal behavior with the customers. For example
Coke is widely available throughout the world A company manufactures sugar
because it knows that in the end consumers will surely buy sugar. But with the
continuous industrialization more and more players entered into the market, the
space available to sell the product squeezed because too many people were
selling the same product. That is why it became too obvious that the mass
production of goods which is the heart and soul of production concept can no
longer work because of too many me too products. Therefore, the focus slightly
shifted from Production concept to Customization concept where each and every
product is manufactured and delivered according the tastes and choices of the
customer. Dell is considered to be the pioneer of this field. When analyzing this
process we can see that since practice makes perfect, workers can carry out the
repetitive tasks with great speed and dexterity. Steps can be noted and
automated. Employees on the conveyor belt don't need to move around finding
tools. However the downside is that boredom sets in as the job is monotonous
and recurring. Members of staff and consumers alike may not feel a sense of pride
as identical commodities are being produced.
Product Concept :This concept shifted focus from bulk production to
quality orientation when managers realized that bulk production is not giving
enough output for sustainability against increasing competition. Most of the
manufacturers were producing similar good in a sector thus the costs went further
low and reduced the profit margins. This lead to looking forward to the technical
perfection of the product/service seen through the producer‟s eyes. But here too
the assumption that customers will perceive product/service in the same way and
thus buy was heavily relied upon. The consumer remained neglected in this phase
too.
The product concept proposes that consumers will prefer products that have
better quality, performance and features as opposed to a normal product.A
company should therefore focus on its product development and invest in
continuous product improvements. The concept is truly applicable in some niches
such as electronics and mobile handsets.
Two companies which stand apart from the crowd when we talk about the
product concept are Apple and Google. Both of these companies have strived
hard on their products and deliver us feature rich, innovative and diverse
application products and people just love these brands.Managers focusing on this
concept concentrate on making superior products and improving them over time.
They assume that buyers admire well-made products and can appraise quality and
performance. However,these managers are sometimes so proud of their product
that they do not realize what the market needs.
One of the advantages of product concepts is that marketers do not need to carry
out extensive research into their target audience. Products that a marketer
believe will „sell themselves‟ do not need a lot of well planned and specifically
driven marketing campaigns that can save a company a lot of money.
One problem which has been associated with the product concept is that it might
also lead to marketing myopia. For Example, Kodak assumed that consumers
wanted photographic film rather than a way to capture and share memories and
at first overlooked the challenge of digital cameras.Thus companies need to take
innovations and features seriously and provide only those which the customer
needs. The customer needs should be given priority.
Social selling: Social tools don’t just help you monitor the competition.
They show you what your customers are doing and saying too, offering precious
insights into issues you’d fail to spot by any other means.
Social selling is a lead-generation technique where salespeople directly interact
with their prospects on social media platforms.
Here’s a basic example of social selling:
• Mike works in sales for a flooring company. On Twitter he sees that a
woman named Monique is opening a bakery in his city and she’s looking for
contractor recommendations.
• Mike sees this as an opportunity to recommend some companies he’s
previously worked with, and sends her a message via social.
• Monique receives the message and sees in Mike’s social profile that he
works for a flooring company. She’s been meaning to shop for flooring and
puts Mike’s company on her short-list.
• Mike sends a follow-up note on social the following week, and Monique
sets an appointment to visit his showroom.
Social Marketing Concept:
The concept behind social marketing is changing behaviors through consistent
positive reinforcement.
Social Marketing Concept Explained
Social marketing, sometimes known as “marketing for good,” is a strategy that
promotes positive societal transformation by focusing on influencing individuals’
actions or ways of life rather than just selling an item or service. Its emphasis on
community engagement is distinct from commercial marketing, marketing via
green or sustainable practices, and marketing via social media.
The goal of such marketing is to modify people’s behaviors for the greater good of
society – to the individual’s profit and benefit of society as a whole – by using the
concepts of commercial marketing and the social sciences.
It is used by a wide variety of nonprofit organizations and charities, as well as by
government organizations, emergency services, and agencies. Likewise, some
examples are highway safety alliances, policemen, firefighters, and paramedic
groups. Social marketers also handle campaigns for charitable causes of a
commercial brand’s product or business.
In addition, nonprofit organizations use such marketing to boost their fundraising
efforts. It helps in furthering their organization’s mission or effecting societal
shifts.
Following are the strategies that can be used for doing social marketing.
#1 – Work Collaboratively
Generally, with low finances, implementing a full social marketing program and
not just a communication effort requires outside resources and experience.
Hence, Cooperation and reciprocity are powerful. See if there is a similar group
that regularly addresses the target audience. If so, building a strategic relationship
for assisting their existing projects helps. Beyond regular partners, other groups
may appeal to a similar target market.
#2 – Internet Marketing
Online marketing helps firms stretch costs. Hence, digital media and new websites
have created numerous new possibilities. However, online is a cheap, ever-
changing landscape. So, ensuring web marketing reaches the target demographic
is vital. Also, it should not be used as a solo method.
#3 – Online Press Release
Posting a story for free on any PR Web and sending bulk emails works well.
Developing a list of prospects to send press releases and creating narrative articles
about persons touched by the campaign and the advantages of behavior change
helps spread the word.
#4 – Word Of Mouth
Don’t overlook word-of-mouth in healthy communication and marketing. Many
individuals find the company through word-of-mouth. Keeping the target
audience talking is vital for habit change since we all listen to our relatives,
friends, and coworkers. The more avenues one can contact the target audience
using social outreach, the more impact a firm has.
#5 – Make Widgets
Widgets are code snippets that users may copy and paste into webpages or blogs.
Creating widgets that partners may publish to backlink the firm helps. Action
messages, not simply data, should be included.
Types
Following are the types of social marketing.
#1 – Not-For-Profit Marketing
It refers to companies that do not seek financial gain but use it as a marketing
strategy to promote a cause. However, a typical example of nonprofit marketing is
a campaign to generate donations and recruit volunteers using direct mail and
mass media. Since this is the case, serving the greater good is the overarching aim,
but the organization’s primary objective is to earn money to be competitive with
other charitable organizations.
#2 – Marketing For A Social Mission
This partnership between a for-profit and nonprofit company supports a
charitable cause or other similar endeavors. In addition, the sales of the items
produced by the commercial organization contribute to the pro-social motive.
However, an equivalent would be something like sponsorship, when a charitable
organization allows a for-profit firm to publicize its relationship with the charitable
organization to improve people’s impressions of the for-profit corporation and the
products it sells.
On the other hand, cause-related marketing generates revenue for the charitable
organization as a direct consequence of the products or services sold. Therefore,
advancing a social cause is not the primary purpose of a firm; rather, it is the
secondary goal of a company to increase sales or any other marketing objective.
#3 – Marketing With A Conscience
A comparison may be made between sponsorship and pro-social outreach.
Nevertheless, the for-profit company aims to improve the public’s opinion of its
goods and services by establishing a cooperative partnership with an organization
or cause that works to improve society. so social marketing allows firms to convey
how they have a wake conscience for helping society back.
#4 – Societal Marketing
It is possible to confuse societal with social outreach or marketing, but the two are
not the same. Kotler and his colleagues refer to businesses like this as socially
responsible profit-making companies. However, societal marketing is considered a
natural extension of the fundamental idea behind marketing. For making a profit
from the determination and satisfaction of customer requirements in a manner
that protects or enhances the consumer and society.
Marketing Environment :
A marketing environment encompasses all the internal and external factors that
drive and influence an organization's marketing activities. Marketing managers
must stay aware of the marketing environment to maintain success and tackle any
threats or opportunities that may affect their work.
A marketing environment is vast and diverse, consisting of controllable and
uncontrollable factors. A good grasp of your marketing environment helps to:
• Identify opportunities: Understanding your marketing environment helps
you notice and take advantage of market opportunities before losing your
edge. For example, say your marketing team sees an uptick in digital buying
over in-shop sales. You may decide to allocate more resources to your
 online marketing funnel to drive more sales.
• Identify threats: Studying your marketing environment alerts you to
potential threats which may affect your marketing activities. For example, a
market leader could diversify their product portfolio to compete with your
organization. Foreknowledge of this can help you restrategize your
marketing efforts to maintain and grow your market share.
• Manage changes: Paying attention to the marketing environment also helps
manage changes and maintain growth in a dynamic economy. Marketing
managers can forecast and determine timely marketing campaign strategies
by monitoring their marketing environment.
Features of a marketing environment
The features of a marketing environment are typically:
• Dynamic: The factors that affect marketing environments constantly change
over time. These could be technological advancements, industry
regulations, or even customer tastes.
• Relative: Marketing environments are relative and unique to each
organization. A specific product from your company may sell quicker in the
U.S. than in Europe because of distinctions in the marketing environment.
• Uncertain: Market forces are unpredictable. Even with constant study, you
may face unexpected threats or opportunities in your marketing operations.
Adept marketers must be able to learn, pivot, and strategize quickly to
achieve their goals.
• Complex: The many internal and external forces in a marketing
environment make it complex, with various essential moving parts. For
example, you must coordinate your team’s ability and resources with
stakeholder expectations, customer satisfaction, and other ethical and
environmental concerns.
Types of marketing environments you should know:
There are two significant types of marketing environments:
• Internal marketing environments
• External marketing environments
What is an internal marketing environment?
An internal marketing environment consists of factors that fall within your control
and impact your marketing operations, including your organization's strengths,
weaknesses, uniqueness, and competencies.
Think of essential marketing elements such as your people and teams, the quality
of your product or service, capital assets and budgets, and company policy.
Internal marketing environment factors are controllable.
What is an external marketing environment?
The external marketing environment includes all factors that do not fall within
your organization's control, including technological advancements, regulatory
changes, social, economic, and competitive forces.
These factors may be controllable or uncontrollable, but defining and studying
their changes and trends gives your business and marketing team some power to
stay the course. The external marketing environment can be broadly categorized
into micro and macro marketing environments.
UNIT II
New Product Development: Product level; Classification; Product
mix and its development; Branding; Product positioning; Product launching
strategies; Identifying Marketing segment and selecting target markets.
New product development :- refers to the process that goes into bringing a new
product to market, from brainstorming an idea to understanding if it fits into the
market, ironing it out to prototyping to final commercialization.
Although it can be a rather lengthy process that sometimes requires iteration, it’s
all done to ensure that your product is the best it can be before it reaches your
customers and solves their needs in the best possible way.
Let’s discuss the different stages involved in new product development.
1. Idea Generation
2. Research
3. Planning
4. Prototyping
5. Testing
6. Product Development
7. Commercialization
1. Idea Generation
The new product development process begins with idea generation, where you
brainstorm an idea (or ideas) that will help you solve an existing customer
problem in a new and innovative way. As you’re coming up with ideas that will
help you solve customer needs, it’s important to have a robust understanding of
your target market and the pain points they have that you want to solve.
Your initial idea generation stage can be as simple as saying “What if we did this?”
and then they become more ROBUST during the research stage.
2. Research
Once you’ve developed a product idea, the next step is conducting research to
FLESH IT OUT. There are various steps you can take to do this, like:
Market research to understand the current sentiment in your industry and if there
are any holes that your product will fit into, and if there will even be demand for
it.
Competitor analysis to understand if customers think there are things your
competitors' products or services lack that you can incorporate into your product
to better fit your target market's needs.
During this stage, you can also get early feedback from customers about what
they think of your ideas before coming up with a final definition for your product.
One of the best ways to get this feedback is through surveys, where you can easily
and quickly collect information from existing customers. A high-quality tool like
Lucky Orange can help you create these surveys, and with it, you can ask multiple
choice questions about types of products they may be interested in, or more
open-ended questions that give you more insight into customer opinions.
This stage may include a bit of iteration because your research may tell you that
you need to refine your original ideas and adjust your research scope before
moving on to the next stage.
3. Planning
The third stage is planning, where you formulate a final product idea/definition
based on your initial idea and research and begin coming up with your plans to
bring it to life.
When you define your final product, you’ll want to begin planning for what you’ll
need in order to create it. For example, if you’re creating a physical product, you’ll
need to source the necessary materials or find production partners that will assist
in manufacturing.
Planning also involves coming up with a marketing strategy that will help you
effectively market when your product is completed, pricing models that make
sense for your product, and that your customers will pay.
It’s also critical to identify the teams that will be involved in your product
development process that will help bring it to market, from the marketing teams
that will promote your product to any possible external partners that will assist
with production.
4. Prototyping
The prototyping phase is when you come up with a sample product that is a
mockup of what will be created during mass production.
This prototype is often referred to as a minimum viable product (MVP), which is a
basic version of your tool, still similar to your final product, that will help you get a
sense of how it functions and identify any areas that need to be improved.
You may make multiple prototypes and go back and forth between this stage and
the testing stage before you have a finalized prototype.
5. Testing
Before launching your product you need to test it to ensure it will work as
advertised and effectively solve your customer needs. So, during this stage, you’ll
share your prototypes with target audiences and ask for actionable feedback on
how the product works.
Essentially, you want your product to be used in situations that are similar to real-
world use cases so you know exactly what works and what doesn’t. Sometimes
the results of your testing will require you to go back and make changes to your
prototype, as mentioned above.
Once you feel as though your prototype is finished and ready to solve your
customer needs, you’ll begin product development.
6. Product Development
This stage involves creating the final product that will be commercialized once
completed. You’ll use the insights gained from testing your MVP to make final
touches to your prototype, and begin mass production.
Depending on your type of business, you’ll likely have a different process for
product development. For example, if you’re a SaaS business, your internal
software development or programming teams will likely work to finalize code. If
you create a physical product, you may outsource labor for certain components
and assemble final products in your warehouse.
Whichever your process is, your planning stage should’ve helped you identify how
your product development will go.
7. Commercialization
The final stage of your new product development process is commercialization,
where you introduce your products to market. This is the culmination of your
brainstorming, research, iteration, where your audiences can finally make use of
what you created.
You’ll enact your marketing plans to make your audiences aware of your new
product, and enact campaigns that will entice them to become customers.
Although this is the final stage, many businesses launch their products and, over
time, return to make improvements to their products based on customer
feedback and market changes to ensure they’re always providing the best possible
customer experience.
PRODUCT LEVEL:-
the definition of a product goes way beyond being a physical object or a service.
He defines a product as anything that can meet a need or a want. This means that
even a retail store or a customer service representative is considered a product.
The model considers that products are a means to an end to meet the various
needs of customers. The model is based on there being three ways in which
customers attach value to a product:
• Customer Need: the lack of a basic requirement.
• Customer Want: a specific requirement for a product or service to meet a
need.
• Customer Demand: a set of wants plus the desire and ability to pay to have
them satisfied.
Customers will choose a product based on their perceived value of it. The
customer is satisfied if the product’s actual value meets or exceeds their
expectations. If the product’s actual value falls below their expectations they will
be dissatisfied.
The Five Product Levels are given in the diagram below:
1. Core Benefit
The core benefit is the fundamental need or wants that the customer satisfies
when they buy the product.For example, the core benefit of a hotel is to provide
somewhere to rest or sleep when away from home.
2. Generic Product
The generic product is a basic version of the product made up of only those
features necessary for it to function.In our hotel example, this could mean a bed,
towels, a bathroom, a mirror, and a wardrobe.
3. Expected Product
The expected product is the set of features that the customers expect when they
buy the product.
In our hotel example, this would include clean sheets, some clean towels, Wi-fi,
and a clean bathroom.
4. Augmented Product
The augmented product refers to any product variations, extra features, or
services that help differentiate the product from its competitors.In our hotel
example, this could be the inclusion of a concierge service or a free map of the
town in every room.
5. Potential Product
The potential product includes all augmentations and transformations the product
might undergo in the future. In simple language, this means that to continue to
surprise and delight customers the product must be augmented.
In our hotel, this could mean a different gift placed in the room each time a
customer stays. For example, it could be some chocolates on one occasion, and
some luxury water on another. By continuing to augment its product in this way
the hotel will continue to delight and surprise the customer.
Classifications of products:-
There are four types of products and each is classified based on consumer habits,
price, and product characteristics: convenience goods, shopping goods, specialty
products, and unsought goods.
1. Convenience Goods
Convenience goods are products that consumers buy repeatedly without much
thought.
Once consumers choose their brand of choice, they typically stick to it unless they
see a reason to switch. For example, an interesting advertisement or convenient
placement at the checkout aisle may inspire them to try a new brand.
Examples of convenience goods include:
• Gum
• Toilet paper
• Soap
• Toothpaste
• Shampoo
 • Milk
Marketing Convenience Goods
To promote a convenience good, remember that most people impulse buy these
products. Placing your products near the checkout line at a store could be a good
idea for these products. That's why you'll often find candy and gum at the front of
a store.
Most convenience products have low prices. This means that cost and discounting
aren't major deciding factors when considering a purchase. I won't switch my
toilet paper brand just to save a few cents.
For convenience goods, brand recognition is key. With this in mind, you'll want to
create widespread campaigns to spread awareness of your company if possible.
For instance, Charmin, the toilet paper brand, is a widely recognized brand in the
United States. This is partly due to the company's consistent and long-term
advertising strategy, dating back to the 1960s with the invention of the character
"Mr. Whipple" who appeared in TV, print, and radio ads.
2. Shopping Goods
Shopping goods are products shoppers typically spend more time researching and
comparing before they buy. Unlike convenience goods, these are rarely impulse
purchases.
Shopping goods can be affordable items, like clothes and home decor. For
example, if you have an event coming up and you want to get a nice pair of shoes,
this doesn’t fall under impulse purchases. Instead, you'll want to try it on, consider
whether the price is worth it, and even get input from your loved ones.
Shopping goods can also be a one-off purchase with a higher economic impact.
These are higher-end goods like cars and houses.
Since it's an expensive and important purchase, you'll spend a good amount of
time deliberating on it. For example, when buying a house you'll attend different
open houses, and compare the pros and cons of your final selection.
Marketing Shopping Goods
To promote a shopping good, invest in content that persuades your buyer of your
product’s value. It's important your marketing materials show how your product
differs from the competition and the unique value it offers. This commercial for
Honda is a great example of shopping goods marketing:
Price also plays a role in this product type. This means that the promotion of
discounts and sales can attract consumers to your brand.
3. Specialty Goods
A specialty good is the only product of its kind on the market. This means
consumers don't usually feel the need to compare and deliberate as much as they
would with shopping products.
For example, iPhones are a specialty good because of Apple’s strong brand
identity, unique features, and operating system. This combination creates a
perception of product quality.
Other examples of specialty goods include luxury cars, gourmet food brands, and
designer clothing.
Marketing Specialty Goods
When marketing specialty brands, you may not need to convince consumers that
your product is different from competitors. These are often rare purchases with
high brand awareness, so consumers often covet these products.
To maintain high demand for specialty products, focus on product innovation and
improvement. This keeps your customers loyal to your brand.
For instance, if Apple stopped updating their iPhones, users might think about
switching brands. But updates like action mode, privacy keys, and visual lookup
show shoppers that this brand continues to innovate.
4. Unsought Goods
Unsought products are goods that people aren't usually excited to buy. These
products have utility, but they're usually not fun purchases. Good examples of
unsought goods include fire extinguishers, insurance, and refrigerators.
People often buy unsought goods out of a sense of fear, danger, or utility. For
instance, you wouldn't go online to search for the "new and best" fire
extinguisher. You'd only buy one due to the fear of a potential fire. People also buy
unsought goods like refrigerators or toasters because the old ones stopped
working.
Marketing Unsought Goods
With unsought goods, focus on reminding consumers that your product exists and
why they need it. Then, convince them that purchasing your product will leave
them with a better sense of comfort or security.
Focusing on a target audience and using marketing to inform and motivate
customers are also useful strategies. For example, this commercial from Samsung
introduces bespoke refrigerators that buyers can personalize.
This strategy attempts to change the perception of the refrigerator from a boring
necessity to an exciting purchase.
For more product marketing insights, plus free templates, download this free
product marketing kit.
Product mix and its Development :-
Product mix, also known as product assortment or product portfolio, refers to the
complete set of products and/or services offered by a firm. A product mix consists
of product lines, which are associated items that consumers tend to use together
or think of as similar products or services.
Dimensions of a Product Mix
1. Width
Width, also known as breadth, refers to the number of product lines offered by a
company. For example, Kellogg’s product lines consist of: (1) Ready-to-eat cereal,
(2) Pastries and breakfast snacks, (3) Crackers and cookies, and (4)
Frozen/Organic/Natural goods.
2. Length
Length refers to the total number of products in a firm’s product mix. For example,
consider a car company with two car product lines (3-series and 5-series). Within
each product line series are three types of cars. In this example, the product
length of the company would be six.
3. Depth
Depth refers to the number of variations within a product line. For example,
continuing with the car company example above, a 3-series product line may offer
several variations such as coupe, sedan, truck, and convertible. In such a case, the
depth of the 3-series product line would be four.
4. Consistency
Consistency refers to how closely related product lines are to each other. It is in
reference to their use, production, and distribution channels. The consistency of a
product mix is advantageous for firms attempting to position themselves as a
niche producer or distributor. In addition, consistency aids with ensuring a firm’s
brand image is synonymous with the product or service itself.
Illustration of a Product Mix
Example of a Product Mix
Let us take a look at a simple product mix example of Coca-Cola. For simplicity,
assume that Coca-Cola oversees two product lines – soft drinks and juice (Minute
Maid). Products classified as soft drinks are Coca-Cola, Fanta, Sprite, Diet Coke,
Coke Zero, and products classified as Minute Maid juice are Guava, Orange,
Mango, and Mixed Fruit.
The product (mix) consistency of Coca-Cola would be high, as all products within
the product line fall under beverage. In addition, production and distribution
channels remain similar for each product. The product mix of Coca-Cola in the
simplified example would be illustrated as follows:
Example of a Product Mix - Coca Cola Co.
Branding: Branding is the process of creating a strong, positive perception of
a company, its products or services in the customer’s mind by combining such
elements as logo, design, mission statement, and a consistent theme throughout
all marketing communications. Effective branding helps companies differentiate
themselves from their competitors and build a loyal customer base.
This means that customers expect that your tone of voice is the same over email,
your website, customer service, and every other touchpoint in your business. If
you rebrand, you need to change your logo, and styling everywhere both online
and offline. Make sure you create a consistent brand so that your customers revel
in your omni-channel presence.
Branding in-store can be very different to online branding as in store you have to
worry about positioning of products and props that can effect how a customer
experiences your brand. Branding in-store is more experiential as people can walk
around and pick things up, whereas customers online are experiencing a two-
dimensional scene. Of course, certain elements of branding are consistent both
online and in-store. These include consistent imagery and logos.
Why is Branding Important?
A unique brand can have a huge impact on your bottom line by giving you a
competitive advantage over your rivals and helping you acquire and retain
customers at a much lower cost. In eCommerce, where new companies (and
therefore, new competitors) are springing up every day, an established brand can
be an invaluable asset in bringing customers and generating profit.
Regardless of whether you’re investing time and effort into crafting a compelling
brand or paying no attention to it whatsoever, your business still has a brand.
However, it may be completely different to how you intended to be seen.
By carefully constructing your brand through stories, relationships, marketing
messages and visual assets, you have the opportunity of shaping your customers’
expectations and creating a unique bond that goes beyond the buying-selling
relationship.
Good branding is strategic, while marketing is tactical. When you establish the
higher objectives and clearly define your brand promise, you can start crafting a
marketing plan that’s geared towards achieving those goals.
Product positioning:-
Product positioning is the process of determining new products’ position in the
minds of consumers. It includes analyzing the market and competitors’ positions,
defining the position of a new product among the existing ones, and
communicating a particular brand’s product image.
Contents
Why is product positioning important?
5 Product Positioning Strategies
10 Steps to Position Your Product
Examples of Product Positioning
Companies can implement product positioning by using communication channels,
pricing, or quality of the products to stand out and be recognizable. In this article,
we’ll discuss the importance of product positioning and its benefits, talk about
several strategies, explore the steps you need to take to position your product,
and see several examples.
Why is product positioning important?
Each brand has to know its customers to provide a product that resonates with
their needs. A well-thought-out strategy can determine the position of this
product within the market and identify its benefits for consumers.
The process involves creating a particular image of a brand and its products in
consumers’ minds and identifying the key benefits to show how a particular
product differs from competitors’ alternatives. Afterward, the difference is
communicated to a brand’s target audience through the most effective
communication channels. The messages brands convey to their customers should
evoke interest.
Marketers need to determine the best ways to present specific products and
reach their target audience based on customers’ needs, competitive alternatives,
the most effective communication channels, and tailored messages. Implementing
product positioning strategies enables companies to create messages that address
their customers’ needs and wants and entice them to purchase.
There are even more pros this type of marketing can bring, so check out our list to
know all of them.
Benefits of product positioning
We’ve prepared the top benefits of product positioning that show why it’s one of
the most effective marketing tactics. It helps in:
• identifying key benefits of a product and matching them with customers’
needs;
• finding a competitive advantage even when the market changes;
• meeting customers’ expectations;
• reinforcing your brand’s name and its products;
• winning customer loyalty;
• creating an effective promotional strategy;
• attracting different customers;
• improving competitive strength;
5 Product Positioning Strategies:
While a lot of time is devoted to product development, only a few companies
think about how consumers will perceive the product when it’s already in the
market. Product positioning is about understanding the products you decide to
introduce to the masses. That’s why it’s critical to pay attention to what your
customers think. Let’s explore the key strategies that will help you define the
position of your product.
• Characteristics-based positioning:Brands give certain characteristics to
their products that aim at creating associations. It’s done to make
consumers choose based on brand image and product characteristics. Let’s
take the automobile industry, for example. A person who worries about
safety will probably choose Volvo because of the brand’s positioning. At the
same time, another customer who pays attention to reliability would prefer
Toyota.
• Pricing-based positioning: This strategy involves associating your company
with competitive pricing. Brands often position themselves as those that
offer products or services at the lowest price. Let’s take supermarkets, for
example. They can afford to provide customers with products for lower
prices because of the lower costs they pay for shipping and distribution,
huge turnover, and a large procurement of goods. As a result, many
consumers already know the supermarkets with attractive prices and
choose them without considering other options.
• Use or application-based positioning:Companies can also position
themselves by associating with a certain use or application. People who
adhere to a healthy lifestyle create a great demand for products that help
increase performance in the gym. Hence, many businesses offer nutritional
supplements. These brands sell supplements that are high in calories,
vitamins, and minerals.
• Quality or prestige-based positioning:The brands we are talking about now
don’t concentrate on their price point; they focus on their prestige or high
quality instead. Sometimes, it’s the reputation that makes a brand attract
customers. Let’s take Rolex, for example. This famous watch brand is
associated with achievement and excellence in sport and is popular among
powerful and wealthy people.
• Competitor-based positioning: The strategy involves using competitors’
alternatives to differentiate products and highlight their advantages. It helps
brands distinguish their products and show their uniqueness.
10 Steps to Position Your Product
1. Define your target audience
2. Identify the key benefits of your product
3. Establish brand credibility
4. Offer a unique value proposition
 5. Consider audience segmentation
6. Craft your messaging
7. Do a competitive analysis
8. Demonstrate your expertise
9. Focus on your competitive advantage
10.Maintain your brand’s position
The way your customers perceive your brand is crucial since they define your sales
volume, the success of your business, and the profits your company will earn.
Therefore, you should be ready to present your products honestly and effectively.
To do this, you need to consider the following steps.
1. Define your target audience:Knowing your customers' needs, wants,
demographics, and interests allows you to give them the product they strive
for. This way, you can reach your target audience and motivate them to buy
your products. For this purpose, you need to be well-prepared and operate
the necessary information.
2. Identify the key benefits of your product: Benefits are a top priority for any
customer who wants to solve a particular problem. As a business owner,
you need to know all the peculiarities of your products or services,
including their features and advantages. You need to identify your key perks
and communicate them to the masses so that they can consider your
product when reviewing several options.
3. Establish brand credibility:You need to create a brand that people can rely
on to build trusting relationships and encourage your customers to make
repeat purchases. Consumers are more inclined to make repeat purchases
from companies with a good reputation and high credibility. Remember not
to make promises you can’t keep and claims that can’t be verified. Prioritize
honesty and transparency since they will help you build a healthy product
positioning strategy.
4. Offer a unique value proposition: Communicate the value your product can
bring to your target audience. You need to be aware of the fact that
consumers won’t choose a product if they can’t benefit from it. Explore
your product, find its benefits, and search for the most appropriate
communication channels to convey them to your leads and customers
effectively.
5. Consider audience segmentation: If you want to obtain the best results,
you need to segment your audience since your product can’t satisfy all your
customers’ needs. You can divide them into groups based on their interests,
traits, and needs to create customized messages. As a result, you’ll be able
to appeal to their individual wants and needs and provide them with your
product as a solution.
6. Craft your messaging:Once you segment your customers, it’s necessary to
select the right communication channels for each group. Some of them
might prefer social media platforms, but others might use traditional
channels like TV and radio. Give some thought to writing a positioning
statement (a description of a product, its target audience, and how this
product can solve a problem that arises). It will help you prepare
 personalized and effective messages that speak to the needs and
preferences of each group.
7. Do a competitive analysis:Once your message is ready, you need to
evaluate your competitors’ businesses and the products or services they
offer. Competitor research gives you a clear understanding of your rivals,
their offers, and what makes your product different in a positive way.
Afterward, you’ll be aware of the distinctive features and benefits your
product has, your core values, innovations, and various improvements your
company provides consumers with.
8. Demonstrate your expertise: Explain to your customers why they should
choose you over your competitors. You should also prove that your product
is better and that it has several benefits useful for consumers. There are
several ways to show the quality of your product or its benefits: testing,
trials, demonstrations, etc.
9. Focus on your competitive advantage: These are the factors that enable
your company to manufacture better or cheaper products and outperform
your competitors. You need to speak about the actual benefit your product
provides. Customers should truly need this product and obtain its visible
value. It also includes staying up-to-date and adapting to new trends and
innovations.
10.Maintain your brand’s position: Once you reach this step, you need to
maintain your brand’s position so that customers continue buying your
products. If you aim to operate this successfully, you should never
compromise on quality and increase or reduce prices drastically since it can
make customers suspicious.
Examples of Product Positioning
We’ve prepared several examples of famous brands that work in different
industries and implement product positioning. Let’s dive in to grab some
inspiration.
• Beautycounter — clean beauty
The brand famous for its skincare and cosmetic products promotes clean beauty.
The company strives to create products that are safe for our environment.
Beautycounter stands for sustainability and uses ingredients that can’t harm the
environment.
• Nike — high quality
Nike, a famous brand that designs, develops, and manufactures running shoes and
sportswear, positions itself as a company that provides athletes with high-quality,
fashionable athletic sneakers and apparel.
• Thrive Market — healthy living
This retail company offers customers healthy food from the best organic brands.
They provide their clients with products at wholesale prices.
Product launching strategies:-
A strong product launch strategy increases your brand awareness and your
company’s bottom line. You want to cater both to existing customers and potential
customers. From your product development marketing through tracking KPIs, you
can design a strategy, establish a plan, and market to the right audience.
Here are 12 strategies for a successful product launch:
1. Establish A Product Launch Plan
One of the key elements to a successful product launch is careful product launch
planning. From the design phase through sales tracking, you need a road map to
help you stay on the right path.
The first step in establishing a product launch plan is to involve the right people.
Launch success isn’t just up to product managers! Include your production
department, marketing team, and salespeople in the planning. And ask the group
some key questions to hone your launch strategy:
• Will your launch strategy—and the product itself—increase your brand
awareness and bottom line?
• What marketing channels will you focus on to boost sales? This might
include social media marketing, radio or television, ads, or product launch
events like tradeshows leading up to your launch day.
• What tools will your sales and marketing team need to succeed?
• How will you track your product launch success? In other words, what KPIs
will you measure, and how will you alter your strategy if you’re falling short
of your goals?
2. Perform Market Research
Market research is essential to ensure your product is something people need or
want. Make sure there’s a demand for your product and that you can sell it at a
price that your customers are willing to spend. At this stage, you should seek to
answer questions such as how you can serve various groups of customers and
how many customers have an unmet need that your product can fill.
3. Identify Your Target Market
Know which demographics are likely to purchase your product—this will make all
the difference in your marketing strategy and messaging. Being unaware of your
target market or marketing to the wrong audience are missteps that will ruin any
product launch.
4. Identify Your Competitors
Don’t make the mistake of lacking insight into your competition. If you don’t
identify your competitors, you won’t know what you have to do to earn more
sales. Studying your competition’s product and marketing strategy positions you
to take advantage of their weaknesses and get customers to favor your product
over theirs.
5. Develop A Marketing Strategy
Marketing drives sales. Every company needs an overall marketing strategy, and
every new product needs a specific marketing strategy. Your marketing campaign
needs to excite existing customers and attract potential customers. And once
you’ve got your target audience’s attention, your marketing strategy should build
a relationship with your buyers so that they keep coming back.
Identifying Marketing segment and selecting target
markets:-
Marketing is no easy task. No matter what your business field is, it’s impossible to
satisfy every consumer. People like different things. What’s more, their needs
differ as well. The market is very vast, and the products are available in almost
endless amounts. That means you can’t strive to satisfy everyone. So what do you
do?
What is a Market Segment
Identifying market segments means identifying your ideal customer. Don’t worry,
there’s more than one. When you’re done selecting target markets, next step is to
find out the profile of your ideal customer — what they want and need and how
they behave and operate. This is known as target marketing. Once you know what
your target customer needs, you’ll be able to invest time, money, and effort to
provide that for them. Furthermore, when you cater to all the needs your target
customers have regarding products and marketing, as opposed to catering to
some demands of all consumers, your brand will gain prominence, and the
customers will see it as more valuable. Always go the extra mile.
Mass Marketing vs Target Marketing
Not that long ago, the best approach was mass marketing. Go big or go home,
marketers used to say. Mass marketing entails mass production and delivering as
many products to as many people as you can manage.
However, that’s far from the best approach today. Because there was less variety
in the market, mass marketing used to be effective. However, nowadays, there are
endless possibilities and numerous brands and products that the customers have
to choose from. So how are you going to make them choose you with just mass
marketing as your strategy? Well, you won’t.
Today, brands have the option of customising their products. They don’t have to
rely on mass marketing because they have the opportunities to reach specific
market segments and niches. Advertising and communication channels have
undergone radical changes that allow brands to have a more narrow approach.
Marketing at an individual level is much more effective.
How Does Target Marketing Work?
In target marketing, the goal is to attract as many people with similar needs. For
example, if you own an airline that targets people with lower incomes and offers
low-budget tickets, you don’t really care about the people flying first class, do
you? No, you need as many people looking to fly for a cheap buck.
However, how do you make money in this scenario? How do you distinguish
yourself from the competition? You can offer low-cost products and services and
still make a hefty profit. You need to implement other strategies — like charge for
in-flight meals, for example.
Target marketing goes beyond offering a low-cost product, of course. The main
trait is limiting your reach to a specific target audience. That segment of the
market can also be people willing to pay top-notch prices. However, you have to
make sure that the market has room for growth and that the entry barriers are
high.
Niche marketing also works for local companies. Conquering one segment of the
market and keeping a firm hold on it is much better than going big and failing. If
you have a local company, you aren’t going to aim your marketing efforts
anywhere else but on your local community.
Local and individual marketing has become much easier with the benefits that the
Internet marketing brought about. It makes your services and products more
customisable, and you’re able to cater to more specific needs of your consumers.
Of course, if you’re selling cars, Internet retail is out of the question, but there are
many business fields where it’s a more than a viable option.
What Can Affect the Segmentation?
From the consumer’s standpoint, these are the factors that can affect the
segmentation:
1. Location
Customers will gravitate toward your brand based on your location. It matters if
you’re in a rural or an urban setting. Furthermore, the country and the region
where you are based are also important
2. Demographic
Your target audience is similar, but there are differences between the individuals
who make up your market segment. Age, gender, income, occupation, education
— these are all critical elements to factor into your marketing strategy. What’s
more, religion, family size, social class, etc., can also be used to influence the
buyers to become your clients.
3. Lifestyle
Lifestyle and personality traits are essential elements you need to consider while
looking for your target customer. You can segment the market quite effectively
using these elements.
4. Attitude and Beliefs
Sometimes, people already have a formed attitude or an opinion about your
brand. It’s logical to target those who are already aware of your brand and have a
neutral or positive attitude toward it.
From the company’s standpoint, these elements can affect the segmentation:
1. Demographics
Before you choose a segment of the market, think about the size and the type of
your company. Based on that, you can decide if your company is fit to cater to a
specific group of people.
2. Operational Segmentation
The type of technology you use will define the requirements you can meet and
the customer consumption needs you’ll be able to cater to.
3. Purchasing Methodology
How your company is positioned on the market and how it relates to your
competitors relies significantly on the structure of your purchasing department
and your purchase policy.
4. Personality Segmentation
Analysing the loyalty element as well as the potential risk the segmentation could
bring to your company.
The last step of segmentation is finalising the market. It entails finding the right
segment based on all the factors mentioned. When you identify the section, you
can move forward and analyse it to find the best strategy on how to market for it.
UNIT III
Pricing: Concept of Price, pricing Objectives, Factors in
influencing Pricing decisions, Price setting methods.
Pricing policies and strategies.
Concept of Price:- Pricing is a process of fixing the value that a
manufacturer will receive in the exchange of services and goods. Pricing method is
exercised to adjust the cost of the producer’s offerings suitable to both the
manufacturer and the customer. The pricing depends on the company’s average
prices, and the buyer’s perceived value of an item, as compared to the perceived
value of competitors product.
Every businessperson starts a business with a motive and intention of earning
profits. This ambition can be acquired by the pricing method of a firm. While fixing
the cost of a product and services the following point should be considered:
• The identity of the goods and services
• The cost of similar goods and services in the market
• The target audience for whom the goods and services are produces
• The total cost of production (raw material, labour cost, machinery cost,
transit, inventory cost etc).
• External elements like government rules and regulations, policies, economy,
etc.,
Pricing Objectives:-
• Survival- The objective of pricing for any company is to fix a price that is
reasonable for the consumers and also for the producer to survive in the
market. Every company is in danger of getting ruled out from the market
because of rigorous competition, change in customer’s preferences and
 taste. Therefore, while determining the cost of a product all the variables
and fixed cost should be taken into consideration. Once the survival phase is
over the company can strive for extra profits.
• Expansion of current profits-Most of the company tries to enlarge their
profit margin by evaluating the demand and supply of services and goods in
the market. So the pricing is fixed according to the product’s demand and
the substitute for that product. If the demand is high, the price will also be
high.
• Ruling the market- Firm’s impose low figure for the goods and services to
get hold of large market size. The technique helps to increase the sale by
increasing the demand and leading to low production cost.
• A market for an innovative idea- Here, the company charge a high price for
their product and services that are highly innovative and use cutting-edge
technology. The price is high because of high production cost. Mobile
phone, electronic gadgets are a few examples.
Factors in influencing Pricing decisions:-
(A) Internal Factors:
Internal factors are internal to organisation and, hence, are controllable. These
factors play vital role in pricing decisions. They are also known as organisational
factors. Manager, who is responsible to set price and formulae pricing policies and
strategies, is required to know adequately about these factors.
1. Top Level Management:
Top-level management has a full authority over the issues related to pricing.
Marketing manager’s role is administrative. The philosophy of top-level
management is reflected in forms of pricing also. How does top management
perceive the price?
How far is pricing considered as a tool for earning profits, and what is importance
of price for overall performance? In short, overall management philosophy and
practice have a direct impact on pricing decision. Price of the product may be high
or low; may be fixed or variable; or may be equal or discriminative depends on
top-level management.
2. Elements of Marketing Mix:
Price is one of the important elements of marketing mix. Therefore, it must be
integrated to other elements (promotion, product, and distribution) of marketing
mix. So, pricing decisions must be linked with these elements so as to consider the
effect of price on promotion, product and distribution, and effect of these three
elements on price.
For example, high quality product should be sold at a high price. When a company
spends heavily on advertising, sales promotion, personal selling and publicity, the
selling costs will go up, and consequently, price of the product will be high. In the
same way, high distribution costs are also reflected in forms of high selling price.
3. Degree of Product Differentiation:
Product differentiation is an important guideline in pricing decisions. Product
differentiation can be defined as the degree to which company’s product is
perceived different as against the products offered by the close competitors, or to
what extent the product is superior to that of competitors’ in terms of competitive
advantages. The theory is, the higher the product differentiation, the more will be
freedom to set the price, and the higher the price will be.
4. Costs:
Costs and profits are two dominant factors having direct impact on selling price.
Here, costs include product development costs, production costs, and marketing
costs. It is very simple that costs and price have direct positive correlation.
However, production and marketing costs are more important in determining
price.
5. Objectives of Company:
Company’s objectives affect price of the product. Price is set in accordance with
general and marketing objectives. Pricing policies must the company’s objectives.
There are many objectives, and price is set to achieve them.
6. Stages of Product Life Cycle:
Each stage of product life cycle needs different marketing strategies, including
pricing strategies. Pricing depends upon the stage in which company’s product is
passing through. Price is kept high or low, allowances or discounts are allowed or
not, etc., depend on the stage of product life cycle.
7. Product Quality:
Quality affects price level. Mostly, a high-quality-product is sold at a high price and
vice versa. Customers are also ready to pay high price for a quality product.
8. Brand Image and Reputation in Market:
Price doesn’t include only costs and profits. Brand image and reputation of the
company are also added in the value of product. Generally, the company with
reputed and established brand charges high price for its products.
9. Category of Product:
Over and above costs, profits, brand image, objectives and other variables, the
product category must be considered. Product may be imitative, luxury, novel,
perishable, fashionable, consumable, durable, etc. Similarly, product may be
reflective of status, position, and prestige. Buyers pay price not only for the basic
contents, but also for psychological and social implications.
10. Market Share:
Market share is the desired proportion of sales a company wants to achieve from
the total sales in an industry. Market share may be absolute or relative. Relative
market share can be calculated with reference to close competitors. If company is
not satisfied with the current market share, price may be reduced, discounts may
be offered, or credit facility may be provided to attract more buyers.
(B) External Factors:
External factors are also known as environmental or uncontrollable factors.
Compared to internal factors, they are more powerful.
Pricing decisions should be taken after analyzing following external factors:
1. Demand for the Product:
Demand is the single most important factor affecting price of product and pricing
policies. Demand creation or demand management is the prime task of marketing
management. So, price is set at a level at which there is the desired impact on the
product demand. Company must set price according to purchase capacity of its
buyers.
Here, there is reciprocal effect between demand and price, i.e., price affects
demand and demand affects price level. However, demand is more powerful than
price. So, marketer takes decision as per demand. Price is kept high when demand
is high, and price is kept low when demand of the product is low. Price is
constantly adjusted to create and/or maintain the expected level of demand.
2. Competition:
A marketer has to work in a competitive situation. To face competitors, defeat
them, or prevent their entry by effective marketing strategies is one of the basic
objective organisation. Therefore, pricing decision is taken accordingly.
A marketer formulates pricing policies and strategies to respond competitors, or,
sometimes, to misguide competitors. When all the marketing decisions are taken
with reference to competition, how can price be an exception?
Sometimes, a company follows a strong competitor’s pricing policies assuming
that the leader is right. Price level, allowances, discount, credit facility, and other
related decisions are largely imitated.
3. Price of Raw Materials and other Inputs:
The price of raw materials and other inputs affect pricing decisions. Change in
price of needed inputs has direct positive effect on the price of finished product.
For example, if price of raw materials increases, company has to raise its selling
price to offset increased costs.
4. Buyers Behaviour:
It is essential to consider buyer behaviour while taking pricing decision. Marketer
should analyze consumer behaviour to set effective pricing policies. Consumer
behaviour includes the study of social, cultural, personal, and economic factors
related to consumers. The key characteristics of consumers provide a clue to set
an appropriate price for the product.
5. Government Rules and Restrictions:
A company cannot set its pricing policies against rules and regulations prescribed
by the governments. Governments have formulated at least 30 Acts to protect the
interest of customers. Out of them, certain Acts are directly related to pricing
aspects. Marketing manager must set pricing within limit of the legal framework
to avoid unnecessary interference from the outside. Adequate knowledge of these
legal provisions is considered to be very important for the manager.
6. Ethical Consideration or Codes of Conduct:
Ethics play a vital role in price determination. Ethics may be said as moral values
or ethical code that govern managerial actions. If a company wants to fulfill its
social obligations and when it believes to work within limits of the ethics
prescribed, it always charges reasonable price for its products. Moral values
restrict managerial behaviour.
7. Seasonal Effect:
Certain products have seasonal demand. In peak season, demand is high; while in
slack season, demand reduces considerably. To balance the demand or to
minimize the seasonal-demand fluctuations, the company changes its price level
and pricing policies. For example, during a peak season, price may be kept high
and vice versa. Discount, credit sales, and price allowances are important issues
related to seasonal factor.
8. Economic Condition:
This is an important factor affecting pricing decisions. Inflationary or deflationary
condition, depression, recovery or prosperity condition influences the demand to
a great extent. The overall health of economy has tremendous impact on price
level and degree of variation in price of the product. For example, price is kept
high during inflationary conditions. A manager should keep in mind the macro
picture of economy while setting price for the product.
Price setting methods:-
Price is the sacrifice made by the consumers to get an item. They are very
sensitive to what they sacrifice for a product. In price setting, marketers should
consider consumers’ ability to pay, the demand for the product that exists, the
cost involved in producing the item, and the costs, prices, and offers of their
competitors.
We have already examined the nature and importance of price. It is now time to
move on to the stages followed in price setting. Setting price for the first time is a
real challenge to a firm, and it faces this situation when it plans to launch a new
product or introduce an existing one into a new distribution channel or area, or
participates in a bid.
In setting its pricing policy, a firm must consider several factors and proceed
following a logical process consisting of seven steps.
1. selection of pricing objective;
2. assessment of the target market’s evaluation of price and its ability to
purchase;
3. determination of demand;
4. analysis of costs;
5. analysis of competitors’ costs, prices, and offers;
6. selection of a pricing method; and,
7. determination of a specific price.
The following figure shows the stages involved in price setting.
1. Pricing objectives
Pricing of goods and services is often a critical factor in the successful operation of
business organizations.
Although the basic pricing ingredients (costs, competition, demand, and profit)
are the same for all firms, the optimum mix of these factors varies according to
the nature of products, markets, and corporate objectives.
The manager’s job is to develop and implement a pricing strategy that meets a
particular company’s needs at a certain point in time.
Many different ways of handing prices are observed.
Prices are often set by top management rather than by marketing or salespeople
in smaller companies. In comparison, division and product-line managers handle
larger companies’ prices following the top management’s general pricing policies
and objectives.
Selecting the pricing objective means deciding in advance what the company
wants to achieve through offering its product. The marketing mix strategy,
including price, becomes easier if the company can select its target market and
correctly position it.
A firm can easily set the price of its product if it can clearly set its objectives.
Pricing objectives are overall goals that describe the role of price in an
organization’s long-range plans. Pricing objectives will influence decisions in most
functional areas.
The objectives must be consistent with the organization’s overall objectives.
Because of the many areas involved, a marketer often uses multiple pricing
objectives. Here we shall look at some of the typical pricing objectives pursued by
the marketing executives.
One of the six major objectives can be pursued by a firm through its pricing, such
as survival, maximum current profit, maximum sales growth, product quality
leadership, maximize current revenue, or maximum market skimming.
Other Pricing Objectives
There are some other pricing objectives, some of which are followed by business
organizations and others by nonprofit, social, or public organizations.
They are: achieve a target market share, achieve a target return on investment,
maximize cash flow, meet or prevent competition, stabilize prices, support other
products, partial cost recovery (may be pursued by an educational institution), full
cost recovery (may be pursued by a nonprofit maternity clinic), and social price
geared to the varying income situations of different clients (may be pursued by a
nonprofit theatre company).
2. Assessment of Target Market’s Evaluation of Price and Its Ability to Purchase:
Although it is assumed that price is a significant issue for customers, the price
depends on the type of product and the type of market the company targets.
By assessing the target market’s price evaluation, a marketer is better positioned
to know how much emphasis to place on price. Information about the target
market’s price evaluation may also help a marketer determine how far above the
competition a firm can set its prices.
Understanding buyers’ purchasing power and knowing how important a product is
to them compared to other products helps marketers assess the target market’s
price evaluation accurately.
3. Determination of Demand:
The level of demand for a product depends on the price set levels, thus having
different impacts on the concerned firm’s marketing objectives. We can
understand the relationships between price and demand through the demand
schedule.
The demand schedule tells us how much a product will be demanded (sold) at
various prices. It is known that the price-quantity relationship is inverse except for
a few exceptions. That is, less will be demanded if the price is charged high, and
more will be demanded if the price is charged less, which means that buyers are
price sensitive.
In the case of specialty or prestige goods, a price increase may increase demand
because buyers draw a price-quality relationship: they take the higher price to
signify a better or more exclusive item. We shall now discuss the factors affecting
the price sensitivity of buyers.
Factors Affecting Price Sensitivity
1. Unique value effect: When the product is considered more unique by the
buyers, they will usually be less price sensitive.
2. Substitute awareness effect: When buyers are less aware of substitutes,
they are less price-sensitive.
3. Difficult comparison effect: When buyers cannot easily compare
substitutes’ quality, they are usually less price sensitive.
4. Total expenditure effect: If the product’s expenditure is less than the ratio
to buyers’ income, they are less price-sensitive.
5. End-benefit effect: The less the expenditure is to the end product’s total
cost, the less price-sensitive buyers are.
6. Shared cost effect: When another party bears part of the cost, buyers are
less price sensitive.
7. Sunk investment effect: If the product is used in conjunction with assets
previously bought, buyers will be less price-sensitive.
8. Price-quality effect: When the product is assumed to have more quality,
prestige, or exclusiveness, buyers are less price sensitive.
9. Inventory effect: When buyers cannot store the product, then they are less
price sensitive.
4. Analysis of Cost
In setting prices, a company considers its production, distribution, and other costs
as demand elasticity.
To stay in business, a company has to set prices that cover all its costs.
Here we shall discuss;
1. types of costs,
2. cost behavior at different levels of production per period,
3. cost behavior as a function of accumulated production,
4. cost behavior as a function of the differentiated marketing offer, and,
5. target costing, in understanding how costs are estimated.
Types of Costs
Costs are associated with the production of any good or service. Determining
costs of production necessitates distinguishing fixed costs from variable costs.
The cost that does not vary with the quantity of production can be termed as fixed
costs such as house rent, executives’ salary, etc. The cost of renting a factory, for
example, does not change because production increases from one shift to two
shifts a day.
Variable costs, on the other hand, are directly related to the quantity of
production. They increase production and decrease with the fall of production,
such as raw material cost. These costs are usually constant per unit. The average
variable cost is the variable cost per unit produced.
It is calculated by dividing the variable costs by the number of units produced.
Total costs are the sum of fixed and variable costs. In price fixation, a company
normally charges a price that covers at least its total cost.
Cost Behavior at Different Levels of Production Per Period
Costs of production vary with different production levels because the utilization
rate varies and fixed costs per unit also vary. Management should find the
optimum production level to keep the fixed cost per unit at a minimum level.
Cost Behavior as a Function of Accumulated Production
A company’s per-unit production costs keep reducing as it increases its production
up to a certain level because it accumulates experience as it progresses.
For example, if the company produces 50,000 units per unit, production cost
maybe $15; if it produces 100,000 units per unit, production cost may come down
to $12.
An experienced company may exploit this experience by reducing its price
compared to competitors’ prices to drive a few of the competitors out of the race
and significantly increase its market share.
Cost Behavior as a Function of Differentiated Marketing Offers
Since this is the era of extreme competition, companies try to satisfy their
customers by fulfilling their requirements. It leads to the idea of offering different
terms to different customers since they vary in their requirements, and as a result,
marketer’s costs will differ with different customers.
Since marketers’ costs vary here, marketers should fix different prices for different
customers, and in fixing prices here, they should rely on activity-based cost (ABC)
instead of standard costing.
Target Costing
Here a company first determines the price of a product at which it must sell, and
from there on, it deducts the desired profit margin to arrive at the target cost.
Efforts are taken thereafter to keep the production cost and other costs limited to
the target cost.
Target cost for this purpose is broken down to all of the costs involved with the
commodity production and marketing so that measures can be taken to keep the
cost of every item limited within the target cost.
5. Evaluation of Competitors’ Costs, Prices, and Offers
To set prices appropriately, a company should have a clear picture of competitors’
cost, prices, and reactions against the possible range of prices determined by
market demand and cost. It is also imperative to know in detail about competitors’
offers regarding quality, price, and other variables.
If the company finds that its offer is more or less similar to competitors’ offers, it
should price close not to lose sales. If it finds that it is in a superior position, it can
charge a high price and charge a lower price than competitors if its offer is found
inferior to competitors’ offers.
Becoming aware of competitors’ prices, particularly, is not always an easy task,
especially in producer and reseller markets. Competitors’ price lists are often
closely guarded.
Even if a marketer has access to competitive price lists, these lists may not reflect
the actual prices at which competitive products are sold. The actual prices may be
established through negotiation.
6. Selection of a Pricing Method
When a company has three Cs in hand, it is ready to select a price. The three Cs
are customers’ demand schedule, cost function, and competitors’ prices.
In selecting a price, a company has to select a particular pricing method, including
cost considerations, competitors’ prices, prices of substitutes; and, customers’
assessment of unique product features.
Pricing policies and strategies:-
Pricing Policies and Strategies A policy frame-work should lead to pricing that is
consistent with the company objectives, costs, competition and demand for the
product. A set of price policies and strategies will not only make price setting
easier but also make possible as series of prices at various levels of distribution
that are rational and justifiable. It is essential to establish policies for pricing of its
products or services or ideas just as it is for all the aspects of business decision-
making. Without definite price policies, each price decision is a time-consuming,
tedious and a pell-mell affair. Pricing strategies refer to the processes and
methodologies businesses use to set prices for their products and services. If
pricing is how much you charge for your products, the product pricing strategy is
how you determine what that amount should be. There are different pricing
strategies to choose from but some of the more common ones include:
• Value-based pricing
• Competitive pricing
• Price skimming
• Cost-plus pricing
• Penetration pricing
• Economy pricing
• Dynamic pricing
Value-based pricing
With value-based pricing, you set your prices according to what consumers think
your product is worth. We're big fans of this pricing strategy for SaaS businesses.
Competitive pricing
When you use a competitive pricing strategy, you're setting your prices based on
what the competition is charging. This can be a good strategy in the right
circumstances, such as a business just starting out, but it doesn't leave a lot of
room for growth.
Price skimming
If you set your prices as high as the market will possibly tolerate and then lower
them over time, you'll be using the price skimming strategy. The goal is to skim
the top off the market and the lower prices to reach everyone else. With the right
product it can work, but you should be very cautious using it. Cost-plus pricing
This is one of the simplest pricing strategies. You just take the product production
cost and add a certain percentage to it. While simple, it is less than ideal for
anything but physical products.
Penetration pricing
In highly competitive markets, it can be hard for new companies to get a foothold.
One way some companies attempt to push new products is by offering prices that
are much lower than the competition. This is penetration pricing. While it may get
you customers and decent sales volume, you'll need a lot of them and you'll need
them to be very loyal to stick around when the price increases in the future.
Economy pricing
This strategy is popular in the commodity goods sector. The goal is to price a
product cheaper than the competition and make the money back with increased
volume. While it's a good method to get people to buy your generic soda, it's not
a great fit for SaaS and subscription businesses.
Dynamic pricing
In some industries, you can get away with constantly changing your prices to
match the current demand for the item. This doesn't work well for subscription
and SaaS business, because customers expect consistent monthly or yearly
expenses.
UNIT IV
Channel types and functioning: Evaluating channel
alternatives; Developing Channel members; Channel
Dynamics; Retailing, Wholesaling and Market Logistics;
Web Marketing; Sales Force Decisions.
Channel types and functioning:-A channel is the path or the route a
company’s products and services take from the point of production to the end-
user.
It is created through a series of relationships between middlemen, or
intermediaries, who sell the product or service on behalf of the company.
The channel includes a mix of people, organisations, and activities that enable the
company to bring its product or service to market. Often, this mix includes
retailers, agents, wholesalers, brokers, transportation companies, and others.
Functions Of Channels:
• Logistics and distribution: channels play an important role in transporting
the product or service from the manufacturer to the end consumer. They
are responsible for ensuring that the chosen products reach customers
through their distribution network at an affordable price and in a timely
manner.
• Promotion: channels also further promote a product by providing
marketing messages and other advertisements to targeted audiences,
which helps them build a strong brand image and reputation.
• Transactional functions: These channels are vital to enabling the transfer of
product ownership from manufacturers to consumers. They help businesses
in billing, invoicing, and collecting payments from customers.
• Facilitating functions: channels also offer other important services like
storage, packaging, credit facilities, and after-sales service that add value to
the product or service being offered.
• Risk sharing: channels help businesses to share the risk by joining hands
with them, as they can reduce their own risks and losses by reducing
exposure to all kinds of uncertainties. This reduces the overall costs of
selling a product or service since manufacturers are not bearing the entire
loss themselves.
• Efficiency and effectiveness in distribution: By working with marketing
channels, businesses can ensure that their products or services reach the
right customers at the right time and place. This helps to improve customer
satisfaction levels as well as the efficiency and effectiveness of businesses.
Evaluating channel alternatives:-
Evaluating major channel alternatives is the next step after identifying major
channel alternatives. In this step, marketing management department evaluates
all the available major channel alternatives to choose the best one that suits the
company. The marketing management does the evaluation based on three
criteria- Economic criteria, control criteria, and adaptive criteria. In this chapter,
students will learn about all the three criteria in detail. With our Evaluating major
channel alternatives assignment help service they can understand these criteria
more easily as our teaching members are from a marketing background and they
can explain each criterion with real-time examples of various companies.
Each channel alternative needs to be evaluated against economic, control and
adaptive criteria.
Economic criteria:- Each channel alternative will produce a different level of sales
and cost. Company sales representatives concentrate entirely on the company’s
products; they are better trained to sell the company’s products, they are more
aggressive because their future depends on the company’s success on the other
hand, sales agency could comically sell more than a company sales force. The
sales agency has more number of sales representatives and secondly, sales agency
has better knowledge of the geographical area in which he is operating
Control criteria:- Channel evolution has to include control issues. Using a sales
agency poses a control problem. A sale agency is an independent business firm
seeking to maximize its profits. The agents may concentrate on the customers
who buy the most, not necessarily of the manufactures goods. Further, the agent
might not master the technical details of the company’s product or handle its
promotion materials effectively.
Adaptive Criteria:- Each channel involves some duration of commitment and loss
of flexibility. A manufactures seeking a sales agency might have to offer a five year
contact. During this period, other means of selling such as direct mail might
become more effective, but the manufactures is not free to drop the sales agency.
A channel required a long commitment needs to be greatly superior on economic
or control grounds to be considered.
Developing Channel members:-
A producer or manufacturer can use channel members to improve their marketing
strategy, increase revenue and expand their customer base. Channel members can
make it easier for a producer to get their products or services out to consumers. If
you're interested in learning about channel members, there are several types to
consider. In this article we'll explain what channel members are, the different
types of channel members, how a marketing channel works, the difference
between B2B and B2C marketing and tips for choosing the best marketing
channels for your business.
A channel member is one business in a network of businesses that help a
producer channel their products to consumers. Channel members, sometimes
called intermediaries or middlemen, work together to complete the various tasks
it takes to get a product from production through to sale.
While a producer could decide to market and sell products directly to consumers,
usually they use channel members to make the process more efficient. Selling
products involves many tasks, including managing price, advertising to customers
and transporting products, but producers can delegate these responsibilities to
channel members that have more expertise and resources in these areas.
Each channel member performs specialized labor, adds value to the product and
expects some sort of profit. Since channel members are often buying a product
from the producer and hoping to resell it, they are also taking a financial risk. The
number of channel members a producer involves in their marketing channel can
influence the price of their product.
Types of channel members
Here are some different types of channel members:
• Distributors: Distributors are businesses that work closely with industrial
suppliers, buy their products and typically resell them to wholesalers or
other businesses.
• Wholesalers: Wholesalers buy large quantities of product, or product in
bulk, at a significant discount from producers or distributors in order to sell
smaller amounts to retailers. By buying so much product, wholesalers take a
risk that it doesn't sell but can also make large profits.
• Retailers: Retailers buy products in bulk from wholesalers or distributors to
sell to customers in small quantities in person or online. Retailers provide
more customized information about the product for the customer.
• Agents and brokers: Agents and brokers help a business sell their products
by promoting it, finding a buyer and facilitating a deal.
Direct selling is when a producer avoids using channel members in their marketing
channel and instead uses sales representatives to sell their product directly to
consumers. Direct selling includes door-to-door, online and catalog sales.
Channel Dynamics:-
Meaning of Channel Dynamics
Products of any company should be sent to sale – centers for selling out. The way
used to send goods / products of a company to consumers is called distribution
channel. Distribution channels may not be same forever. Distribution channel
should be changed according to environmental changes. Changing of channels
according to time is called channel dynamics. As the marketing is dynamic, so the
distribution channel is dynamic. It does not remain in traditional structure. It also
remains changing and developing according to time and is applied accordingly.
New persons and new organizations enter in marketing channel system at
different times. The functions and roles of such channel members become
different according to the changes of time. So, distribution channel does not
remain same for long, but remain changing.
The channels unsuitable to the new behavior disappear and new channels appear,
develop and remain changing. So, it becomes clear that the channel of marketing
becomes dynamic. They are directly related factors, market related factors,
channel objective related factors, middlemen related factors, company related
factors and environment related factors.
Like any other concept, channel systems do change according to the development
and the need of the hour. With consumers becoming conscious of where they buy
and how they want things to be delivered there has emerged different systems
namely the vertical, horizontal and multichannel marketing systems.
The conventional or the traditional marketing channel encompasses a producer,
one or few wholesalers and one or few retailers. The objective of theses different
players is to see that they make enough profits, they are highly independent and
don’t have control over other channel members.
In contrast, the Vertical Marketing System (VMS) has the three members acting
as one unified team, there is one channel member who owns the other members
or allows franchising but ensures a greater role in the execution. Many
organizations have started to operate in this format as strong channel members
try to dictate terms for the producer as well as when they found the objectives of
different channel members differ from that of the producer.
There are three variants of vertical marketing system namely corporate,
administered and contractual vertical marketing system. In case of corporate the
organization combines the production and the distribution under one roof.
Organisations like Asian paints, Amul are not only involved in the production of
the products but they also own a considerable no of outlets. An administered
vertical marketing system coordinates the production and distribution efficiencies
but use their size as a dominant influence.
The Horizontal marketing systems is one where two or more unrelated
businesses come together pull in resources to exploit the emerging opportunities.
Many private players especially banks have got into the act of tie-ups with retail
stores or even with fuel outlets in order to gain greater market. ICICI bank has got
tied with Big Bazaar, and this has greatly enhanced the reputation of both these
firms as well as increasing the customer base respectively.
The Multi-channel marketing systems as the term simplifies it is one in which a
firm uses multiple channels to reach different customer segments. In the present
scenario most organizations have started to use multiple channel method because
it helps in the expansion of the market coverage, it costs little when the target
segment is small instead of using a bigger channel and mainly helps in customizing
the offering according the need of the segments.
When distribution when goes overseas they are bound to face a lot of restraints
and problems like the host country laws, the laws of the country to which the
goods are shipped, the laws of the nations through which the goods pass must be
abided by the company. Apart from this, other environmental factors do play an
active role when considered from a macro-marketing perspective. In the next
lesson, we deal with the role of retailers, wholesalers and logistics in this value
chain and how do they facilitate the process of performing the channel function
effectively.
Retailing:-
Retailing is the distribution process of a retailer getting the goods (either from the
manufacturer, wholesaler, or agents) and selling them to the customers for actual
use.
In simple terms, retailing is the transaction of small quantities of goods between a
retailer and the customer where the good is not bought for resale purpose.
Retailing is defined as a set of activities or steps used to sell a product or a service
to consumers for their personal or family use. It is responsible for matching
individual demands of the consumer with supplies of all the manufacturers.
Retailing has become such an intrinsic part of our everyday lives that it is often
taken for granted. The nations that have enjoyed the greatest economic and social
progress have been those with a strong retail sector.
Why has retailing become such a popular method of conducting business? The
answer lies in the benefits that a vibrant retailing sector offers—an easy access to
a variety of products, freedom of choice, and high levels of customer service.
A common perception is that retailing involves only the sale of products in stores.
However, it also includes the sale of services such as those offered at a restaurant,
parlour, or by car rental agencies. The selling need not necessarily take place
through a store. Retailing encompasses selling through the mail, the Internet,
door- to-door visits—any channel that could be used to approach the consumer.
Retailing – Evolution of Retailing:
Retailing has been a very old phenomenon. It can be traced back to the time when
trade began. Goods were sold either in some marketplaces or they were sold in
small quantities by some peddlers. In the medieval times trade was dependent on
local sources since there was hardly any mode of transportation and thus they
used to be limited to close by places. For the products that are regarded as
specialty, customers travelled quite a distance.
The area or place in which sellers sold their merchandise in earlier days as global
flea market developed into congregation of retail. There is evidence that retailing
existed in ancient Greece, and in its cities like Troy. At that time also retailing
catered to the need of those societies. People of that time were called
entrepreneur, since they converted the need and want of societies into
opportunities to earn sufficient profits.
We can find the evolution of retail business in the Indian subcontinent with the
formation of a store of kirana type as well as a store of mom and pop type.
Traditional outlets are used by local people for daily use items. KVIC with
government’s help, have many rural retailing and indigenous franchise stores.
There were few companies which started their chains of retail business. As time
passes, new entrants entered into market from manufacturing to pure retailing
unit. After 1990, different retail outlets such as Foodworld, Planet M and Music
World and Crossword had made their presence in the market.
After that, the concept of hypermarket and supermarket evolved. Customers had
global experience in the shopping malls in the towns and urban centres. The
evolution of retailing sector resulted into continuous improvement in the supply
chain management (SCM), distribution channels, technological advancement as
well as backend operations which resulted into more and more mergers and
acquisitions and huge investments.
Retailing – Concept of Retailing:
It is essentially the marketing concept of a customer-centred, company-wide
approach to developing and implementing a strategy. It provides the guidelines,
which must be followed by all retailers irrespective of their size, channel design,
and medium of selling.
The retailing concept covers four broad areas and is an essential part of the
retailing strategy:
(i) Customer Orientation – The retailer makes a careful study of the needs of the
customer and attempts to satisfy those needs.
(ii) Goal Orientation – The retailer has clear cut goals and devises strategies to
achieve those goals.
(iii) Value Driven Approach – The retailer offers good value to the consumer with
merchandise having the price and quality appropriate for the target market.
(iv) Coordinated Effort – Every activity of the firm is aligned to the goal and is
designed to maximize its efficiency and deliver value to the consumer.
The retailing concept, though simple to adopt is not followed by many retailers
who neglect one or more of the points enumerated above. There must be a
proper balance of all the aspects of this concept for the retailer to achieve
success. The retailing concept, while important is limited by its nature as it does
not cover the firm’s internal capabilities or the competitiveness of the external
environment.
It however remains an important strategic guide. The retailing concept can be
used to measure the retailers’ performance through three parameters – the total
retail experience, customer service, and relationship retailing. The total retail
experience refers to all the ingredients of a customer’s interaction with the
retailer. This includes all activities from parking to billing.
If some parts of the retail experience are unsatisfactory, the shopper may decide
not to patronize that particular outlet. Therefore, it is necessary for a retailer to
ensure that every element in the experience must aim at fulfilling customer
expectations. This experience means different aspects for different types of
retailers — for an upper-end clothing retailer this might imply the presence of
plush interiors and air conditioning while a discount store needs to have adequate
stock.
One of the biggest challenges for the retailer today is to devise new ways of
attracting customer attention to be able to position themselves differently from
competitors. Many novelties in retailing, for example, the theme restaurants, have
emerged and there is a battle to snare the customer’s attention. Sometimes
though, elements of the retail experience can be beyond the control of the
retailer, like the levying of sales tax or the speed of online shopping.
Customer service refers to the tangible and intangible activities undertaken by a
retailer in combination with the basic goods and services it provides. It is part of
the value- driven approach adopted by retailers in a bid to differentiate
themselves and occupy a strategic position.
Among the factors that drive a firm’s customer-centric approach are store hours,
parking access, sales personnel, amenities like a recreation area for children, and
coffee shops. Different people evaluate the same service in various ways. Even an
individual may do so at different times due to intangibility. People’s assessment of
a particular service is based not necessarily on reality but on perception.
Keywords such as customer orientation, innovation, and flexibility have become
‘must-haves’.
These words have been repeated like mantras for decades now but rarely have
they been put into practice. The service mentality frequently encountered in the
Indian retail sector can still be unpleasant even to those customers willing to make
purchases. The realisation that the services provided do not suit the prices
demanded impels rationally acting customers to switch to the discounters.
Stand-alone businesses and the owner-managed specialist stores are suffering in
particular and, at least in urban India, appear to have passed their zenith. Many
retail companies have now realised that the competition for the purchasing power
of the customers has long crossed the boundaries of their own narrow sectors.
New competitors have been courting the attention of customers and trespassing
on the traditional territory of the retail companies.
Wholesaling and Market Logistics:-
Wholesaling
Wholesaling includes all the activities in selling goods or services to those who
buy for resales or business use. It excludes manufacturers and farmers (because
they are engaged primarily in production) and retailers. Wholesalers (also called
distributors) differ from retailers in several ways. First, wholesalers pay less
attention to promotion, atmosphere, and location because they deal with
business customers rather than final consumers. Second, wholesale transactions
are usually larger than retail transactions, and wholesalers cover a larger trade
area than retailers. Third, wholesalers and retailers comply with different legal
regulations and taxes.
Wholesaling Functions
Savvy wholesalers are adding value to the channel by adapting their services to
meet their suppliers' and target customers' changing needs. They are increasing
asset productivity by managing inventories and receivable better and cutting costs
by investing in materials-handling technology and information systems. Yet
wholesaling remains vulnerable to one of the most enduring trends - fierce
resistance to price increases and the winnowing out of suppliers based on cost
and quality.
Market Logistics
Market logistics includes planning the infrastructure to meet demand, then
implementing and controlling the physical flows of materials and final goods from
points of origin to points of use, to meet customer requirements at a profit.
Market logistics planning has four steps:
1. Deciding on the company's value proposition to its customers.
2. Selecting the best channel design and network strategy for reaching the
customers.
3. Developing operational excellence in sales forecasting, warehouse
management, transportation management, and materials management.
4.Implementing the solution with the best information systems,
equipment, policies, and procedures.
Market-Logistics Objectives
Many companies state their market-logistics objective as "getting the right goods
to the right places at the right time for the least cost." Unfortunately, no system
can simultaneously maximize customer service and minimize distribution cost.
Given the market-logistics objectives, the company must design a system that will
minimize the cost of achieving these objectives. Each possible market-logistics
system will lead to the following cost:
M = T + FW + VW + S
where M = total market-logistics cost of proposed system
T = total freight cost of proposed system
FW = total fixed warehouse cost of proposed system
VW= total variable warehouse cost (including inventory) of proposed system
S = total cost of lost sales due to average delivery delay under proposed
system.
Web Marketing:-
The Internet has changed various kind of aspects in our daily lives. From the way,
we communicate with another person, to business (web marketing, SEO, etc), and
technologies. Who would’ve thought that we can buy almost anything with just a
few taps on your smartphone?
If you have your own business, then you must understand all the opportunities
the internet can offer to you, and you must take advantage of them. That is mean,
you need to hone your skill in web marketing, so you can reach more people as
your potential buyers.
What is web marketing?
Marketing that done via the internet (online), is often called as web marketing or
online marketing. More people prefer to do web marketing now because it’s less
expensive. Some kind of web marketing even free to do. For example, you can
start a blog or upload your video on Youtube for free.
1. Web marketing is the process of using the Internet to market your business.
2. Marketing on the web gives you unique benefits that other advertising and
promotion avenues don’t.
3.A web marketing strategy is an overall plan that utilizes all the digital
marketing channels that are currently available.
Web marketing is the process of marketing your business online, and it’s a cost-
effective way to reach people who are most interested in your business.
There are numerous strategies that are a part of web marketing, which we’ll
discuss in detail later. These strategies, from search engine marketing to content
marketing, help you promote your business.
Web marketing creates the opportunity for your business to share your message
to everyone on the web, including with potential customers. You get your business
in front of people who are looking for your products or services. It’s an efficient
way to increase your online presence, plus market your business to the right
people.
Web marketing types:
There are several types of web marketing. Some of them can be used alone, and
some only can work fine if used together with other types.
1.SEO (Search Engine Optimization): SEO is a process to improve a site’s rank in
the search result with various kind of methods. It was done so it would be easier
for people to be able to find a particular site. Basically, the higher the rank is the
better.
SEO is quite important now. Why? That is because people use a search engine like
Google to look for an answer or solution for their problems.
It is also not only about ranking and search result. A good SEO practice can help
improve the usability of the site and makes it more user-friendly.
Search result on Google or other search engines is based on a complex algorithm.
The algorithm will take various kind of factors to decide the ranking and the
position of the sites in the search result.
In a simple way, SEO can be divided into 2 main stages:
• On-site SEO
On-site SEO is the rules that can be used on your site to make it more search-
friendly.
• Off-site SEO
The methods that used to promote your site or blog so it can rank well in the
search result.
2. Email marketing: Even with other newest form of web marketing, email is still
considered as one of the most important types of online marketing. Email
probably not as cool as it’s younger partner, social media, but if you prefer
something more private and direct, then email marketing is the best choice for
you. This is also one of the reasons why email marketing is still widely used even
now.
To make it work, you need to focus on the private aspect of the email’s nature and
treat your subscribers in a special way, more than non-subscribers. For example,
you can give them special discounts, exclusive content, personalized offers, or
other special things that non-subscribers can not get.
However, at the same time, you also need to be extra careful when you manage
your email marketing system. Make sure your email does not violate the spam
laws.
3. Pay per click ads: Pay per click ads or PPC is a type of web marketing where the
advertisers will pay a fee everytime someone clicks on their ads. Basically, you will
pay so someone visits your site, instead of relying on an organic result.
If you do it properly, PPC may become the fastest method for you to get traffic
into your site. But if not, then you may waste away your money for nothing.
Keyword research for PPC itself can be time-consuming, but at the same time, it is
also very important, especially if you want to do it properly. PPC campaign is built
around keywords, after all.
An effective keyword for PPC should be :
• Exhaustive
• Relevant
• Expansive
4. Blog marketing: What is blog marketing? Blog marketing is the process to reach
your target market with a blog. Nowadays, it is easier for a business owner to
integrate both of the website and the blog, so it will be easier to manage and
easier for the customers to access.
Why should you use a blog for your web marketing tactic? Here are a few reasons
why:
• Help drive more traffic to your site.
• Convert traffic into leads
• Give you a long-term result
• Help establish authority
5. Video marketing: As you may know, Youtube has become one of the most
visited sites and also the second largest search engine in the world now.
Even though video production is not cheap and easy, but it will pay you big time.
In fact, about 76% businesses say that video offers a good return on their
investment. Besides, editing and taking videos are not that expensive right now.
Some video editing software can be used for free, and you can make a decent
video with your smartphones.
6. Social media: Now more and more people like to use social media platforms to
promote their brand and products.
Social media marketing refers to the process to get more traffics via social media
platform. There is various kind of activities for this kind of web marketing, such as
making and uploading videos, posting images and text, and other content that can
drive audience and engage them directly.
Before you decide to do your social media campaign, first you will need a plan.
Starting a social media campaign without any goal in mind is like wandering in a
forest without a map and a compass. It probably fun, but in the end, you will get
lost.
7. Content marketing: Content marketing is a long-term web marketing strategy
where the main focus is to build a strong and long-lasting relationship with the
audience by giving them a good quality content that relevant with your products
or brand.
A good and high-quality content marketing should be able to achieve these goals:
• Be discussed
People should be willing to discuss your content in their community
• Be shared
This is the main purpose of your content marketing. Let people share your content
willingly, so you can get maximum exposure.
• Make sales
• Generate leads
Sales Force Decisions:-
Sales Force management Decisions is the planning, analysis, implementation of
the plan and evaluation of the sales force functions in the target market.
The major steps involve –
1) Designing sales force objective and strategy
2) Sales force size
3) Recruitment and selection
4) Training and motivation
5) Compensating
6) Evaluation and control of sales people
1) Designing sales force structure and strategy – The objectives give foundation
to the individual objectives of the salesmen. The objectives layout details on what
the organisations focus will be. It can be focussing on new customers, new
product, existing customers or existing products. Not only should the
management focus on sales targets, but also market performance, customer
relations and service, supporting the marketing functions. The objectives give
platform for measuring the performance of the sales function and the
salespeople. Today the sales people are not just responsible for generating sales
but are the “account managers” who are a single point of contact for an existing
customer with the organisation. For example, an insurance agent maintains a long
term relationship with a client educating about the insurance policy, collecting
payments, resolving any issues, etc.
2) Sales force size – The size of the sales force is determined based on the market
attractiveness, competition, budget allotted to sales function and other
environmental factors. It becomes difficult to analyse these elements in the form
of data to arrive at an exact size of the sales force but it definitely gives direction
in arriving at a certain figure. Basis these influences, the management can make
changes to the salespeople deployed.
3) Recruitment and selection – For a successful sales function it is imperative to
have good salespeople. A perfect sales person can increase the customer base and
profits for the organisation. The human resource department seeks applications
via company’s website, print ads, contacting recruitment agencies, etc. The
selection process mostly focuses on the enthusiasm and self-confidence of the
applicant. The person should have a pleasing personality and should be always
ready to get into a conversation. The customers trust a person who is
knowledgeable, helpful and appears trustworthy.
4) Training, Supervision and motivation – It is important that the salespeople are
given ample training not only on the product but also on how the organisation
functions. Once a salesperson associates himself/ herself with the organisation
there is self-drive in the efforts. They need to identify with the organisation. The
training should be effective to ensure the salesman is knowledgeable about the
company’s product and the competition in the market. They need to be well
versed in making sales pitch, handling customer’s queries and their key
performance metrics.
The management has to direct and motivate the sales force to give it right
direction. An efficiently managed salesforce successfully meets its responsibilities
and tasks. The management needs to create a comfortable working environment
and there should be flow of effective communication among the management,
salesperson and the customers. Sharing complete company policies and
procedures with the salespeople, and training of the salespeople should be done
when necessary.
Mostly financial rewards are considered the best rewards to keep the sales people
motivated. The organisation has to decide which factor keeps the sales person
motivated. These could be financial rewards, recognition or a promotion.
5) Compensating – To ensure right sales people get selected there should be an
appropriate compensation plan. Compensation involves elements like (1) fixed
salary, (2) variable components like commission, rewards, bonus, etc., (3)
expenses incurred in the field, and (4) fringe benefits (health benefits, company
vehicle, club membership, etc.). The weightage to each of these elements should
be assigned so as to give fair compensation as well as keep the salespeople
motivated. It should justify the efforts and results given by the salesman and his/
her team.

6) Evaluation and control of sales people – The management has to evaluate and
control the entire sales function as well as individual salespeople. For the sales
function as a whole the management has to work on the training as well as proper
allocation of resources to the assigned territories. If the results are not been met,
an analysis needs to be done to ensure the correct strategy is being followed. For
individual salesperson’s evaluation, the organisation should maintain a database
on the performance of individual salesperson as well as the team. The
performance is measured according to a set performance standard determined by
the management. The management should always analyse if the performance of
an individual salesperson is correctly aligned with the compensation given. Else
the organisation stands a risk of losing a quality salesperson to a competitor with
a better compensation criteria. The communication should always be open
between the management and the sales people for proper exchange of feedback
and solutions.
UNIT V
Sales Promotion and Market Research: Advertising and Sales
Promotion; Public relations; Personal selling; Definition of Market Research;
Suppliers of Market Research; Process; Forecasting and Demand Measurement:
Sales Promotion and Market Research: This is the time for a
sales promotion.
In this piece, we’re going to discuss what a sales promotion is, the types of sales
promotions, the pros and cons of using them, and the best strategies for your
company. We’ll also talk about how a strong CRM program can help you execute
your sales promotions for maximum benefits.
Sales promotion definition
A sales promotion is a marketing strategy in which a business uses a temporary
campaign or offer to increase interest or demand in its product or service.
There are many reasons why a business may choose to use a sales promotion (or
‘promo’), but the primary reason is to boost sales. Sales boosts may be needed to
reach a quota as a deadline approaches, or to raise awareness of a new product.
Let’s take a closer look at different types of sales promotions, as well as the pros
and cons of using any type of promotion.
Types of sales promotion
There are 12 main types of sales promotions. Not all of them are suited for every
business, product, or service, but each one offers unique ways of boosting sales
and connecting with customers through different methods of sales psychology.
Each is also an interesting take on spin selling and offers a look into sales
methodology comparison.

1. Competitions and challenges: Competitions or challenges usually take place on

social media, and serve to increase customer engagement as fans try to win a
discounted or free product. They usually also result in a large amount of free
publicity if the competition or challenge involves sharing the brand on a
customer’s personal social media account.
2. Product bundles: Product bundles offer a collection of products for an overall
discounted rate, as opposed to buying the products individually. Product bundles
give customers a reason to buy a larger variety of products, which makes it more
likely they will find a product they like and want to buy again.
3. Flash sales: Flash sales are extremely short sales that offer extreme discounts
for a limited amount of time. These sales work through creating a sense of
urgency and need around your sale.
4. Free trials: Free trials or demos are one of the most common sales promotions
and one of the most promising strategies to grow a customer base. Businesses can
offer either a limited time with the product or a limited quantity of the product to
a first-time buyer at no charge to see if they like it.
5. Free shipping and/or transfers: Free shipping promotions attempt to curb the
70% of customers who abandon their carts when they see the shipping costs. The
small loss in shipping fees is usually made up for in happy customer purchases.
6. Free products: Free product promotions work by offering a small free product
with the purchase of a larger, mainstream product. This boosts mainstream sales
without costing the company too much inventory or revenue.
7. Early-bird or first-purchaser specials: These specials offer discounts to first-time
purchasers as a way of welcoming them as customers. Customers are more likely
to buy at a discount and because the discount only works once, the company
doesn’t lose a great deal of revenue.
8. BOGO specials: BOGO, or “buy one, get one free” promotions are primarily
used to spread product awareness. Customers can give their extra product to a
friend or family member and build a customer base through word of mouth.
9. Coupons and vouchers: Coupons and vouchers reward current customers for
their brand loyalty and encourage future purchases. This is especially effective in
companies who use punch cards which incentivize customers to make multiple
purchases to earn a free product.
10. Upsell specials: Upsell promotions are not as common as the others, but they
can still be extremely effective. Upsells give first-time customers a less expensive
version of a product to try, and then over time, the sales department works to
convince them to purchase the more expensive and more effective option.
11. Subscriptions: Subscriptions are not always considered sales promotion, since
they tend to be long-term purchases, but having different amounts of a product
available at a different price point is a sales promotion tactic. With a subscription,
a customer pays a larger fee upfront for a large amount of product that eventually
comes out to less than what they would pay for buying smaller amounts of
product individually.
12. Donations: Donations are an excellent way for a company to build credibility
and goodwill within the customer base. Most donations work when the company
contributes a portion of each sale during a given period to a charitable cause.
Market research : Market research blends consumer behavior and
economic trends to confirm and improve your business idea.
It’s crucial to understand your consumer base from the outset. Market research
lets you reduce risks even while your business is still just a gleam in your eye.
Gather demographic information to better understand opportunities and
limitations for gaining customers. This could include population data on age,
wealth, family, interests, or anything else that’s relevant for your business.
You can do market research using existing sources, or you can do the research
yourself and go direct to consumers.
Existing sources can save you a lot of time and energy, but the information might
not be as specific to your audience as you’d like. Use it to answer questions that
are both general and quantifiable, like industry trends, demographics, and
household incomes. Check online or start with our list of market research
resources.
Asking consumers yourself can give you a nuanced understanding of your specific
target audience. But, direct research can be time consuming and expensive. Use it
to answer questions about your specific business or customers, like reactions to
your logo, improvements you could make to buying experience, and where
customers might go instead of your business.
Advertising and Sales Promotion:
Advertising and sales promotions are two of the key components of a business,
but they are distinct concepts that people often misunderstand. Advertising
promotions are done to build brand image, and the results become apparent
though the passage of time. Sales promotions are much more immediate and
focus on getting revenues into the business bank account right now.
What is Advertising Promotion?
Advertising is the process of expressing the qualities and advantages of your
products and services, relative to the product and services that your competitors
are offering. In most instances, businesses will use advertising as a means of
expressing the unique selling proposition that makes their products and services
superior to those that their competitors sell.
For example, Lexus advertises its luxury vehicles as having been created by the
“relentless pursuit of perfection,” and BMW counters this message by touting its
vehicles as “The Ultimate Driving Machine.” The main goal of advertising is to
increase sales and to create branding opportunities that can pay off in the
future.Advertising is the dissemination of information by non-personal means
through paid media where the source is the sponsoring organization.
Advertisement is a mass communicating of information intended to
persuade buyers to by products with a view to maximizing a company‟s profits.
The elements of advertising are:
(i) It is a mass communication reaching a large group of consumers.
(ii) It makes mass production possible.
(iii) It is non-personal communication, for it is not delivered by an actual
person, nor is it addressed to a specific person.
(iv) It is a commercial communication because it is used to help assure the
advertiser of a long business life with profitable sales.
(v) Advertising can be economical, for it reaches large groups of people.
This keeps the cost per message low.
(vi) The communication is speedy, permitting an advertiser to speak to
millions of buyers in a matter of a few hours.
(vii) Advertising is identified communication. The advertiser signs his name
to his advertisement for the purpose of publicizing his identity.
The basic objectives of an advertising programme may be listed as below:
(i) To stimulate sales amongst present, former and future consumers. It
involves a decision regarding the media, e.g., TV rather than print ;
(ii) To communicate with consumers. This involves decision regarding
copy ;
(iii) To retain the loyalty of present and former consumers. Advertising may
be used to reassure buyers that they have made the best purchase, thus
building loyalty to the brand name or the firm.
(iv) To increase support. Advertising impliedly bolsters the morale of the
sales force and of distributors, wholesalers, and retailers, ; it thus
contributes to enthusiasts and confidence attitude in the organizational. :
(v) To project an image. Advertising is used to promote an overall image of
respect and trust for an organization. This message is aimed not only at
consumers, but also at the government, shareholders, and the general
public.

What is Sales Promotion?

Sales promotions are all about the short-term sales of products and services.
Many companies push these promotions during specific periods when consumer
demand is likely to be higher than normal. For example, the holiday season is a
prime time for businesses to hold sales promotions, because customers are more
primed to make impulse purchases. Sales promotions can include free trials for a
limited time, discount coupons, and buy-one-get-one-free deals.
Sales promotion is the dissemination of information through a wide variety
of activities other than personal selling, advertising and publicity which
stimulate consumer purchasing and dealer effectiveness.
Sales promotion is one of the most loosely used terms in the marketing
vocabulary. We define sales promotion as demand. Stimulating devices designed
to supplement advertising and facilitate personal selling. In other words, sales
promotion signifies all those activities that supplement, co-ordinate and make the
efforts of personal selling and advertising more effective. It is non recurrent in
nature which means it can‟t be used continuously.
Objectives of Sales Promotion
The basic objectives of sales promotion are:
i) To introduce new products
To induce buyers to purchase a new product, free samples may be
distributed or money and merchandise allowance may be offered to business
to stock and sell the product.
ii) To attract new customers
New customers may be attracted through issue of free samples, premiums,
contests and similar devices.
iii) To induce present customers to buy more
Present customers may be induced to buy more by knowing more about a
product, its ingredients and uses.
iv) To help firm remain competitive
Sales promotions may be undertaken to meet competition from a firm.
v) To increase sales in off season
Buyers may be encouraged to use the product in off seasons by showing
them the variety of uses of the product.
vi) To increase the inventories of business buyers
Retailers may be induced to keep in stock more units of a product so that
more sales can be effected.
Public relations:-
What Is Public Relations (PR)?
Public relations (PR) is the set of techniques and strategies related to managing
how information about an individual or company is disseminated to the public,
and especially the media. Its primary goals are to disseminate important company
news or events, maintain a brand image, and put a positive spin on negative
events to minimize their fallout. PR may occur in the form of a company press
release, news conference, interviews with journalists, social media posting, or
other venues.
Every individual or entity operating in the public eye faces the spread of
information about them or their practices to the public. While public relations is
an industry unto itself, any attempt to portray oneself in a certain way to others
can be considered a form of public relations.
• Public relations (PR) refers to managing how others see and feel about a
person, brand, or company.
• PR for corporations, notably publicly traded companies, focuses on
maintaining a positive corporate image while handling media requests and
shareholder inquiries.
• PR is especially important to defray public or investor outcry following
negative news announcements.
• PR is different from advertising or marketing as it’s often meant to look
organic and may not necessarily try to promote a product or service.
• Public relations can be used to mitigate negative events, though history has
shown PR may cause problems to become worse.
PR is often thought of as "spin," with the goal being to present the person,
company, or brand in the best light possible. PR differs from advertising in that PR
attempts to represent a person or brand's image in ways that will appear organic,
such as generating good press from independent sources and recommending
business decisions that will incur public support. Loosely defined until the mid-
twentieth century, PR is one of the fastest-growing industries in the United States.
PR is essential to any company's success, especially when shares in the company
are publicly traded and the value of a share depends on the public's confidence in
a company or brand. In addition to handling media requests, information queries,
and shareholder concerns, PR personnel are frequently responsible for crafting
and maintaining the corporation's image. Occasionally, PR professionals engage in
negative PR or willful attempts to discredit a rival brand or company, although
such practices are not in keeping with the industry's code of ethics.
Types of Public Relations:
Public relations is often divided into different agencies or departments. Each
department is specifically suited to handle a specific aspect below:
• Media relations is the emphasis of forging a strong relationship with public
media organizations. A media relations team often works directly with
external media by directly delivering them company news, providing
validated content sources, and being accessible for public comment on
other news stories.
• Production relations is closely related to the direct operations of a company.
This department supports broad marketing plans and is often related to
specific, one-time endeavors such as the launch of a new product, a special
campaign, or management of a major product change.
• Investor relations is the oversight of the relationship between the company
and its investors. This aspect of public relations handles investor events,
oversees the communication of the release of financial reports, and handles
the complaints of investors.
• Internal relations is the public relations branch between a company and its
employees. Internal relations pertain to counseling employees, ensuring all
workers are satisfied with their working conditions, and mediating issues
internally to avoid public disclosure of dissatisfaction.
• Government relations is the connection between a company and related
governing bodies. Some public relations departments want to forge a strong
relationship to provide feedback to politicians, sway decision-makers to act
 in specific ways, and ensure fair treatment of the company's clients.
• Community relations is public relations focused on brand and reputation
within a specific community. The community could be physical (i.e. a
specific city) or non-physical (i.e. the dog-owner community). This branch of
public relations keys in on the social niche of the community to align itself
with its members.
• Customer relations is the bridge that connects the company and its
customers. Public relations often involves handling key relationships,
conducting market research, understanding the priorities of its customers,
and addressing major concerns.
Personal selling:-
Personal selling is also known as face-to-face selling in which one person who is
the salesman tries to convince the customer in buying a product. It is a
promotional method by which the salesperson uses his or her skills and abilities in
an attempt to make a sale.
Personal selling is a face-to-face selling technique by which a salesperson uses his
or her interpersonal skills to persuade a customer in buying a particular product.
The salesperson tries to highlight various features of the product to convince the
customer that it will only add value. However, getting a customer to buy a product
is not the motive behind personal selling every time. Often companies try to
follow this approach with customers to make them aware of a new product.
The company wants to spread awareness about the product for which it adopts a
person-to-person approach. This is because selling involves personal touch, a
salesperson knows better how to pitch a product to the potential customer.
Personal selling can take place through two different channels – through retail and
through direct-to-consumer channel. Under the retail channel, a sales person
interacts with potential customers who come on their own to enquire about a
product. The job of the salesperson is to make sure that he understands the need
of the customers and accordingly shows various products that he keeps under that
category. Under the direct channel, a salesperson visits potential customers in an
attempt to make them aware about a new product that the company is launching
or it may have a new offer which the customers may not get from the open
market.
Definition of Market Research:
Market research is a systematic process of obtaining, analysing, and interpreting
data for actionable decision-making. Conducting good market research is the only
way to survive in a competitive market. It provides companies with an overview of
emerging market trends, consumer behaviour, and market condition.
Market research is the process of collecting vital information about a company’s
target audience, market, and competition.
Through market research, companies can understand their target audience better.
They can make better products, improve user experience, and design a marketing
strategy that attracts quality leads.
Here are some reasons for conducting market research:
• Determine the feasibility of a new business or product
• Identify potential new markets
• Keep an eye on marketing trends
• Test the demand for new products
Marketing research is defined as any technique or a set of practices that
companies use to collect information to understand their target market better.
Organizations use this data to improve their products, enhance their UX, and offer
a better product to their customers. Marketing research is used to determine
what the customers want, and how they react to products or features of a
product.
Four standard marketing research methods
The four most common marketing research methods are surveys, interviews,
customer observations, and focus groups. You can research various ways without
limiting yourself to just one way. Let’s dive deeper into each of these marketing
research techniques.
1. Surveys
Researchers collect responses by deploying surveys and managing data via online
questionnaires or on-screen surveys at the POS. These surveys contain closed-
ended and open-ended questions. They are popular and are the most widely used
research techniques.
Why are online surveys popular?
Surveys are inexpensive, simple to set-up, deploy, and gather responses. It gets
easy to collect multiple answers from a tailored audience group using surveys.
Researchers rely on quantitative data, and online surveys provide quick responses
compared to the more traditional offline methods. You can collect large amounts
of data within minutes from anywhere in the world.
2. Interviews
Face-to-face or personal interviews are a more traditional way of doing marketing
research. It is a slow and more expensive way of collecting responses. Researchers
doing large scale marketing research do not prefer this method to collect a large
number of responses. Interviews are conducted both in-person and on the
telephone (CATI).
Why are interviews important?
Personal interviews may not be widely used but play a significant role in
understanding precisely what the respondent feels. You can record more than just
verbal responses and understand the customer better. Often, when two humans
interact with each other, more information is shared because of the dialogue.
Personal interviews are useful in small-scale studies, where the researcher wants
to interview a specific group of local respondents. CATI’s are helpful when the
respondent base is more expansive.
3. Focus groups
Focus groups or online focus groups involve several respondents who participate
in discussions about a particular topic. A researcher conducts focus groups to
obtain richer information. The main reason for a focus group is to hold a dialogue
between various people on a particular topic of interest. Unlike interviews, focus
group members are allowed to interact with each other and influence one
another.
Why are focus groups impactful?
It is no secret that focus groups are hugely impactful in decision making.
Researchers gain a lot of information by organizing focus groups. Often, focus
groups bring up issues not foreseen by researchers. Online or video focus groups
have a broad reach, and many organizations have now started creating and
nurturing research communities for better respondent handling and data
gathering. Direct interaction of business groups and customers positively impacts
users because they feel that their voices are heard.
4. Observation
Observation, though not popular and widely used, gives intuitive feedback.
Research companies organize customer observation sessions to gather
information on how they engage with the product or service (or a similar
competitor product or service). Feedback from people’s behavioral attitudes is a
powerful tool for researchers looking to improve their products and services.
What makes observation so powerful?
Observational market research is an excellent alternative to focus groups. It’s not
only an inexpensive research tool, but you will also witness people interacting
with and using your product in a natural environment. The downside is that you
will have to make inferences about their feelings and reactions.
Suppliers of Market Research :
Marketing research suppliers can be classified into internal suppliers and external
suppliers. An internal supplier is a marketing research department located within
the firm where the research staff members are employees of the firm. External
suppliers can be further classified into full-service and limited-service suppliers.
Full-service suppliers can be classified as syndicated services, standardized
services, customized services, and Internet services. Limited-service suppliers can
be classified as field services, coding and data entry, data analysis, analytical
services, and branded products.
The vendor selection process in market research can be defined with this key
question in mind. As a research supplier, what is the real value you have to sell to
the client? Claiming to be able to solve every client’s problems with your staff’s
capabilities and still turn out high quality service may be unrealistic.
Market research suppliers need to help customers understand why and how they
should use their firm. Specialization in one or two primary areas is the key to
success. The reason it is successful is because the market research supplier
creates a niche from which consumers can find you if they have a specific market
research need.
process:The Sales Promotional Planning Process is comprised of following
steps:

1.Problem Definition: First of all, the management must identify the need for a
promotion and should take into consideration the following points:
• Which Product/Service is to be promoted?
• Who is the target audience?
• How much budget is allocated for the promotional activities?
• What message is to be conveyed to the prospective buyers?
• What marketing strategies are to be adopted?
• Which analytical tool is to be used?
2.Establishment of detailed Objectives: The objectives are the end goals towards
which all the efforts are directed. Once the target audience is identified the
management must set the objectives of the promotion. The objectives could be to
encourage the non-users to use the product, increase the usage of the existing
customers, or enter into a new market segment with a modified product line.
Similarly, the objectives for the intermediaries could be to increase the off-season
sales or reduce the effect of competitor’s promotional schemes.Similarly, the
objectives for the intermediaries could be to increase the off-season sales or
reduce the effect of competitor’s promotional schemes.
3.Design of Promotion Mix: Once the objectives are set, these provide the basis
for selecting an appropriate promotional tool (advertising, personal selling, sales
promotion, etc.). The management must carefully analyze all the costs and effects
associated with each marketing element before making the final choice.
The objectives and the target market should be kept in mind while designing the
promotion mix. As, the promotional tools for educated, urban and institutional
buyers would be different as compared to the illiterate, rural and household
buyers.
4.Planning Sales Promotion Programme: This is the most crucial step of
promotional planning that requires the management to decide the time duration
of the promotion i.e. for how long the promotional tool is to be used. While
deciding on the sales promotion plan the overall marketing budget along with the
eligibility rules and size of incentives should be taken into the consideration.
5.Pre-testing: Once the Sales Promotion Plan is prepared, it is tested in few
selected market segments to identify the potentials or serious problems before its
full launch. Here the management scrutinizes the cost effectiveness of the
promotional plan, problems of ambiguity (if any), customer response rate, etc.
6.Implementation: After the promotional plan is tested in the few selected areas,
it is ready to be launched in the complete market. Here the management must
take care of two important time factors, Viz. Lead Time and Sell-in Time.
The lead time is the time necessary to bring the plan to the point where the
incentives are made available to the public while; the sell-in time is the time
starting from the date of the release until the time 90-95% of the incentives are
received by the potential customers.
7.Monitoring and Evaluation: After implementation, the performance of the
promotional plan is checked against the set standards and objectives and the
corrective actions are taken accordingly. In case the objectives are defined in
quantitative terms then the measurement of the actual results would be quite
easy.
During the evaluation, the management must take care of all the factors that are
beyond control such as economic recession, seasonal variations, natural calamity,
etc. that might influence the buying decision of the customers.
Forecasting and demand measurement:
Forecasting and demand measurement (in terms of marketing) is a tool required
to forecast the future of product life.
This tool is used by firms to anticipate product life span, how long this product can
run in the market. In the process of forecasting and demand measurement, a firm
understands the market behaviour, after that, it starts research based on the
market environment to exclude survival opportunities for the product.
In terms of opportunities, the firm must get the following heads:-
Shape, size, growth, competition, sale strategies, profit potential, marketing,
fundraising, etc.
Forecasting is about taking an idea about future situations of the market, what
will be the situation of the market, assuming it before the time is called
Forecasting.
Demand measurement as its name suggests it is the study of the current market,
it shows the current situation of the market, In this, you can take an idea about
the current expanding market at present.
Reliance Jio used this strategy and invested 2.5 Lakh crore (25000000000000). Till
today it acquired the highest market share of the telecom industry, which we will
see in the case study.
Conducting marketing research and collecting marketing intelligence can help to
identify marketing opportunities. The company must then measure and forecast
the size, growth, and profit potential of each new opportunity. Sales forecasts
prepared by marketing are used by finance to raise cash for investment and
operations; by manufacturing to establish capacity and output; by purchasing to
acquire the right amount of supplies; and by human resources to hire the needed
workers. If the forecast is off the mark, the company will face excess or
inadequate inventory. Because it’s based on estimates of demand, managers need
to define what they mean by market demand.
The Measures of Market Demand
There are many productive ways to break down the market:
• The potential market is the set of consumers with a sufficient level of interest in
a market offer. However, their interest is not enough to define a market unless
they also have sufficient income and access to the product.
• The available market is the set of consumers who have interest, income, and
access to a particular offer. Eligible adults constitute the qualified available market
—the set of consumers who have interest, income, access, and qualifications for
the market offer.
• The target market is the part of the qualified available market the company
decides to pursue.
• The penetrated market is the set of consumers who are buying the company’s
product.
Paper 2 :Human Resources &Organizational Behavior
UNIT I
Human Resource Management: Concept, Scope and
Significance. HR Functions;Contribution of HR functions
towards the success of an organization. Human
Resource Development: Mechanism and Outcome.
Human Resource Management:- Human resource management
involves creating personnel policies and procedures that support business
objectives and strategic plans. Central to this mission is fostering a culture that
reflects core values and empowers employees to be as productive as possible.
HRM Functions can vary depending on industry, businesses size and the types of
workers employed. In most cases, the primary objectives are to acquire and
cultivate talent and improve communication and cooperation among workforce
members. Other key human resource management functions include:
1.Job analysis
Determining the skills and experience necessary to perform a job well may make it
easier to hire the right people, determine appropriate compensation and create
training programs.
2.Workforce operations
Creating health and safety policies, responding to employee grievances, working
with labor unions, etc., can help support regulatory compliance.
3.Performance measurement
Evaluating performance is important because it not only fosters employee growth
through constructive feedback, but also serves as a guide for raises, promotions
and dismissals.
4.Incentive programs
Recognizing achievements and rewarding high performers with bonuses and other
perks is a proven way of motivating employees to take ownership of business
objectives.
5.Professional development
From orientation to advanced educational programs, employee training serves to
improve productivity, reduce turnover and minimize supervisory needs.
What are the responsibilities of human resource management?
HR professionals generally are tasked with creating and administering programs
that improve workplace efficiency and employer-employee relationships. Within
this broad assignment are several different, but critical responsibilities, such as:
1.Staffing
Staffing a business or an individual department requires a number of key steps.
Hiring managers must first determine how many new employees the budget can
support, then find and interview qualified candidates, and finally, make selections
and negotiate compensation.
2.Developing workplace policies
If it’s determined that a new or revised policy is needed, HR professionals typically
consult with executives and other managers, write the supporting documentation
and communicate it to employees. Policies may cover vacations, dress codes,
disciplinary actions and other types of workplace protocol.
3.Administering pay and benefits
In order to attract and retain talent, compensation must meet industry standards
and be comparable to what other employees in similar roles are being paid.
Creating such a fair pay system requires careful consideration of an employee’s
years of service with the business, experience level, education and skills.
4.Retaining talent
Compensation isn’t the only thing that retains talented employees. HR managers
may need to proactively address issues with workplace environments,
organizational culture and relationships between employees and supervisors.
5.Training employees
When employees develop new skills, they tend to be more productive and
satisfied with their job. Some of the training programs typically run by HR
departments include team-building activities, policy and ethics education, and on-
the-job instruction and skills, e.g. how to run a machine or computer program.
6.Complying with regulations
Laws that affect the workplace – whether they’re related to discrimination, health
care or wages and hours – are constantly evolving. HR professionals are required
to keep up with these changes and notify the rest of the organization in support of
compliance.
7.Maintaining safety
Safety in the workplace means protecting not just the physical health of
employees, but also their private information. To minimize workers’ compensation
claims and data breaches, HR must implement security measures and ensure that
all federal, state and union standards are met.
Basic Concepts of HRM
Several elements in HRM are considered cornerstones for framing effective HRM
policies. These are:-
Recruitment and Selection
The most visible element of HR is recruitment and selection. Selecting the best
candidates to work for the company is a key responsibility. When a job is created
or an existing job opens up the request for new hires usually starts. HR receives
the job description and starts the recruitment of candidates. Different selection
instruments like interviews, assessments, reference checks, and other recruitment
methods are put to use. Pre-selection tools may also be used by HR.
Performance Management
Performance management is about helping people to perform better at their jobs.
Employees normally have a defined set of responsibilities. Performance
management enables employees to get feedback on their performance. The
entire exercise revolves around reaching better performance. Some examples of
performance management are formal one-on-one performance reviews or 360-
degree feedback instruments. Organizations, normally, work with an annual
performance management cycle. This involves planning, reviewing, monitoring,
and rewarding employee performance.
Learning and Development
Learning and development can be really helpful in advancing the organization
towards its long term goals. It helps employees improve their performance. Many
organizations have defined budgets for learning and development efforts The 9-
Box grid is an excellent framework that connects performance management with
learning and development activities.
Succession Planning
The process of planning contingencies in case key employees leave the company is
called succession planning. This is often based on learning and development
efforts and performance ratings. A talent pool of candidates, who are qualified
and ready to fill positions in case of a person leaves, is created. Good people
management is about building and nurturing this pipeline.
Compensation and Benefits
The key to retaining and motivating employees is fair compensation. There are
two types of compensation - primary and secondary. Directly paid money is the
primary composition. All non-monetary rewards comprise secondary benefits.
Human Resource Information System (HRIS)
HRIS supports all the above-mentioned concepts. For recruitment and selection,
an applicant tracking system (ATS) is used to keep track of applicants and hires. A
performance management system is used to keep track of individual goals and put
in performance ratings for performance management. For learning and
development, a learning management system(LMS) is used for the distribution of
content internally. A payroll system is often used for compensation. It is important
to note that a significant digital element works in HR.
Scope and Significance:
SIGNIFICANCE OF HRM
• To help the organization reach its goal.
• To employ the skills and abilities of the workforce efficiently.
• To provide the organization with well trained and well motivated
employees.
• To increase to the fullest the employees job satisfaction and self
actualization: Employeesmust feel that the job is right for their abilities and
that they are being treated equitably.Satisfied employees are
• automatically more productive. However, unsatisfied employeestend to be
absent and quit more often and produce lower-quality work.
• To develop and maintain a quality of work life.
• To communicate HR policies to all employees.
• To be ethically and socially responsive to the needs of society: HRM
managers mustshow by example that HRM activities are fair, truthful, and
honorable. People must notbe discriminated on any basis.
HR Functions:
12 Key Functions of Human Resources : HR has many important functions in the
organization. These include recruitment, performance management, learning and
development, and many more. In total, there are 12 key functions of Human
Resources Management.
If we want to understand the functions of Human Resources, we need to
understand what Human Resource Management (HRM) is.
1. Human resource planning
The first HR function is all about knowing the future needs of the organization.
What kind of people does the organization need, and how many? Knowing this
will shape recruitment, selection, performance management, learning and
development, and all other Human Resources functions.
2. Recruitment and selection
The second HR function involves attracting people to work for the organization
and selecting the best candidates.
Attracting people usually starts with an employer brand. In fact, businesses with
excellent employer brands receive 50% more qualified applicants. Clearly, being
an attractive employer has plenty of advantages – just as it is the other way
around. A good example of the latter is the tobacco industry which struggles to
attract talent due to its tainted reputation.
With a strong employer brand and the right sourcing strategies, you’re already
halfway there. Once candidates apply, the selection process is an HR instrument
to pick the best-qualified and highest-potential candidates. It’s vital to build an
effective recruitment a selection process, as bad hires can cause productivity
drops of up to 36%.
Technological developments in recruitment have gone very fast, and as a result,
there are different types of recruitment tools for each part of your recruitment
funnel.
3. Performance management
Performance management is essential in ensuring that workers stay productive
and engaged. Good performance management involves strong leadershWhile
(bi)annual performance reviews in which the employee is reviewed by their
manager are still common, 69% of HR professionals believe that in the near
future, performance management will become more frequent and include natural
conversations.
360-degree feedback is also gaining popularity as a performance management
tool. With this type of feedback, peers, managers, subordinates, and sometimes
even customers review the employee’s performance, which can be very helpful in
uncovering areas of potential improvement.
Performance management is also an instrument to close the gap between the
workforce you have today and the one you want to have tomorrow by helping
employees develop future-ready skills and competencies.ip, clear goal-setting,
and open feedback.
4. Learning and development
Enabling employees to develop the skills they need for the future is an essential
responsibility for HR. This is also related to the first HR function we listed, human
resource planning, in which HR bridges the gap between the workforce today and
the workforce needed in the near future.
Traditionally, organizations have a set budget for learning and development. This
budget is then distributed among its employees. In some countries, this spending
is mandatory. For example, companies with an annual pay bill of more than £3
million in the UK pay a mandatory rate of 0.5% designated for the professional
education of their employees.
5. Career planning
The fifth function of Human Resources Management is career planning, guidance,
and development for employees, together also referred to as career pathing.
Showing employees how their ambition can align with the future of the company
helps to engage and retain them. For the organization, there are the benefits of
better succession planning, higher productivity, and a stronger employer brand.
“Organizations often prefer to source talent internally, promoting existing
employees whenever possible,” said Ben Schwencke, Business Psychologist at Test
Partnership.
6. Function evaluation
Function evaluation is a technical aspect of HR. It involves comparing various parts
of the overall HR operation. This can include the quality, and availability of
workers, job location, working times, the economic situation, job responsibilities,
and how much value a job adds to your organization. The idea behind function
evaluation is that similar jobs should be rewarded similarly.
There are different ways of internally ranking functions.
• Ranking method: A method in which subject matter experts rank functions
in terms of how much they contribute to the organization as a whole.
Functions are paired, and raters have to decide which one is more valuable.
This is done with all functions, and based on the outcome, a ranking is
established.
• Classification method: Jobs can also be classified into different categories
using classification methods. In this case, jobs are categorized and then
ranked within these categories to come up with a ranking. Categorizations
can include education, experience, the degree of specialized skills needed
to do the job, the degree to which these skills are in-demand, and so on.
• Points method: Jobs are categorized according to the factors the
organization believes contribute most to its success. Points are then
awarded to each category for every job. These categories can include key
competencies like problem-solving, technical knowledge, communication
and influencing skills, innovative capability, business acumen, and so on.
These competencies will differ per organization.
• Personal method: In this method, the job itself is not evaluated but the
person doing the job is. Here, employees are rewarded based on their skills
and competencies.
Function evaluation helps the HR department ensure that the company is
successful at both a strategic level and with service delivery and support. That
way, the company is able to deliver the level of services required while operating
strategically.
7. Rewards
Rewarding employees for their work is another essential HR function.
Compensation and benefits are integral to attracting the right kind of candidate
for the role, and company. These will vary across different fields, countries, and
cultures. In some countries, such as the US, health insurance is often part of a job
offer. However, in countries such as the UK, where a public health system provides
most of the healthcare, this is not as common.
The total rewards framework shows that rewards are more than just money and
other monetary benefits. They can also be relational and psychological outcomes.
Rewards include salary but also growth and career opportunities, status,
recognition, a good organizational culture, and a satisfying work-life balance. For
example, fantastic colleagues and meaningful work are also rewarding to
employees. The monetary reward of the job consists of financial rewards and
other (secondary) benefit.
8. Industrial relations
Another function of HR is maintaining and cultivating relationships with labor
unions and other collectives and their members.
Unionization is still prevalent in Europe, although it is declining overall. The most
recent data shows that 92.2% of employees in Iceland were a member of a union,
and 67% of employees in Denmark. However, in the UK and Estonia, only 23.5%
and 6% of employees, respectively, were. In the US, trade union membership is
low, with 10.1% of employees being members.
Maintaining good relations with unions will help to spot and resolve potential
conflicts quickly and will also be beneficial in more difficult economic times when
layoffs or other actions are required.
9. Employee participation and communication
According to Dave Ulrich, one of the key roles of HR is to be a credible activist for
the employees. Employees need to be informed and heard on different topics that
are relevant to them. Communication relates to spreading information relevant to
employees.
Being a People Advocate is one of the four core HR competencies we at AIHR have
identified for the future of the HR workforce. People Advocacy includes culture
building, people practices, and being a workplace champion and communication
expert.
Linda Shaffer, Chief People and Operations Officer at Checkr, highlights the
importance of the communication function of HR.
10. Health and safety
HR plays an important role in creating and implementing health and safety
regulations. Making these regulations part of the company culture is one of the
main functions of HR.
A famous example is the energy and petrochemical company Shell where it is
forbidden to walk the stairs without holding the railing – also in the company’s
HQ. This is part of Shell’s ‘Goal Zero’, which stands for zero accidents. Although
holding the railing is much more important on an oil platform, safety is such a big
part of the company culture that safety roles are applied everywhere.
The pandemic also raised awareness about health and safety in the workplace. In
fact, 43% of employers say job candidates are asking about safety and health
protocols, which shows that creating a safe workplace needs to be a priority for
HR.
11. Well-being
Another key HR function is supporting employees so that they can do their best
work. This involves proactively promoting mental, physical, and financial well-
being.
HR professionals also assist and take care of employees when they run into
problems and when things don’t go as planned. Problems in the workplace and
outside can negatively impact employee performance, engagement, and
productivity. This, in turn, harms a company’s bottom line. With 81% of employees
feeling at risk of burnout and 51% of workers worldwide being worried about
their financial future, a focus on employee well-being is a major HR trend in 2023.
A holistic well-being strategy led by your HR department must work at the level of
one-on-one communication with employees and communication across teams
and companies. For example, a company may offer an employee assistance
program through which anyone with mental health issues can access counseling.
On an organization-wide level, the company could hold a mental health awareness
day.
12. Administrative responsibilities
The final function of HR is its administrative responsibility. These include
personnel procedures and Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS).
Personnel procedures involve the handling of promotions, relocations, discipline,
performance improvement, illness, regulations, cultural and racial diversity,
harassment, bullying, and so on.
For each of these situations, HR needs to develop and follow policies and
procedures to successfully handle employee requests, concerns, and complaints
or overcome these challenges.
Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS) store employee data. HR is
responsible for purchasing, implementing, and managing these systems so that
they can use the data for better decision-making.
Contribution of HR functions towards the success of an
organization:
Discuss the ways in which Human Resource Management can contribute to an
organization’s success.
Human Resource Management ( HRM) is the process of finding, keeping and
developing the right people to work at the qualified workforce. It is one of the
most difficult and important tasks for all management. It focuses on people
dimension in management. Despite every organization is created with people,
requiring its services, developing their skills and talents, motivating people to
achieve higher level of performance in order to continue to main their
commitment to accomplish organizational goals and performance. HRM,
therefore, is largely important to practice and essential to main proper personal or
human resource planning, recruitment and selection, as well as training and
development, employee motivation, performance appraisal, and remuneration
will assist the company to achieve its business success (Rudman, 2013).
This essay will first explain the important role of human resource management
practice and policies for organization. Then, analyze how HRM lead to improve
organizational performance by undertaking the four main functions of HR
assessments: Strategic HR planning, recruitment and selection, performance
management, and remuneration. Finally I will give an explanation of how HRM
real impacts on organizational success.
HR Management Roles
The function of Human Resource Management contributes an important role in
assuring employee satisfaction, develop business productivity and performance. It
can also provide the organization with a clear vision of competitive advantage and
contribute affectively to the organizational success in general.
There are variable ways of HR Management practice and policies allow companies
to deal with human resource problems in a strategic way. This enable labor force
assist high quality service, unless both internal and external challenges to
company. One of the key functions of HR Management is ensure for the new
company to interest a new practical, talented workforce, highly motivated and
performing well employees when they are adapting organizational change in
order to decide to seek how job is going to be performed .
There are many companies, however, consider HR Management is not a main
function of management. For example, they consider some employees such as
labor force represents undoubtedly the organization’s most essential asset
because the employees are largely involved not only in the business operation,
they also allow decision-making process to take place. As a result, the companies
cost large amount of asset for employees, in which almost 70 percent of a
company’s budget is distributed to the workforce .
In addition, employees are the most essential resources and valuable assets to
make a business more success and profitable, but it is really important to identify
suitable Human Resource policies and practices. The success of the organization
can simply be considered how these specific HR policies can contribute business
strategies and lead to organization development.
Strategic Human Resource Planning
Strategic human resource planning involves systematic developing and
comprehensive strategy for both two key attributes of understanding current
employment needs and predicting future employee needs.
To understand what current employee needs; it is important to seek what today’s
staffing pictures looks likes which requires to do first, job analysis and write a job
description and job specification. The process of making job description, analysis,
and specification can prevent from hiring people who are overqualified or
unqualified for a particular job.
Predicting future employee needs require to know the best knowledge about the
“staffing the organization might need and the likely sources for that staffing.” The
organization might need more staffing because jobs could possibly become vacant
because of resignations, retirement. As a result, employer needs to hire the new
employees to replace them, but requires to pay the same salaries and same
criteria about minority hiring. In order to address this issue, the organization need
to change with vision and strategic plan so that the employer can hire the proper
people to meet the future ability at work.
Human Resource Development : Development of human resources
is essential for any organisation that would like to be dynamic and growth-
oriented. Unlike other resources, human resources have rather unlimited
potential capabilities. The potential can be used only by creating a climate that
can continuously identify, bring to surface, nurture and use the capabilities of
people. Human Resource Development (HRD) system aims at creating such a
climate. A number of HRD techniques have been developed in recent years to
perform the above task based on certain principles. This unit provides an
understanding of the concept of HRD system, related mechanisms and the
changing boundaries of HRD.
Definitions of HRD
HRD (Human Resources Development) has been defined by various scholars in
various ways. Some of the important definitions of HRD (Human Resources
Development) are as follows:
• "Human resource development is a series of organised activities, conducted
within a specialised time and designed to produce behavioural changes."
• "HRD is a process by which the employees of an organisation are helped in
a continuous and planned way to (i) acquire or sharpen capabilities required
to perform various functions associated with their present or expected
future roles; (ii) develop their general capabilities as individual and discover
and exploit their own inner potential for their own and /or organisational
development purposes; (iii) develop an organisational culture in which
superior-subordinate relationship, team work and collaboration among sub-
units are strong and contribute to the professional well being, motivation
and pride of employees."
• "Human resource development is the across of increasing knowledge,
capabilities and positive work attitudes of all people working at all levels in
a business undertaking."
The Concept of Human Resource Development
Human resource development in the organisation context is a process by which
the employees of an organisation are helped, in a continuous and planned way to:
• Acquire or sharpen capabilities required to perform various functions
associated with their present or expected future roles;
• Develop their general capabilities as individuals and discover and exploit
 their own inner potentials for their own and/or organisational development
purposes; and
• Develop an organisational culture in which supervisor-subordinate
relationships, teamwork and collaboration among sub-units are strong and
contribute to the professional well being, motivation and pride of
employees.
This definition of HRD is limited to the organisational context. In the context of a
state or nation it would differ.
HRD is a process, not merely a set of mechanisms and techniques. The
mechanisms and techniques such as performance appraisal, counselling, training,
and organization development interventions are used to initiate, facilitate, and
promote this process in a continuous way. Because the process has no limit, the
mechanisms may need to be examined periodically to see whether they are
promoting or hindering the process. Organisations can facilitate this process of
development by planning for it, by allocating organisational resources for the
purpose, and by exemplifying an HRD philosophy that values human beings and
promotes their development.
Mechanism and Outcome:-
HRD outcomes influence the organisational effectiveness:
Dimensions of Organisational Effectiveness can be measured under thefollowing
heads:
• High productivity.
• Growth and Diversification of Units
• Cost Reduction
• More Profit
Better Public Image of the organisation.The linkage between HRD outcomes and
organisational effectivenessare not easily demonstrable due to the influence of
several other variables indetermining productivity.
Mechanism of HRD:
The development of Human Resource is a part and parcel of human resource
management. It is the main functions of Human Resource Management. Every
organisation and its management have the responsibility to develop its human
resources if at all it wanted to remain in business, face the competition and moves
towards prosperity and growth. In these modern times of growing awareness the
development of human resources is the task number one for any organisation.
The very growth and survival and growth of the organisation depends on the
development of human resource development. The Human Development
Resource programmes have become routine now in the organisations. Gone are
the days when employees were treated as part of the machine.
Human Resource Development aims to identify the gap between the
competencies required in human resource and actual competencies to fulfil them
with development and training. In order to achieve the primary objective of
human resource development, different mechanisms or methods can be used.
These mechanisms carry some special features individually and contribute to the
development of human resource collectively.
•They have to uncover difficulties faced by the subordinates while handling
assigned tasks and try to remove those hurdles.
•Have to understand the strengths and weaknesses of subordinate and should
help the subordinate to overcome the obstacles in the way.
•It’s their duty to encourage subordinates to meet problems head on and accept
responsibilities and face challenges with confidence and courage.
•It’s their duty to plan for effective utilization of the talents of subordinates.
UNIT II
Human Resource Planning: Concept & Process;
Recruitment and Selection, Induction,Training;
Techniques; Career Management:-
Human Resource Planning: Human resource planning (HRP) is the
continuous process of systematic planning to achieve optimum use of an
organization's most valuable asset—quality employees. Human resources
planning ensures the best fit between employees and jobs while avoiding
manpower shortages or surpluses.
There are four key steps to the HRP process. They include analyzing present labor
supply, forecasting labor demand, balancing projected labor demand with supply,
and supporting organizational goals. HRP is an important investment for any
business as it allows companies to remain both productive and profitable.
• Human resource planning (HRP) is a strategy used by a company to
maintain a steady stream of skilled employees while avoiding employee
shortages or surpluses.
• Having a good HRP strategy in place can mean productivity and profitability
for a company.
• There are four general steps in the HRP process: identifying the current
supply of employees, determining the future of the workforce, balancing
between labor supply and demand, and developing plans that support the
company's goals.
What Is Human Resource Planning (HRP) Used For?
Human resource planning allows companies to plan ahead so they can maintain a
steady supply of skilled employees. The process is used to help companies
evaluate their needs and to plan ahead to meet those needs.
Human resource planning needs to be flexible enough to meet short-term staffing
challenges while adapting to changing conditions in the business environment
over the longer term. HRP starts by assessing and auditing the current capacity of
human resources.
Here, identifying a company's skill set and targeting the skills a company needs
enables it to strategically reach business goals and be equipped for future
challenges. To remain competitive, businesses may need advanced skills or to
upskill their employees as the market environment evolves and changes.
To retain employees and remain competitive, HRP often looks at organizational
design, employee motivation, succession planning, and increasing return on
investment overall.
What Are the Four Steps to Human Resource Planning (HRP)?
There are four general, broad steps involved in the human resource planning
process. Each step needs to be taken in sequence in order to arrive at the end
goal, which is to develop a strategy that enables the company to successfully find
and retain enough qualified employees to meet the company's needs.
Analyzing labor supply
The first step of human resource planning is to identify the company's current
human resources supply. In this step, the HR department studies the strength of
the organization based on the number of employees, their skills, qualifications,
positions, benefits, and performance levels.
Forecasting labor demand
The second step requires the company to outline the future of its workforce. Here,
the HR department can consider certain issues like promotions, retirements,
layoffs, and transfers—anything that factors into the future needs of a company.
The HR department can also look at external conditions impacting labor demand,
such as new technology that might increase or decrease the need for workers.
Balancing labor demand with supply
The third step in the HRP process is forecasting the employment demand. HR
creates a gap analysis that lays out specific needs to narrow the supply of the
company's labor versus future demand. This analysis will often generate a series
of questions, such as:
• Should employees learn new skills?
• Does the company need more managers?
• Do all employees play to their strengths in their current roles?
Developing and implementing a plan
The answers to questions from the gap analysis help HR determine how to
proceed, which is the final phase of the HRP process. HR must now take practical
steps to integrate its plan with the rest of the company. The department needs a
budget, the ability to implement the plan, and a collaborative effort with all
departments to execute that plan.
Concept & Process:
Concept:
Human resources are the most important assets of any organisation. The success
or failure, growth and development of the organisation depend on human
resources. The organisation must therefore acquire knowledgeable, skillful,
trained, talented and potential human resources to attain and accomplish the
organisational objectives. A great care needs to be taken in their acquisition. The
human resource planning provides necessary direction in this regard to the human
resource management in the light of overall organisational objectives.
The organisational objectives determine the required number, type and kind of
human resources and for their acquisition the process of human resource
planning begins. The human resource planning bridges the gap between the
organisational plans and human resource management. It is a conscious
determination of direction and composition of human resources of the
organisation. The Human resource planning provides the necessary groundwork
and set the stage ready for manpower procurement to fill up various positions in
the organisation.
The human resource planning must be in tune with the human resource policy of
the organisation. Human resources are the most valuable intellectual assets;
hence their planning should be done carefully. Organisations used to neglect
people as they cannot establish ownership over them like in case of other
resources. Now it has been realized that neglecting human resources may cost
heavily to the organisation. Human resource planning help in tracing a route,
finding a way for acquiring human resources.
Human Resource Planning Process:
1.Determining the Objectives of Human Resource Planning: The foremost step in
every process is the determination of the objectives for which the process is to be
carried on. The objective for which the manpower planning is to be done should
be defined precisely, so as to ensure that a right number of people for the right
kind of job are selected.
The objectives can vary across the several departments in the organization such as
the personnel demand may differ in marketing, finance, production, HR
department, based on their roles or functions.
2.Analyzing Current Manpower Inventory: The next step is to analyze the current
manpower supply in the organization through the stored information about the
employees in terms of their experience, proficiency, skills, etc. required to
perform a particular job.Also, the future vacancies can be estimated, so as to plan
for the manpower from both the internal (within the current employees) and the
external (hiring candidates from outside) sources. Thus, it is to be ensured that
reservoir of talent is maintained to meet any vacancy arising in the near future.
3.Forecasting Demand and Supply of Human Resources: Once the inventory of
talented manpower is maintained; the next step is to match the demand for the
manpower arising in the future with the supply or available resources with the
organization.Here, the required skills of personnel for a particular job are matched
with the job description and specification.
4.Analyzing the Manpower Gaps: After forecasting the demand and supply, the
manpower gaps can be easily evaluated. In case the demand is more than the
supply of human resources, that means there is a deficit, and thus, new
candidates are to be hired.Whereas, if the Demand is less than supply, there arises
a surplus in the human resources, and hence, the employees have to be removed
either in the form of termination, retirement, layoff, transfer, etc.
5.Employment Plan/Action Plan: Once the manpower gaps are evaluated, the
action plan is to be formulated accordingly. In a case of a deficit, the firm may go
either for recruitment, training, interdepartmental transfer plans whereas in the
case of a surplus, the voluntary retirement schemes, redeployment, transfer,
layoff, could be followed.
6.Training and Development: The training is not only for the new joinees but also
for the existing employees who are required to update their skills from time to
time.After the employment plan, the training programmes are conducted to equip
the new employees as well as the old ones with the requisite skills to be
performed on a particular job.
7.Appraisal of Manpower Planning: Finally, the effectiveness of the manpower
planning process is to be evaluated. Here the human resource plan is compared
with its actual implementation to ensure the availability of a number of
employees for several jobs.
Recruitment and Selection: recruitment and selection are very pivotal
in any organization irrespective of size. This is because they determine the quality
of employees in the organization who in turn determine how processes are
carried out. Human resource planning involves making appropriate decisions in
regard to the positions that an organization ought to fill and the best ways to fill
them. It also entails determining the human resource needs of an organization
with respect to the stipulated strategic plan.
Human Resource Recruitment
Human resource recruitment on the other hand entails the process of attracting
and encouraging eligible individuals to apply for different positions in an
organization. It involves generating a pool of appropriate and qualified candidates
for available job positions in an organization.
It is a process that commences when the new recruits are identified and ends
when the applications from these candidates are received. Recruitment is a very
essential process as it facilitates the attraction of qualified candidates to apply and
it discourages the unsuited ones to be involved through provision of the right job
information. Recruitment also plays a role in projecting the organization’s image.
Human Resource Selection
The other crucial human resource management function is the selection process.
The key issue here entails matching a candidate with the job in question to
achieve best performance. There are various tools that are applied in the selection
process for instance interviews and referrals.
Selection process is very important as it ensures that the right candidates are
deployed, in terms of qualifications and experience. This is achieved through
matching of the attributes in the application documents and the practical ones.
The selection activities all the way from the initial screening interview to the final
physical examination and practices are aimed at coming up with successful
selection decisions.
For the selection process to be effective, it ought to provide a perfect match
between the organizational needs and candidates’ qualifications and interests.
Effective selection ensures that there is quality performance of an employee right
from the start.
Induction:
Induction is the process for welcoming newly recruited employees and supporting
them to adjust to their new roles and working environments. Starting a new job
can be a stressful experience and new employees need help to settle in. The
University’s induction programme will provide new employees with all of the
necessary information, including local welcome events and activities.
The induction you will receive in your local department/institution will enable you
to:
• Meet your key colleagues;
• Find your way around your workplace;
• Understand your terms and conditions of employment;
• Understand your role, key responsibilities and how you fit into your
department/institution;
• Know what is expected of you and the way in which your work will be
monitored;
• Know how you will be managed and supported to carry out your duties;
• Access University and local policies and procedures; and
• Identify any training and development needs that have to be met to enable
you to undertake your role effectively.
The Employee Induction Checklist does not only cover local induction activity—it
also explains how and when you can take part in the University's two-stage
induction. These stages are as follows:
1.The Induction Online programme is a quick and easy web resource to help you
to understand how the University operates and what it's like to work here. It also
provides you with essential information on the benefits, entitlements, support
services and opportunities available to you as a member of University staff.
2.Hosted by Personal and Professional Development (PPD) includes a welcome
from a senior member of the University and the opportunity to network with
other new colleagues, whilst learning some key facts about the University.
Refreshments will be available during the event, with updates on the wide range
of opportunities and sources of support offered by the University. Welcome to
Cambridge is held once each term.
Training :
Training constitutes a basic concept in human resource development. It is
concerned with developing a particular skill to a desired standard by instruction
and practice. Training is a highly useful tool that can bring an employee into a
position where they can do their job correctly, effectively, and conscientiously.
Training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skill of an employee for doing a
particular job.
Training refers to the teaching and learning activities carried on for the primary
purpose of helping members of an organization acquire and apply the knowledge,
skills, abilities, and attitudes needed by a particular job and organization.
Need for Training:
Every organization should provide training to all the employees irrespective of
their qualifications and skills.
1. Environmental changes:
Mechanization, computerization, and automation have resulted in many changes
that require trained staff possessing enough skills. The organization should train
the employees to enrich them with the latest technology and knowledge.
2. Organizational complexity:
With modern inventions, technological upgradation, and diversification most of
the organizations have become very complex. This has aggravated the problems of
coordination. So, in order to cope up with the complexities, training has become
mandatory.
3. Human relations:
Every management has to maintain very good human relations, and this has made
training as one of the basic conditions to deal with human problems.
4. To match employee specifications with the job requirements and
organizational needs:
An employee’s specification may not exactly suit to the requirements of the job
and the organization, irrespective of past experience and skills. There is always a
gap between an employee’s present specifications and the organization’s
requirements. For filling this gap training is required.
5. Change in the job assignment:
Training is also necessary when the existing employee is promoted to the higher
level or transferred to another department. Training is also required to equip the
old employees with new techniques and technologies.
Importance of Training:
Training of employees and mangers are absolutely essential in this changing
environment. It is an important activity of HRD which helps in improving the
competency of employees. Training gives a lot of benefits to the employees such
as improvement in efficiency and effectiveness, development of self confidence
and assists every one in self management.
The stability and progress of the organization always depends on the training
imparted to the employees. Training becomes mandatory under each and every
step of expansion and diversification. Only training can improve the quality and
reduce the wastages to the minimum. Training and development is also very
essential to adapt according to changing environment.
Techniques:
Forecasting Techniques in Human Resource Planning
 • Analyze Work Operations
• Conduct a Detailed Job Analysis
• Conduct Online Surveys
• Use Society of Human Resource Calculators
• Read Department of Commerce Reports
• Document Forecasting Process
• Follow Forecasting Process Consistently
• Trend Analysis
• Ratio Analysis
• Scatter Plot
There are many human resource management tools and techniques HR
departments can use to make their planning process easier. When conducting a
detailed job analysis for each function of the company, HR managers should list all
policies and procedures required to complete each task.
HR managers should document the standard output for each person and compare
that to the desired output to determine the number of people needed to produce
the desired volume of operations. A technique many HR managers use is to ask
several experts in their organization about their opinion on forecasting needs
based on their experience of managing employees.
These findings should be shared with all experts involved due to the fact that they
don’t normally share their opinions with each other. This is a problem within
businesses because communication is key to making a company successful.
The department of commerce has reported on workforce planning needs that
help HR managers learn about trends and assist them in their forecasting budgets
for hiring, training, and payroll. These reports help companies compete in the
global marketplace. By documenting forecasting processes used, HR departments
are able to create more accurate forecasts in the future.
Trend Analysis is also another popular forecasting technique of human resource
planning. It is based on the evaluations of the perceived patterns and trends. The
technique places emphasis on the present trend based on past experiences. Ratio
Analysis is also used in forecasting HR needs according to the ratio between
specific regular factors like the number of employees needed, sales volume, or
between a number of required employees and quantity of output needed for the
production of that amount.
Career Management:
Career is a general course of action, an individual chooses to pursue, all through
his or her employment life. It may be represented as occupational positions a
person has hold over so many years. Many people feel satisfied by achieving their
career goals. At the same time, others have a strong feeling that, their careers,
their lives and their potential has undergone unfulfilled. Employers too have a
profound effect on employees’ careers. Some organisations have very formal
career management processes, while others are very little concern about it.
Career management is defined as the ongoing process of preparing, implementing
and monitoring career plans. It can be undertaken either by the individual alone
or can be a concerted activity along with the organisation’s career systems.
Career management is a process that enables the employees to better understand
their career skills, develop and give direction to it and to use those skills and
interests most effectively both within and outside the organisation. Specific career
management activities provide realistic career oriented appraisals, posting open
jobs and offering formal career development activities. Career development
involves the lifelong series of activities that contribute to a person’s career
exploration, establishment, growth, success, and fulfillment. Career planning is
the deliberate process by which an individual becomes aware of his or her
personal skills, interests, motivations, knowledge and other such characteristics.
He also seeks and acquires information about the opportunities and choices,
identifies career-related goals and establishes action plans to attain specific goals.
Career management and career planning activities are complementary and can
reinforce each other.
Objectives of Career Management
Career management programmes encompass a large number of these human
resource management practices with the following objectives:
1.Assisting employees to improve their performance: Career management
programmes strive to involve employees in setting their own goals and
recognizing their strengths and weaknesses. It assists employees with the
identification and facilitation of training needs and opportunities. This is mainly
achieved by building a process of feedback and discussion into the performance
management systems of institutions.
2.Clarifying available career options: Through career management programmes
employees are informed of career options available within the institution. It
assists employees with the identification of skills and other qualities required for
current and future jobs. Most career management programmes seek to focus
employees career plans upon the institution, thereby enhancing their
commitment to the institution. In doing this, career paths are developed that
indicate mobility in different directions in the institution for employees.
3.Aligning the aspiration of employees with organizational objectives: Many
organizations attempt to assist employees in their career planning through career
management programmes. Career management programmes furthermore seek
to improve the matching of jobs with the right employees. An assessment of the
skills and competencies of employees could assist in accommodating them in
positions that suit them better. Through the application of practices such as
transfers and rotation, an institution’s operational effectiveness can be improved.
Career management programmes can also result in a reduction in the need to
recruit externally as employees with the required capabilities are revealed
through their career planning
activities.
Benefits of Career Management:
• Staffing inventories: Effective career management ensure a continuous
supply of professional, technical and managerial talent for the fulfillment of
organisational goal.
• Staffing from within: Most organisations like to promote employees from
within for available positions because of the many potential advantages. In
 order to recruit from within, it requires a strong career management
programme that ensures effective performance of employees in their new
jobs.
• Solving staffing problems: Effective career management may serve as a
remedy for certain staffing problems. Rate of employee turnover can be
slashed because of the feeling that there is existence of opportunity within
the organisation. It may be easier to go for new recruitment as the company
develops its employees and provides better career opportunities.
• Satisfying employee needs: The current generation of employees are very
different from those of past generation in terms of their set of needs. Again
higher levels of education have raised their career expectations and many
of the employees hold their employers directly responsible in providing
better opportunities for realization of their career expectations.
• Enhanced motivation: Since, progression along the career path is directly
related to job performance, an employee is likely to be motivated and
perform at peak levels to accomplish career goals.
• Employment equity: Effective career management demand fair and
equitable recruitment, selection and placement and try to eliminate
discriminatory practices concerning promotions and career mobility. Such
type of affirmative programmes contains formal provisions that become
helpful for enhancement of the career mobility of women and other
minorities groups emphasizing employment equity.
UNIT III
Performance Appraisal: Qualitative & Quantitative
Methods, 360 Degree;Comprehensive and Benefit
Management, Employee benefit and services, Indian
Labour Laws in Hospitality Industry.
Performance Appraisal: Performance appraisal is a process for
evaluating and documenting how well an employee is carrying out his or her job.
It is part of a company’s performance management system.
Performance appraisals are based on the employee’s progress against goals set
once a year with his or her manager. Usually, employees and managers will have
check-ins throughout the year; at the end of the year the manager assigns an
overall rating.
The appraisal process gives employees feedback on their work, helps managers
make decisions about pay increases and bonuses, and identifies areas that need
improvement. Ongoing poor performance can lead to reprimands or
termination.Because performance appraisals affect an individual’s employment
path, they can be stressful for employees.
Performance Appraisal is the systematic evaluation of the performance of
employees and to understand the abilities of a person for further growth and
development. Performance appraisal is generally done in systematic ways which
are as follows:
• The supervisors measure the pay of employees and compare it with targets
 and plans.
• The supervisor analyses the factors behind work performances of
employees.
• The employers are in position to guide the employees for a better
performance.
Objectives of Performance Appraisal
Performance Appraisal can be done with following objectives in mind:
• To maintain records in order to determine compensation packages, wage
structure, salaries raises, etc.
• To identify the strengths and weaknesses of employees to place right men
on right job.
• To maintain and assess the potential in a person for growth and
development.
• To provide a feedback to employees regarding their performance and
related status.
• It serves as a basis for influencing working habits of the employees.
• To review and retain the promotional and other training programmes.
Advantages of Performance Appraisal
It is said that performance appraisal is an investment for the company which can
be justified by following advantages:
• Promotion: Performance Appraisal helps the supervisors to chalk out the
promotion programmes for efficient employees. In this regards, inefficient
workers can be dismissed or demoted in case.
• Compensation: Performance Appraisal helps in chalking out compensation
packages for employees. Merit rating is possible through performance
appraisal. Performance Appraisal tries to give worth to a performance.
• Compensation packages which includes bonus, high salary rates, extra
benefits, allowances and pre-requisites are dependent on performance
appraisal. The criteria should be merit rather than seniority.
• Employees Development: The systematic procedure of performance
appraisal helps the supervisors to frame training policies and programmes.
• It helps to analyse strengths and weaknesses of employees so that new jobs
can be designed for efficient employees. It also helps in framing future
development programmes.
• Selection Validation: Performance Appraisal helps the supervisors to
understand the validity and importance of the selection procedure. The
supervisors come to know the validity and thereby the strengths and
weaknesses of selection procedure. Future changes in selection methods
can be made in this regard.
• Communication: For an organization, effective communication between
employees and employers is very important. Through performance
appraisal, communication can be sought for in the following ways:
a.Through performance appraisal, the employers can understand and accept skills
of subordinates.
b.The subordinates can also understand and create a trust and confidence in
superiors.
c.It also helps in maintaining cordial and congenial labour management
relationship.
d.It develops the spirit of work and boosts the morale of employees.
All the above factors ensure effective communication.
• Motivation: Performance appraisal serves as a motivation tool.
Through evaluating performance of employees, a person’s efficiency can be
determined if the targets are achieved. This very well motivates a person for
better job and helps him to improve his performance in the future.
Qualitative & Quantitative Methods:-
Quantitative research
Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It is used to test or
confirm theories and assumptions. This type of research can be used to establish
generalizable facts about a topic.
Common quantitative methods include experiments, observations recorded as
numbers, and surveys with closed-ended questions.
Quantitative research is at risk for research biases including information bias,
omitted variable bias, sampling bias, or selection bias.
Qualitative research
Qualitative research is expressed in words. It is used to understand concepts,
thoughts or experiences. This type of research enables you to gather in-depth
insights on topics that are not well understood.
Common qualitative methods include interviews with open-ended questions,
observations described in words, and literature reviews that explore concepts and
theories.
Qualitative research is also at risk for certain research biases including the
Hawthorne effect, observer bias, recall bias, and social desirability bias.
360 Degree:- A 360-degree appraisal is a method of performance review. In
this method, different parties, from employers to team members, analyse an
employee’s performance anonymously and provide one-on-one feedback later.
• 360-degree appraisal is a developmental tool, not a rating tool. It focuses on
providing feedback, not rating an employee’s performance.
• 360-degree appraisal method, combined with different performance review
techniques, yields more significant results for the organisation and
employees.
• It is a well-rounded review system that helps you determine your strengths
and weakness. It helps you aspire for the highest-paying jobs in the
organisation.
• When appropriately executed, a 360-degree appraisal system can be a boon
to an organisation or have drawbacks.
Comprehensive and Benefit Management:-
A comprehensive view of this new benefits landscape, including the latest
approaches for analyzing and negotiating benefits programs and funding options.
A key focus will be developing strategies to reduce healthcare costs. Students will
learn to evaluate employee needs and help them better understand and use their
coverage.
Benefits management involves identifying, planning, measuring and tracking
benefits from the start of the programme or project investment until realisation of
the last projected benefit. It aims to make sure that the desired benefits are
specific, measurable, agreed, realistic and time bounded. The term benefits
management is often used interchangeably with the term benefits realisation.
Responsibilities for benefits management
The main roles and responsibilities relevant to benefits management are:
• Senior Responsible Owner - responsible and accountable for programme or
project success underpinned by delivery of expected benefits
• programme manager or project manager - responsible for ensuring proper
day-to-day management with a strong focus on benefits realisation
• business change agent or benefits manager - oversight and direction of
transitional arrangements into business as usual and the embedding of new
capability to deliver expected benefits
• programme or project management office - responsible for maintaining a
benefit documentation library for the programme or project including
version control; the PMO may also be responsible for support and advice on
benefits management and for reporting on progress towards benefits
realisation
• organisational board - responsible for maintaining strategic oversight of the
full range (portfolio) of benefits being projected across the organisation
Programmes and projects are initiated to achieve change and to deliver financial
and non-financial benefits. However, research conducted by the former Office of
Government Commerce estimated that between 30 and 40 per cent of public
sector change projects can provide no evidence that any business benefits have
actually been delivered. The reasons behind this failure to achieve meaningful
business change are, in large part, due to an over-emphasis on the programme
and project management process and a failure to consider wider organisational
change.
Increasingly, organisations are moving towards more holistic business change
models, where programme and project management provides the structure for a
broader approach to business transformation. This approach places emphasis on
how the business will actually benefit from the changes being put in place and
how these benefits will be measured, realised and assessed - known as benefits
management.
Employee benefit and services:-
Employers can offer a wide variety of benefits to their employees. Benefits are
designed to help employees meet basic needs they might not otherwise be able
to meet on their own. For instance, the high cost of health insurance is often
offset by employer contributions to the employee's premium.
Employee services are employee benefits, but they are a more specific form of
employee benefit that employers offer to help instill loyalty among their workers.
Small business owners must decide which benefits and services to offer
employees. With limited resources, some can offset expensive benefits with less
expensive employee services.
What Are Employee Services?
Employee services can include anything an employer deems necessary to provide
as a perk for employees. No real limit exists as to what can be included as an
employee service. Some companies provide cafeterias and event catering services
for employees. Others have coffee shops, gyms in-house, or anniversary gifts,
according to AIHR Digital. Employee services are more of a convenience than a
true benefit.
Busy corporate offices, for example, might provide dry cleaning pickup services for
employees. Employers in remote locations might offer shuttle services to and from
work. The types of services depends upon each employer. Small business owners
can use employee services such as on-site childcare to make their positions more
attractive to potential employees.
What Are Employee Benefits?
Employee benefits differ from employee services in that benefits tend to be
necessities for many people and their families, according to Money Zine. Basic
insurance needs are covered by many employee benefit plans. Insurance options
provided by employers can include health insurance, but they can also include life
insurance, accidental death and disability insurance, dental insurance and
unemployment insurance also.
Other types of benefits usually include a retirement plan in the form of a 401(k) or
some other qualified tax-deferred plan. Although employee services might be
considered a benefit, they are usually optional and not necessarily what job
seekers first look for when conducting a job hunt.
Indian Labour Laws in Hospitality Industry:-
The laws relating to the Hospitality Industry can be classified into the following
three broad categories:
Laws related to Construction and Commissioning of Hotels
The new and existing hotels must adhere to all the statutory regulations imposed
by the state and central laws in the hotels’ commissioning, construction, and
maintenance within their respective jurisdictions. All these comprise of the
regulations related to the state specific land laws, their respective industrial
policies and development control orders.
Mandatory Statutory Licenses for Hotels
The Hotel has to get a number of licenses under various laws. These licenses are
required for the post completion, establishment of the entity in the hospitality
industry. The licenses can be with regard to the lodging, eating house, liquor,
entertainment etc. which the hotels need to comply with for the smooth
functioning of the hotel establishment.
Tax Laws related to the Hotel Industry
The hotel industry is subject to both the Income Tax and Goods and Services Tax.
Along with the taxation aspect, certain regulatory provisions related to the
aspects of employment, like Employee State Insurance Act, Apprenticeship Act,
contractual relationships etc. are also applicable to the Hospitality industry.
UNIT IV
Organisational Behavior: Concept and significance.
Motivation: Maslow’s theory and factor theory of
Herzberg; Application of motivation concepts in
organization.
Organisational Behavior: Organizational behavior (OB) is the study of
how individuals, groups, and organizations interact and influence one another.
Though it is largely used within the field of business management as means to
understand–and more effectively manage–groups of people. The reason
businesses look to OB is because it can help organizations increase employee
performance, while also creating a positive working environment.
Definition of Organizational Behavior
Organizational behavior is the study of how individuals and groups interact within
an organization and how these interactions affect an organization’s performance
toward its goal or goals. The field examines the impact of various factors on
behavior within an organization.
The focus of organizational behavior tends to center around employee
productivity. For example, organizational behavior studies have shown that
employees who feel valued and appreciated tend to be more motivated and
productive, leading to increased profits for the organization. However,
organizational behavior can also focus on the ways in which organizations can
better manage, change and improve behavior in order to achieve desired
outcomes (i.e., productivity, employee well-being, or workplace satisfaction).
Organizational behavior is the resulting behavior of the people within the
organization based on the culture they’re immersed in. If the company culture is
one that promotes customer service, then the employees are likely to display
behaviors such as friendliness and helpfulness when dealing with customers.
The opposite may be true if the company’s culture revolves around a competitive
environment and employees are expected to go above and beyond to be the most
successful. In this case, employees may display behavior such as aggressiveness
and competitiveness in order to achieve the highest results.
4 Elements of Organizational Behavior
Human behavior is a complex and multifaceted area of research that’s constantly
evolving and changing with the times. In the realm of organizational behavior, the
research thus far has shown that four key elements contribute to human behavior
within a workplace:
1.People: Everyone brings their own personality, values and communication style
to a workplace environment. The interaction of employees with work and with
one another is perhaps the most important element in a work environment.
2.Structure: Refers to the relationships and roles of employees to one another
and within the company. Includes elements such as hierarchies, job descriptions,
departmentation and compensation system.
3.Technology: The machines, tools and resources provided to employees to
perform their job duties, work with customers and otherwise function within a
role and as a part of the organization.
4.External environments: Both internal and external environments included. This
refers both to physical environments (lighting, space, furniture, etc.) and broader
conditions (economy, customers, politics, etc.)
Critical to understanding organizational behavior is grasping that all four of these
components make up the culture of a company and the way in which the
employees behave within it. Company leaders can create change within their
organization by pinpointing areas of weakness and adjusting accordingly.
Examples of Organizational Behavior
There are four key elements that contribute to organizational behavior. So let’s
take a look at examples of these at play to better understand what organizational
behavior is, how it works, and what it looks like across various organizations.
People:
People are the most important element of organizational behavior. Their attitudes
and beliefs shape how the workplace operates, and how work is completed. For
example, someone who is highly motivated and enthusiastic about their work may
inspire others to do the same.
Some employees may value timeliness over perfection and prioritize meeting
deadlines over taking care of themselves. Others might value both equally, while
still others might prioritize self-care over the other two. It’s important to create a
team of individuals who can work together effectively and efficiently, and who
possess the values and personalities that are well-suited to the job at hand. This
will help ensure that the boundaries between work and personal life are
maintained, and that goals are met in a timely manner.
Structure:
The structure of an organization can influence how work is carried out. A
hierarchical system with clear roles and responsibilities, for example, may
encourage people to work together in a structured, efficient manner.
Some organizations maintain strict hierarchies and role definitions, while others
choose to adopt a less rigid, more collaborative approach. A chosen structure and
its proper (or improper) management can provide workers with clarity or lead to
chaos and confusion. These structural elements can dictate how effectively and
comfortably employees are able to suggest changes, ask for help and escalate
problems. If your organization seems to struggle with these issues and it is
reflected in the behavior of the staff, it may be time to take a look at the
structures in place.
Technology:
Technology can have a huge impact on organizational behavior. Automated
systems can streamline processes, making it easier for people to do their jobs.
Likewise, poorly-designed systems can easily grind production to a halt.
Have you ever been to a hospital that seems to be constantly out of essential
supplies? Or a retail establishment where the point-of-sale system reboots every
10 minutes? These operational failures of supply chain systems can have a
massive impact on both customer and employee satisfaction. Ensuring that your
employees have the tools necessary to perform well in their roles is critical to the
overall success of the company.
External Environments:
The external environment can also have a significant impact on an organization.
Economic conditions, for example, can affect the availability of resources, while
changes in the law can create new challenges. Companies must be aware of their
external environment in order to adapt and remain competitive.
Concept and significance:
Concepts of Organizational Behavior
Organizational behavior is based on a few fundamental concepts which are
relevant to the nature of people and organisations. There are some basic
assumptions in organizational behavior such as, (1) difference between
individuals; (2) a whole person; (3) behavior or an individual is caused; (4) an
individual has dignity, (5) organisations are social systems; (6) mutuality of interest
among organisational members; (7) holistic organizational behavior. Now let’s look
at all assumptions in detail:
1.Individual differences idea comes from psychology. Every person is different
from the day of birth, every person is unique and personal experiences make a
person more different than the other. Every individual differs in many ways like
intelligence, physique, personality, learning capability, communicative ability etc.
Therefore only an individual can take responsibility and make decisions, whereas a
group is powerless until all the individuals within the group act accordingly.
2.A whole person indicates that when an individual is appointed in an
organisation, he/she is not hired only on the basis of skills, but also on likes and
dislikes, pride and prejudices. An individual’s way of living in a family cannot be
separated from organisational life. This is why the organisations need to provide
their employees with a proper work environment where they can work hard to
progress and develop their abilities to become a better employee and also a
better person in terms of growth and fulfillment.
3.Caused behavior indicates that when an individual behaves in an unmannerly
fashion then there is a cause behind it. Anything could be the reason of this cause
such as personal problems at home within the family, or problems with coming
early to the office etc. If an individual starts reacting in an unmannerly fashion
with other staff members then a manager should understand that there is
definitely a cause behind it. Managers should investigate about the cause and
tackle the issue at the root level.
4.Human dignity indicates that every individual needs to be treated differently. It
shows human dignity because people at every level of professional ladder want to
be treated with respect and dignity. Every job needs to be done with respect and
recognition this helps every individuals aspirations and abilities to improve. The
concept of human dignity rejects the idea of using employees as economic tools.
5.Organisations are social systems indicates that from sociology we know that
organisations are social systems; therefore the activities within the organisations
are governed by social and psychological laws. Organisations have formal and
informal social systems. Social systems in an organisation indicate that the
company has dynamic change ability rather than static set of relations. Every part
in the system is interdependent on each other.
6.Mutuality of interest indicates that both the organisation and people need each
other. Organisations are formed and maintained on the basis of some mutuality of
interest among the participants. People require organisations to reach their goals,
while organisation needs people to reach organisational objectives. Lack of mutual
interest causes disorientation among the participants and the group. Mutual
interest provides a common goal for all the participants, which results in
encouragement of the people to tackle problems of the organisation instead of
raising fingers at each other.
7.Holistic concept indicates that when all the above six concepts of organisational
behavior are placed together a holistic concept arises. This concept interprets the
relationship between people and organisation in terms of the whole person,
entire group, entire organisation and the whole social system. Views of different
people are taken into account in an organisation to understand the factors that
influence their behavior. Issues are analyzed in terms of the total situation
affecting them rather than in terms of an event or problem.
Significance of Organisational Behaviour
OB is concerned with understanding, applying and controlling of behavioural and
structural knowledge of an organisation for organisation's effectiveness.
Management function includes Planning, organising, leading and controlling
where people are involved in different roles (interpersonal roles, informational
roles, and decisional roles) and different capacities. Therefore, for an organisation
to succeed it is very important for it to understand its organisation's culture,
people by way of understanding their perception, attitudes, motivation,
personality, key personality characteristics relevant to workplace, learning, job
satisfaction, etc through theories of motivation, learning, and reinforcement. And
mould their dissatifaction to satisfaction, motivate them to achieve desired
results, provide them appropriate work culture, growth opportunities, punish
their inappropriate behaviour, and infusing learning environment and leadership.
Motivation: Maslow’s theory and two factor theory of
Herzberg:-
Motivation: Maslow’s theory :
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory is regarded as one of the most popular
theories on motivation. It is a theory of psychology that explains that humans are
highly motivated in order to fulfill their needs, which is based on hierarchical
order.
It was first introduced by Abraham Maslow in 1943 for his paper titled Theory of
Motivation and is based on a hierarchy of needs, which starts with the most basic
needs and subsequently moves on to higher levels.
The main goal of this need hierarchy theory is to attain the highest position or the
last of the needs, i.e need for self actualization.
In business studies, it is used as a part of organisational behaviour and also
regularly used in psychology lectures.
Maslow was of the view that a person can only move to the subsequent level only
after fulfilling the needs of the current level. The needs at the bottom of the
pyramid are those which are very basic and the most complex needs are placed
on the top of the pyramid.
Let us read in detail about the various steps in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
theory.
1. Physiological needs: The physiological needs are regarded as the most basic of
the needs that humans have. These are needs that are very crucial for our
survival. The examples of physiological needs are food, shelter, warmth, health,
homeostasis and water, etc.
In addition to all the above needs, Abraham Maslow also included sexual
reproduction as one of the most common needs as it is essential for the survival
of the species.
2. Safety Needs: Once the basic needs of food, shelter, water, etc are fulfilled,
there is an innate desire to move to the next level. The next level is known as the
safety needs. Here the primary concern of the individual is related to safety and
security.
Safety and security can be regarding many things like a stable source of income
that provides financial security, personal security from any kind of unnatural
events, attacks by animals and emotional security and physical safety which is
safety to health.
The various actions taken by an individual in ensuring safety and security are
finding a job, getting an insurance policy, choosing a secure neighborhood for
staying with family, etc.
3. Social Needs (Also known as Love and Belonging Needs): This is the third level
in the need hierarchy theory. It is that stage where an individual having fulfilled his
physiological needs as well as safety needs seeks acceptance from others in the
form of love, belongingness.
In this stage, human behaviour is driven by emotions and the need for making
emotional relationships is dominant here.
The following examples can satisfy this need:
1. Friendship
2. Family
3. Intimacy
4. Social Groups
When an individual is deprived of the above needs, he/she feels lonely and
depressed.
4. Esteem needs: This is considered as the fourth level of the hierarchy of needs
theory. It is related to the need of a person being recognised in the society. It
deals with getting recognition, self respect in the society.
The need for recognition and acceptance arises when a person has fulfilled their
need for love and belongingness.
In addition to recognition from others, there is a need for the person to develop
self esteem and personal worth.
5. Self-actualization needs: This is the final level of the theory of hierarchy of
needs as proposed by Maslow. It is the highest level of needs and is known as the
self-actualization needs. It relates to the need of an individual to attain or realise
the full potential of their ability or potential.
Two factor theory of Herzberg:
• The two-factor theory (also known as Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene
theory) argues that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction exist on two different
continua, each with its own set of factors. This runs contrary to the
traditional view of job satisfaction, which posits that job satisfaction and
dissatisfaction are interdependent.
• Herzberg and his collaborators investigated fourteen factors relating to job
satisfaction in their original study, classifying them as either hygienic or
motivational factors. Motivation factors increase job satisfaction while the
presence of hygiene factors prevent job dissatisfaction.
• Although largely replaced by newer theories of motivation in academia, the
two-factor motivation theory still continues to influence popular
management theory and the methodology of studies in some areas of the
world.
Hygiene factors, or extrinsic motivators, tend to represent more tangible, basic
needs—i.e., the kinds of needs included in the existence category of needs in the
ERG theory or in the lower levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Extrinsic
motivators include status, job security, salary, and fringe benefits. It’s important
for managers to realize that not providing the appropriate and expected extrinsic
motivators will sow dissatisfaction and decrease motivation among employees.
Motivation factors, or intrinsic motivators, tend to represent less tangible, more
emotional needs—i.e., the kinds of needs identified in the “relatedness” and
“growth” categories of needs in the ERG theory and in the higher levels of
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Intrinsic motivators include challenging work,
recognition, relationships, and growth potential. Managers need to recognize that
while these needs may fall outside the more traditional scope of what a
workplace ought to provide, they can be critical to strong individual and team
performance.
The factor that differentiates two-factor theory from the others we’ve discussed is
the role of employee expectations. According to Herzberg, intrinsic motivators and
extrinsic motivators have an inverse relationship. That is, intrinsic motivators tend
to increase motivation when they are present, while extrinsic motivators tend to
reduce motivation when they are absent. This is due to employees’ expectations.
Extrinsic motivators (e.g., salary, benefits) are expected, so they won’t increase
motivation when they are in place, but they will cause dissatisfaction when they
are missing. Intrinsic motivators (e.g., challenging work, growth potential), on the
other hand, can be a source of additional motivation when they are available.
If management wants to increase employees’ job satisfaction, they should be
concerned with the nature of the work itself—the opportunities it presents
employees for gaining status, assuming responsibility, and achieving self-
realization. If, on the other hand, management wishes to reduce dissatisfaction,
then it must focus on the job environment—policies, procedures, supervision, and
working conditions. To ensure a satisfied and productive workforce, managers
must pay attention to both sets of job factors.
Application of motivation concepts in organization:-
Motivation concepts in organization
• The term motivation is derived from the Latin word movere, meaning “to
move”.
• Motivation can be referred as a combination of motive and action.
• Motivation is an action word that influences every aspect of our daily lives.
Motivation is fundamental in the level of success an individual attains.
• Motivation is a personal and internal feeling. This feeling arises from needs
and wants.
• Motivation is continuous process because as our one need fulfills it gives
rise to other needs.
• There is general agreement that people are motivated in situations where
they can participate,
• they can feel accomplishment and receive recognition for their work,
• where the communication is frequent and
• there are opportunities for career and knowledge growth
Application of Motivation Theories
A manager is interested in motivating his employees
effectively. He needs specific recommendations that can be
applied in practice. The following suggestion can be given
on the basis of the theories:-
• All motivation theories recognize that employees are not
identical. They have different needs and personality
• Managers should ensure the employees have specific
goals and feedback on how well they are doing in achieving those goals.
• The motivational benefits should be aligned carefully to
match people with their jobs.
• Managers need to make rewards contingent on
performance. Important rewards such as pay increases and promotions, should be
given for the attainment of specific goals. Furthermore, managers should look for
ways to increase the visibility if rewards, making them potentially more
motivating.
• Employees should perceive that rewords or outcomes are equal to the
inputs.
• Employees perform better for managers who care about them.
UNIT V
Personality: Determinants, Psychoanalytic & Trait
theory; Leadership: Trait Theory and Situational theory;
Organizational Culture.
Personality: To begin our discussion of personality, I will offer a definition
but know that no universally accepted definition exists. For our purposes,
personality is defined as an individual’s unique pattern of thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors that persists over time and across situations. Personality traits refer to a
specific set of behaviors or habits that persist over time and across situations.
Traits help us to understand why people respond the way they do when faced
with a situation, and why they approach certain situations and avoid others.
The word personality is derived from a Greek word “persona” which means “to
speak through.” Personality is the combination of characteristics or qualities that
forms a person’s unique identity. It signifies the role which a person plays in
public. Every individual has a unique, personal and major determinant of his
behavior that defines his/her personality.
Personality trait is basically influenced by two major features −
• Inherited characteristics
• Learned characteristics
Inherited Characteristics
The features an individual acquires from their parents or forefathers, in other
words the gifted features an individual possesses by birth is considered as
inherited characteristics. It consists of the following features:
• Color of a person’s eye
• Religion/Race of a person
• Shape of the nose
• Shape of earlobes
Learned Characteristics
Nobody learns everything by birth. First, our school is our home, then our society,
followed by educational institutes. The characteristics an individual acquires by
observing, practicing, and learning from others and the surroundings is known as
learned characteristics.
Learned characteristics includes the following features −
Perception − Result of different senses like feeling, hearing etc.
Values − Influences perception of a situation, decision making process.
Personality − Patterns of thinking, feeling, understanding and behaving.
Attitude − Positive or negative attitude like expressing one’s thought.
Determinants of personality:-
There are four major determinants of personality:
• Biological/Physical Determinants: Hereditary and physical features
• Social Determinants: Sociological aspects related to the community and
his/her role in the community
• Psychological Determinants: Behaviour, emotions, sentiments, thought
patterns and complexes of an individual
• Intellectual Determinants: Values, Humour, Morality, etc.
Physical Determinants of Personality
Biological traits are the foremost parameter that reflects various factors of one’s
personality. Being the essential determinant of personality, it incorporates a
majority of other factors as well which bring out the various insights about an
individual. Some important constituents under the physical determinants of
personality are:
• Hereditary: The features that can be determined from the time of
conception are generally put under hereditary. Sex, physical stature,
temperament, muscle composition, facial features, height etc are the
characteristics that one usually inherits from parents. Thus, through the
hereditary approach, it is evident that the genes located in chromosomes
are the ultimate explanation of personality.
• Physical Features: Physical appearance is also amongst the integral
determinants of personality. How one appears physically actually plays an
important role in how they are perceived by others. Whether one is short,
tall, slim, fat, black or white will obviously have an impression on others and
this will have an influence on the self-conception of the individual. Physical
characters include but are not limited to height, skin tone, weight, hair color,
and beauty.
Psychological Determinants of Personality
Considering a personality as a particular style pertaining to each individual, the
psychological approach is amongst the major determinants of personality. This
specific style which is different for each individual actually gets determined
through the accumulative characteristics of mental trends, emotions, sentiments,
thought patterns and complexes. Further, it also studies an individual’s mental
conflicts, wishes, aspirations, feelings of repression, sublimation and emotional
well-being.
Social Determinants of Personality
The social determinants analyse a personality as per the status of the individual in
their social group or community and consider the individual’s conception of their
role in the group is like. The key factor that this approach weighs in is what others
perceive us as plays a greater role in the formation of our personality.
The era has seen the widespread emergence of communication tools, especially
through social media. Social media influencers hold an authoritative power to
influence the masses around the globe. Hence, anyone’s personality is majorly
persuaded by the social lives they lead and are a part of. Through socializing, be it
virtual or real, one encounters a plethora of other individuals which some way or
the other leave a mark on our personalities. The process starts as soon as we step
into the real world from the playschool we go to peers and friends, amongst
others. Our social life is one of the essential determinants of personality and that’s
why we are always advised to choose our social circle wisely.
Intellectual Determinants of Personality
Intelligence is another essential factor that can play an important role in the
development of our personality. Our intellect can influence various aspects and
areas of our behaviour which in turn, can determine our personality. Here are the
intellectual determinants of Personality:
• Humour: Humour is one of the integral intellectual determinants of
personality as it helps us get a realistic view of things, facilitates social
acceptance and further also ironically brings forward a lighter perspective
of life.
• Morality: Our intellect and worldview plays a crucial role in the
development of our morality and how we see certain things as moral or
immoral. Thus, morality is another factor that determines our intellect and
thus overall personality as well.
• Values: An individual learns about values from his/her upbringing as well as
from the society they are brought up in. These values and beliefs also form
 our intellectual behaviour and thus are an important determinant of our
personality.
Psychoanalytic & Trait theory:-
Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud is credited with the psychoanalytic theory. In his 40 years of
writing and clinical practice.
Freud, acknowledged as one of the intellectual giants in the history of modem
thought, developed the first comprehensive personality theory. It is an extensive
body of clinical observations based on his therapeutic experience and self-
analysis. Freud proposed a three-part personality structure consisting of the id,
the ego, and the superego.
It operates on the pleasure principle, which is that every wishful impulse should
be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences.
The id, the largest part of the mind, is related to desires and impulses and is the
main source of basic biological needs. The ego is related to reasoning and is the
conscious, rational part of the personality; it monitors behavior in order to satisfy
basic desires without suffering negative consequences.
The superego, or conscience, develops through interactions with others to
conform to the norms of society. Freud suggested that the three structures, i.e.,
id, ego, and superego, can be depicted diagrammatically to show how they are
related to the conscious and unconscious.
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory has been criticized by someone.
One criticism of the theory is that the approach is not based on empirically
verifiable facts. The psychoanalytic elements are largely hypothetical constructs
and are not measurable, observable items susceptible to scientific analysis and
verification.
Another criticism is that it is based almost entirely upon his observations of
emotionally disturbed individuals. It may not represent an appropriate description
of a normal, healthy personality.
Trait Theory
A trait differentiates one from another in a relatively permanent or consistent
way. A trait of an individual is abstracted from his behavior and serves as a useful
“unit of analysis” to understand personality.
In many ways, the trait theory is multiple types theory model that are concerned
with determining the basic traits, providing a meaningful description of
personality, and finding some way to measure them. There are two ways of
assessing personality traits:
• The person describes himself by answering questions about his attitudes,
feelings, and behaviors.
• Someone else evaluates the person’s traits either from what he knows
about the individual or from direct observation of behavior.
A personality inventory is essentially a questionnaire in which the person reports
reactions or feelings in certain situations.
A personality inventory asks each person the same questions, and the answers are
usually given in a form that can be easily scored. A personality inventory may be
designed to measure a single dimension of personality or simultaneously measure
several personality traits.
There are 3 main contributors to trait theory. They are-
Gordon Allport
Gordon Allport was one of the first modem trait theorists. In 1936, Allport and
Henry Odbert worked through two of the most comprehensive dictionaries of the
English language available and extracted around 18,000 personality-describing
words, which were reduced to around 4000 words. Allport organized these traits
into a hierarchy of three levels:
1.Cardinal Traits: These are traits that dominate an individual’s whole life, often to
the point that the person becomes known specifically for these traits. People with
such personalities often become so known for these traits that their names are
often synonymous with them. Allport suggested that cardinal traits are rare and
tend to develop later in life.
2.Central traits: These traits come next in the hierarchy. These general
characteristics are found in varying degrees in every person, such as loyalty,
kindness, agreeableness, friendliness, intelligence, honesty, shyness, anxiety, etc.,
and are considered central traits. They are the basic building blocks that shape
most of our behavior.
3.Secondary Traits: These traits are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences
and often appear only in certain situations or under specific circumstances. For
example, a friendly person gets angry when people try to tickle him; another is
not anxious but always feels nervous speaking publicly.
Raymond Cattell
In 1965, trait theorist Raymond Cattell reduced the number of main personality
traits from Allport’s initial list of over 4,000 down to 171, mostly by eliminating
uncommon traits and combining common characteristics.
Then, using a statistical technique known as factor analysis, he identified closely
related terms and eventually reduced his list to just 16 key personality traits.
Cattell argued that it is necessary to look at a much larger number of traits in
order to get a complete picture of someone’s personality. Cattell collected data
from a range of people through three different sources of data.
• L-data – this is life record data such as school grades, absence from work,
etc.
• Q-data – this was a questionnaire designed to rate an individual’s
personality.
• T-data – is data from objective tests designed to ‘tap’ into a personality
construct.
Hans Eysenck
Hans Eysenck was a personality theorist who focused on temperament—innate,
genetically based personality differences.
He believed personality is largely governed by biology, and he viewed people as
having two specific personality dimensions: extroversion vs. introversion and
neuroticism vs. stability.
After collaborating with his wife and fellow personality theorist Sybil Eysenck, he
added a third dimension to this model: psychoticism vs. socialization.
• Introversion/Extraversion
Introversion involves directing attention to inner experiences, while extraversion
relates to focusing attention outward on other people and the environment. So, a
person high in introversion might be quiet and reserved, while an individual high
in extraversion might be sociable and outgoing.
• Neuroticism/Emotional Stability
In this case, people high on neuroticism tend to be anxious and have an overactive
sympathetic nervous system. Even with low stress, their bodies and emotional
state tend to go into a flight-or-fight reaction. In contrast, people high on stability
tend to need more stimulation to activate their flight-or-fight reaction and are
therefore considered more emotionally stable.
• Psychoticism/Socialization
In this dimension, it is said that individuals who are high on this trait tend to have
difficulty dealing with reality and may be antisocial, hostile, non-empathetic, and
manipulative. People high on socialization tend to have high impulse control—
they are more altruistic, empathetic, cooperative, and conventional.
Leadership: Trait Theory and Situational theory:-
Early ideas about leadership, described by the Great Man theory, focused on the
innate qualities of individuals. In the 1950s, leadership theory focused on the
situational interaction of traits, then in the 1970s personality and behaviour
dominated. The current theory, known as trait theory, focuses on five major
leadership traits of intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity, and
sociability.
The trait theory of leadership suggests that certain inborn or innate qualities and
characteristics make someone a leader. These qualities might be personality
factors, physical factors, intelligence factors, and so on. In essence, trait theory
proposes that the leader and leaders’ traits are central to an organisation’s
success. The assumption here is that finding people with the right traits will
increase organisational performance. Trait theory focuses exclusively on the
leader and neglects the follower.
Characteristics of Trait Theory of Leadership
Researchers have long studied the typical characteristics of effective leaders that
can most accurately predict an individual's leadership potential. Accordingly, there
are eight main characteristics of individuals that, according to the current body of
research regarding the trait theory of leadership, can most precisely indicate an
individual's ability to lead effectively.
1.Extraverted personality - The Big Five framework has stated extraversion as the
most predictive trait of effective leadership. Extraverts are often regarded as
leaders, given their dominant sociable characteristics.
2.Conscientiousness and openness to experience - Effective leaders are open-
minded and conscientious about new experiences and ideas. Based on Fortune
500 organizations, a study suggests that conscientious aspects, including
achievement striving or dutifulness, can be attributed to potential leader
effectiveness.
3.High responsibility - Successful leaders are also autonomously responsible for
their own decisions and the decisions of their followers without any excuse and at
any cost.
4.Goal-oriented Thinking - Leaders always take actions with predetermined and
clear goals. Generally, the objectives are long-term and beneficial for the entire
group.
5.Task Competency and Efficiency - Leaders are expected to understand a wide
range of specializations. Further, they constantly seek chances to maintain their
competency at work as an example for their subordinates within the
organizations.
6.Great Empathy - Effective leaders also possess high levels of empathy for their
subordinates. They are willing to assist each member in growing as an individual,
as they understand that individual growth is essential to long-term organizational
growth.
7.Communication and Charm - Effective leaders can communicate plans and ideas
to their subordinates. Plus, they are highly convincing in explaining complicated
concepts in easy-to-understand words and in a charismatic manner.
8.Achievement Striving - Successful leaders also ambitiously thrive towards
constant achievement and success. They highly desire both personal success and
team success.
Situational Leadership Theory
An example of situational leadership would be a leader adapting their approach
based on the needs of their team members. One team member might be less
experienced and require more oversight, while another might be more
knowledgable and capable of working independently.
In order to lead effectively, the three skills needed to utilize situational leadership
are diagnosis, flexibility, and communication. Leaders must be able to evaluate the
situation, adapt as needed, and communicate their expectations with members of
the group.Important elements of situational leadership theory are the styles of
leadership that are used, the developmental level of team members, the
adaptability of the leader, communication with group members, and the
attainment of the group's goals.
Situational leadership theory is a strategy that designates a leadership style to a
given situation based on a number of factors. Situational leaders adapt their
leadership styles according to the competency and commitment level of
employees. Situational leadership is a flexible style designed to maximize
employee potential while meeting corporate deadlines or milestones. Situational
leaders strive to:
• Drive results by answering the what and the how of a project
• Develop people and appropriate workgroups
• Establish relationships and motivate employees
• Recognize when to adapt leadership styles over time
Organizational Culture:-
Organizational culture is generally understood as all of a company’s beliefs, values
and attitudes, and how these influence the behaviour of its employees.
Culture affects how people experience an organization—that is, what it’s like for a
customer to buy from a company or a supplier to work with it. It shows up in
company policies such as dress code and office hours. It also informs things such
as workspace design and employee perks. Culture is usually set by a company’s
leaders.
Companies don’t tend to define their cultures explicitly; they tend to emerge from
what people believe, how they think, what they say and what they do. Culture
shapes what behaviour is acceptable or unacceptable. Culture may help define
values and core principles that guide organizational behaviour.
In periods of organizational change, culture can either be a help or a hindrance.
For example, an organization with a culture of collaboration and adaptability may
embrace change, while a less flexible, more bureaucratic culture may not respond
well to transformation. Leaders need to be aware of this when guiding their
organization through periods of change.
Paper 3 : Advance Housekeeping Operation
UNIT I
Manpower planning for housekeeping department,
Managing housekeeping personnel,Housekeeping
inventories, Supervision in housekeeping ; Recycled &
Non-recycled items
Manpower planning for housekeeping department:
The staff strength of the housekeeping department mainly depends on the size
and structure of the hotel, that is, whether it has a compact structure with
clusters of rooms, the number of rooms per cluster or floor, the expanse of the
public areas and landscaped areas, and so on. The general rule of thumb that aid
in determining staff strength in the housekeeping department is given below.
Thumb rules for determining staff strength
• Executive housekeeper: 1 for a 300 room property
• Assistant housekeepers: 2 (1 per morning and evening shift)
• Floor supervisors: 1 per 60 rooms for the morning shift; 1 for the evening
shift; 1 for the night shift.
• Public area supervisors: 1 for each shift
• Linen/uniform room supervisors: 1
• Room attendants: 1 per 16 rooms for the morning shift; 1 per 30 rooms for
the evening shift (if turn down service is provided)
• Linen and uniform room attendants: 2
• Housemen: depends on the size of public areas and functions expected, but
on average, 1 per 60 rooms
• Desk attendants: 1 per shift
• Tailors/upholsterers: 2 (may differ depending on the size of the hotel)
• Horticulturist: 1
• Head gardeners: 1 per 20 horticulturists
 • Gardeners: 1 per 4500 sq. ft of landscaped area.
Planning Duty Roasters: Duty roasters specify the allotment of jobs, hours of duty,
and days off for each member of the staff. To make for an even share of duties, the
roaster should be rotated every five weeks. Duty roasters must be simple in
format, easy to interpret, clearly written, and displayed on the staff notice board
at least a week in advance.
Advantages for a duty roaster:
· Planning a duty roaster in advance helps to ensure:
· The exact number of staff required to be on duty at any given occupancy.
· That staff working hours are as per their employment contract.
· That regular off-days are availed for enhancing productivity.
· Knowledge of which employees are present on the premises in instances of
emergencies.
· Accuracy in attendance and payroll reports.
Steps in making a roaster: the steps in making a duty roaster are as follows:
Step 1: Ascertain occupancy levels and events expected in the hotel. This
information is provided by the sales and marketing department at the beginning
of the financial year. On a daily and a weekly basis, more specific reports of
occupancy are available through coordination with the front office department.
The overall forecasts of occupancy must be considered before scheduling the
employees’ annual leave. These forecasts also help the executive housekeeper to
follow the staffing to ensure sufficient staff at peak periods and avoid excess labor
during slack periods.
Step 2: Ascertain the spread of duty hours to be scheduled in the duty roaster,
whether 12 hours, 16 hours, or 24 hours. Decide whether the positions will work
for 5 or 7 days per week.
Step 3: Ascertain the type of shift-straight shift, break shift, rotating shift, or any
other alternative scheduling-to be used.
Step 4: Ascertain the number of full time and part time staff on the payroll.
Step 5: Ascertain the number of labor hours per day and per week required for
various positions.
Step 6: Incorporate coffee breaks and mealtime allowances in the roaster.
Step 7: Ascertain that each employee gets a weekly off day after 6 working days.
Provide for compensatory offs. Schedule one reliever per 6 employees.
Step 8: Ascertain closed days and restricted holidays, and any contingency
planning that may be needed.
Managing housekeeping personnel:
Personnel attributes of housekeeping staff in the hospitality industry
play an important role. It enhances the images of the property as well
as the quality of personalization that only humans can give. These
attributes are based on the following term.
1. Pleasant Personality
A result of good grooming and presentation in front of the guest. The
way the staff looks is the first impression on the guest and by this
look, the guest judges the quality of service/ standards provided by
the organization. All HK staff should be well-groomed.
• Clean Crisp Uniform
• If long hair -Tied neat hair
• Minimum jewellery
• Light makeup
• Aftershave/ Perfume – not too strong
• H/k Attendants may be given Hair caps.
• Clean Footwear- comfortable, low heels
• Mannerisms to avoid- scratching, digging into nose/ ear,chewing gum, etc in
public.
2. Physical Fitness
“A Strong Heart and Good Feet” to cope up with 24 X 7 operations
and also a labour-intensive department.
3. Personal hygiene
It is important since it reflects the hygiene standards of the
organization.
• Bathe daily- no body odour
• Nails Clipped and clean
• Mouth- Odour free
• Scalp – clean, dandruff free
• Infection- report immediately; Cuts and wounds- covered
4. Eye for detail
The critical power of observation distinguishes good service from
average. This is important to make a flawless room.
5. Cooperation
H/k involves a lot of teamwork.
6. Adaptability
Technology is fast upgrading hence all H/k staff should be open to
accept these changes and adapt accordingly.
7. Honesty
It is essential since it is the H/k staff who have access to the guest
rooms even when the guest is not present in the room.
8. Tact & Diplomacy
To cope up with the different types of guests since H/k staff come in
close contact with them. They should be able to handle problem
guests also without being rude or hurting his/ her sentiments.
9. Right Attitude
Includes:
• Optimism
• Ready to learn from own mistakes
• Proactive and anticipate guest needs
• The display even temper, courtesy, and good humour.
10. Calm demeanor
Helps in the time of emergencies when a person does not panic and
handles the problem effectively.
11. Courteous
To both guests and colleagues.
• Humble
• Polite
• No unnecessary argumentative nature.
12. Punctuality
Reporting for duty on time displays commitment to work.
13. Good Memory
Especially in the case of repeat guests. It feels nice if someone
remembers the guest likes, dislikes or wish, etc.
Housekeeping inventories:
The term inventory means the stocks of purchased operating supplies, equipment
and other itemsheld for future use in housekeeping operations. The executive
housekeeper is responsible for two types of inventories:
Recycled Inventories: These are for items that have relatively limited useful lives
but are used over and over again in housekeeping operations. Recycled inventory
items include linen, uniforms, most machinery and large pieces of equipment and
guest loan items such as irons, ironing boards, hair dryers, heating pads, hot-water
bottles and so on.
Non Recycled inventories: These are for items that are used up repeatedly during
the course of routine housekeeping operations. Items of non –recycled inventory
include most guest amenities, cleaning supplies, and smaller cleaning equipment
such as brooms, mops, cleaning cloths and so
on.
The executive housekeeper must establish reasonable levels for both recycled and
non-recycled inventories. Overstocking should be avoided, as it ties up cash and
calls for a larger storage area. There should be an effective purchasing system to
consistently maintain the inventory levels set by the executive housekeeper. To
maintain the inventory levels, the executive housekeeper needs to determine the
par level for each inventory item.
Inventory control is maintained by every department in hotel to manage its
inventories efficiently. Since uniform, cleaning supplies, equipment’s and linen are
heavy investments, it is necessary to keep a close control on this very important
asset. The benefits or importance of inventory control is listed in following points:
1. It enables housekeeping department to provide better services to its customers.
2. It keeps a smooth flow of Housekeeping supplies and aids in continuing
operations.
3. It checks and maintains the right stock in department and reduces the risk of
loss.
4. It makes effective use of working capital by avoiding over-stocking.
5. It helps to maintain a check on loss of materials due to carelessness or pilferage
(stealing).
6. It facilitates cost accounting activities.
7. It avoids duplication in ordering of stock.
8. It helps housekeeping department for forecasting and budgeting.
9. By managing inventory better, housekeeping department can avoid dead stock.
10. It manages storage space very efficiently.
11. Shortage or poor stock rotation will reduce standards and therefore directly
reduce revenue.
12. Excessive stock may constitute a safety risk and reduce cash flow.
13. Losses may occur will must be identified, caused established and controls
implemented.
14. Monitoring of use and product evaluation is better achieved.
15. Budgetary control is facilitated.
16. Standardization of quality is facilitated.
Supervision in housekeeping:
supervision is the ability of a person to understand individual capabilities,
evaluate their skills and abilities, to gauge individual qualities, and to organize
oneself in order to aptly adapt to any situation, particularly the work
environment.
In certain situations, some organizations follow this kind of supervision method.
The way supervisors would communicate with the employees and check for work
progress is through email or chat even if they are in the same office.
In a way, the workers still feel that they are not closely supervised and can work
on their tasks comfortably. Sometimes, the presence of a supervisor can frighten
the employees and cause them to worry about the possibility that their superiors
are looking at their computer monitors or sorting through the paper works on
their desks.Individuals who have the ability to manage their own lives are
admirable. They are often seen as people who have a strong sense of direction
and have the potential to become great achievers. Self-supervised individuals
were not born with such skills; they learned to take control of their lives with
practice and exposure, sometimes with the aid of seasoned experts in self-
supervision.
Learning how to self-supervise is beneficial in many ways. You can be totally
independent in decision-making. You do not have to worry about having no sense
of direction because you are able to guide your actions and the choices you make.
You enjoy the freedom of being totally in control of yourself, your work, and your
life. Also, you are challenged to discipline yourself and place limitations on your
actions, whenever necessary.
The workplace setting imposes a lot of supervision to employees for proper
guidance and management. Yet, as ideas about organizational designs are
becoming more pragmatic, many companies now shift from a traditional
hierarchical structure to a revolutionary self-supervised structure. This transition
has paved the way for a realization that allowing career individuals to have their
own share of independence and self-supervision in their work is very beneficial to
the company‟s success and the relationship between management and
employees.
Management has various ways and means to motivate employees to become
independent and autonomous in the workplace. Here are some ways to do it:
 Delegate special projects and let them work on it with less supervision.
 Utilize the skills and competencies of the employees for which they are
hired.These skills may be applied through regular tasks and workloads where they
can widen their knowledge and develop their abilities.
 Let them participate in trainings and workshops to enhance their skills and learn
more.
 Allow them to learn from their own mistakes and avoid having to reprimand
them for a shortcoming as it will only lower their self-esteem. Give them a chance
to straighten out their flaws.
 Pose challenges and problems that will require them to think out of the box and
analyze the situation. This helps develop their problem solving and
decisionmaking abilities.
 Conduct group activities wherein group leaders will be appointed in order to
make them experience the role of a supervisor.
 Don‟t try to control everything. Simply lay out their daily or weekly tasks and let
them figure out how they will go about accomplishing them.
Recycled & Non-recycled items:
The term inventory means the stocks of purchased operating supplies, equipment
and other items held for future use in housekeeping operations. The executive
housekeeper is responsible for two types of inventories:
Recycled Inventories: These are for items that have relatively limited useful lives
but are used over and over again in housekeeping operations. Recycled inventory
items include linen, uniforms, most machinery and large pieces of equipment and
guest loan items such as irons, ironing boards, hair dryers, heating pads, hot-water
bottles and so on.It includes linen equipments & some guest supplies like extra
bed, iron, etc. The no. of recycled items that must be on hand to ensure smooth
operations is expressed as a ‘PAR’. It refers to the standard number of items that
must be on hand to support daily routine housekeeping operations e.g. One par
of linen is the total number of items needed to outfit all the hotel guestrooms
once. Most sister hotels would on a ‘four-par’ of guest rooms linen (guestroom,
floor pantry, laundry & linen).
Non Recycled inventories: These are for items that are used up repeatedly during
the course of routine housekeeping operations. Items of non –recycled inventory
include most guest amenities, cleaning supplies, and smaller cleaning equipment
such as brooms, mops, cleaning cloths and so on.
The executive housekeeper must establish reasonable levels for both recycled and
non-recycled inventories. Overstocking should be avoided, as it ties up cash and
calls for a larger storage area.
There should be an effective purchasing system to consistently maintain the
inventory levels set by the executive housekeeper. To maintain the inventory
levels, the executive housekeeper needs to determine the par level for each
inventory item.
UNIT II
Types of flooring-hard, soft, semi-hard, characteristics,
cleaning methods; Linen and
laundry operations, Interior designing: types, elements
and principles; Contract
services-advantages & disadvantages
Types of flooring-hard:
HARD AND SEMI HARD FLOOR SURFACES

Stone Floor Surfaces: These are commonly used in areas that must withstand
heavy traffic, repeated washing and movement of goods. These floors are
extremely durable and hygienic.
Concrete: It is composed of cement and sand. Pigments may be added to provide
colour. This floor can withstand large weights but is damaged by acids and alkalis.
It is suitable for stores, sub-floors, laundry, staircase etc. Concrete is extremely
porous, hard and soiled easily. A scaler may be applied to make it stain resistant.
These floors are suitable in halls, lounges, corridors, and bathrooms and as
tabletops.
Wooden Floor Surfaces: These floors are used in all types of establishments for
corridors, dance floors, bar areas, dining halls, game rooms etc. They are more
attractive than stone but are very porous and easily damaged by moisture and
pests. A ceiling polish must be applied to increase durability. Strips of wood are
cut into varying lengths and laid on a subfloor. The colour of the floor will depend
upon the type of wood used. Oak and teak are the common types of wood used
for flooring. Designs can be created by varying the colour of wooden tiles (blocks)
and arranging them in different patterns.
Cork Tiles: Cork is obtained from the bark of the cork of oak tree. It is the least
resistant of the hard floor surface. It is a good insulator, warm, resilient and quite
easy to maintain. It has a high degree of slip resistance but the tiles cannot
withstand heavy furniture, grease, and moisture and alkalis. The colour of natural
cork is brown and pigments may be added to obtain other colours e.g. Green.
Resilient Floor Surfaces: These floor surfaces include certain plastics or finishes
which make them moisture and grease resilient.
Terrazzo: This consists of marble chips, set in cement. It may be plain or coloured
and ground smooth. This is not used in small areas but preferred around pools
and in gardens. These floors are porous and damaged by acids, alkalis and grease.
They are unharmed by water and have good slip resistance when polished. The
common colours are white, green, blue and black.
Ceramic Tiles: Ceramic tiles are made of clay and fired at high temperature. They
are hand or machine made, glazed and unglazed. Shapes of the tiles may be
square, rectangular or hexagonal. Tiles are waterproof and impervious to cleaning
liquid. They are commonly used in bathrooms, kitchens, laundry, canteens, bars
etc. These floors are hard, noisy and tire the feet. Ceramic floors should not be
polished since that would make it dangerously slippery.
Mosaic: They are made of glass, silica and clay. They may be set directly on the
floor or made as tiles and laid on a subfloor unaffected by pests or fungi and the
glass can be retained for a long time.
Timber: Well-maintained timber floor surfaces provide attractive hygienic, warm
and serviceable floors for a long time. They may be laid as strips, boards or
blocks. Floorboards are made from softwoods while strips are constructed from
hardwoods. The colour of the floor depends upon the natural grain. A sealer may
be applied or a polish given to the wooden floor to make it glossy and dirt
resistant.
Chip Board: Chipboard is obtained by mixing wood chippings or sawdust with
resin or cement at high temperature and pressure. Unlike timber, it does not
warm or split.
Linoleum: This is made up of lignum, i.e. flax and ileum in oil. Ground corkwood,
linseed oil and resins (gum) are pressed on to a jute backing. This is prepared in
sheet or tile form. Plain colours marbling or patterns may be applied for
decorative effect. Linoleum may crack if laid on the poor quality subfloor. It is hard
wearing, resilient and warm, but may peel, rot and gets destroyed by alkalis. It is
non-flammable but burns marks can be seen. This is suitable for the linen room,
store pantry, kitchen stores.
Rubber: Rubber floors are usually made by a combination of natural and synthetic
rubber. They may be laid in sheets or tile form. They may be coloured and
mottled with inlaid patterns. The floor is hard wearing, resilient, quiet and
waterproof. It is non-slip and maybe grease resistant. Damage may occur due to
alkalis, acids and spirits. They are not affected by mould, bacteria and pest
infestation. It is commonly used in kitchens, bathrooms, health clubs, near
swimming pools etc.
Thermoplastic Floors: These are made of asphalt, fibres, mineral fillers and
pigments or synthetic resins with a vinyl binder. The tiles are usually dark
coloured and quite durable. They have good thermal insulation and are resistant
to water. They are damaged by heat, acids and alkalis. They are useful in
canteens, corridors, shops and offices. PVC may be added to make hard
thermoplastic more flexible.
Vinyl: Vinyl is made from asbestos, fibres, mineral pigments and PVC. They are
very hygienic and deal in hospitals, kitchens, dining area, nurseries, common
rooms, lifts etc. They are water and oil resistant and can be made slip resistant.
They are damaged by cleaning gels, high temperature and acids.
Floor Coverings or soft floors

Floor coverings or soft floors are used for variety in colour, texture and design.
They are warm, durable, quiet, slip resistant and economical. Various types of
colourings may be used in different areas depending upon the cost of
maintenance, cost of installation, attractiveness and use.
Soft floor coverings commonly consist of two types: Carpets and Rugs.
Carpets: Carpets are used extensively in hotels and institutional establishment.
The type of carpet selected will depend upon the suitability and traffic in the area.
They may be used in bedrooms, lounges, TV rooms, restaurants, office and
corridors. A good quality carpet should be able to withstand spillages, cigarette
ash and grit. They must also be resilient to heavy furniture.
Carpet Construction: Carpets consist of three layers: a pile, a background and an
underlay. The pile is held into the backing with knots and adhesives. The
underlay acts as a shock absorber between the backing and the subfloor. It makes
the carpet softer and provides insulation. Underlay may be made of felt, rubber,
foam or jute with polypropylene backing.
Backing: Natural materials like jute, hemp, glue and starch are used with resin,
synthetic rubber and polypropylene to form the backing. A secondary backing
may be added to improve resilience.
Pile: The carpet pile absorbs most of the wear. It should be strong and resilient,
shrink- proof, moth proof and flameproof. The carpet pile is frequently made of
blends of fibres.
Wool: Woollen carpets are warm, soft, resilient and do not attract dirt. However,
they are difficult to maintain and quite expensive. They may be blended with 20%
nylon.
Acrylic: This is close to wool in appearance, wears well, is warm and resilient but
soils easily. This is not easy to clean and not fire resistant.
Polyester: This is often blended with nylon. This is waterproof, easy to clean, soft
and hard wearing.
Viscose Rayon: This is inexpensive and not hard wearing and is sometimes used in
blended carpets along with nylon.
characteristics:
Hard flooring includes natural and artificial materials that are not flexible and do
not bend when stepped on. They are resilient, durable and resistant to wear
thanks to their hard, smooth surfaces. Hard flooring includes the following
flooring types:
Parquet flooring
This natural flooring is usually made of hardwood such as oak, beech or walnut.
Parquet flooring can last for decades with proper care. With its characteristic
wooden structure and warmth, parquet flooring can lend any room a harmonious,
cosy and elegant vibe.
Today, most manufacturers only use ecologically sourced, sustainable wood in the
production of their parquet flooring. The MEISTER parquet planks consist of a thin
wear layer made of real wood, a stable HDF middle layer, and backing.
Solid wooden planks
Flooring made from solid wooden planks is one of the oldest types of flooring, and
is still wildly popular today. Planks made from woods like oak, pine, larch or
spruce are sophisticated and create a timeless, old-world atmosphere.
The wear layer in plank flooring is much thicker than in parquet flooring, as it is
generally made entirely of solid wood. For this reason, the planks can even be
sanded down multiple times, making the flooring particularly long-lasting.
Depending on the subfloor, solid wooden planks can be laid as a floating
installation, screwed or bonded. Experts can provide valuable tips on laying solid
wooden planks so that your dream flooring will last a lifetime.
Real wood flooring such as parquet and solid wooden planks are sensitive to
moisture. It is generally best to lay them in rooms where the humidity is at a
consistently moderate level. Solid wood is particularly susceptible to warping if
the humidity in the room is too high or too low. This creates joints that make the
planks creak or squeak.
Laminate flooring
Laminate flooring is probably one of the most popular and best-selling hard
floorings. It consists of a blend of natural materials that can be used to create an
extensive range of unique designs. Today, many high-quality decors are
indistinguishable from real wood flooring. Laminate flooring can even be used to
create stone decors or individual designs.
Under the decor paper is a sturdy HDF board (high-density fibreboard) that
ensures the necessary stability and is partly even water-resistant. A walking layer
of melamine resin is applied to the decor paper, making the laminate flooring
highly durable and long-lasting.
Ceramica and natural stone tile
In living spaces, tiles are most commonly found in kitchens and bathrooms. This is
where they play to their strengths: They are extremely durable, waterproof and
resistant to dirt. Concrete, natural stone, patterned or used look: The range of tile
designs leaves nothing to be desired.
Ceramic tiles differ in their grain and the size of their pores. Fine ceramic tiles are
usually laid in living areas. These can be broken down into earthenware,
stoneware and fine stoneware tiles; fine stoneware is particularly hard and
waterproof.
Unlike ceramic tiles, natural stone tiles are not made of ground-up materials that
are pressed into shape; rather, they are cut directly from select blocks of stone
such as marble, granite or slate. This means that each and every natural stone tile
is unique – and also more expensive than ceramic tiles.
Soft flooring is characterised by a high level of elasticity. Unlike hard flooring, soft
flooring has a bit of give when walked on, meaning that footfalls on elastic flooring
are much more muffled than on hard flooring. Soft or elastic flooring includes the
following flooring types:
Vinyl flooring/PVC
Vinyl or PVC flooring (polyvinyl chloride) is a varied alternative to laminate
flooring. The soft polymer flooring is naturally warm to the foot, easy on the joints
and muffles the sound of footsteps. Modern vinyl flooring is available in many
different designs, such a wood or stone looks. However, PVC flooring contains
plasticisers; consequently, it is not considered environmentally friendly, and it is
susceptible to permanent dents. Design flooring can be a good alternative here.
Vinyl flooring is particularly abrasion-resistant and easy to maintain, making it an
excellent choice for private living spaces as well as commercial areas. It is available
on rolls or as a practical click variant that has a construction similar to laminate
flooring and is correspondingly easy to lay.
Design flooring
Design flooring offers all the benefits of vinyl flooring without the PVC or harmful
plasticisers. It’s essentially vinyl flooring without vinyl. Consequently, from a
health and environmental safety standpoint, this flooring is completely non-
harmful. Many design floorings are waterproof and can be used in humid rooms.
And like vinyl flooring, there are no limits on the styles you can create with design
flooring. Decors such as high quality wood or stone looks are practically
indistinguishable from the real thing.
Design flooring can be bonded or installed as a floating floor. Its low installation
height makes it ideal for laying directly on top of old flooring, as long as the old
flooring is even and clean.
Carpet
While it may be true that no other flooring is as soft or as warm underfoot as
carpet, carpet does present some disadvantages when compared to parquet,
laminate, or design flooring. It is much more difficult to keep carpet clean, for one.
Dirt and bacteria can more easily hide in carpet than on smooth flooring that is
mopped regularly. In that sense, parquet and similar flooring is much tougher and
more hygienic. What’s more, carpet is often firmly bonded to the subfloor, whilst
floating installation is an easy option for other types of flooring. This means that
carpet involves more work to lay and remove.
cleaning methods:-
Cleaning of Hard floorings
• Daily cleaning – Sweep and damp mop/ Vaccum cleaning
• Periodically – wash/ scrub with detergent suds. Rinse Dry and Polish.
• Sealed to make the floor non-slip and resistant to dirt.
• For tiles care to be taken to clean the grouting regularly with detergent and
toothbrush.
Cleaning of Semi-Hard flooring
• Daily cleaning – Sweep and Damp Mop / Vaccum cleaning
• Periodic cleaning – Soft scrubbing with Neutral detergent lather. Rinse with
a damp mop. Polish. If it is a sealed flooring use a self shine polish
occasionally
• For rubber, floorings wash only when dirty and don’t over-wet
Cleaning of soft flooring
• Professional cleaning: Manufacturers recommend yearly professional
cleaning for soft floors as normal cleaning can fade off the original look of
the floor.
• Regular vacuuming and wiping: Vacuum cleaning removes the allergens and
other minute particles present on the floor, while wiping prevents the
formation of a layer of dirt.
• Use mats and rugs: Mats and rugs have micro-fibers in them, which when
placed in high traffic areas are capable of trapping soil, moisture, and other
dirt particles.
Linen and laundry operations:-
• Laundry department is very crucial to the success of a housekeeping
department.
• The Linen and Laundry section is responsible for the processing of all requests
for laundry service, including guest laundry, employees’ uniforms and linen used
for banquet functions.
• The laundry operations are frequently outsourced in a hotel because they are
expensive in-house and more likely, because hotel staff don’t have the necessary
expertise.
•The laundry section is usually managed by a Laundry Manager or Supervisor and
is mananged with the following personnel:
1.Valet runner – picks up and delivers guest laundry
2.Sorter / maker – sorts, classifies and labels laundry items
3.Linen attendant – does the recording, storage and issuance of linen
4.Laundry AttendantWasher– responsible for washing and during laundry items
5.Flat ironer/Wrangler – does the ironing
6.Steam presser – perform steam pressing
7.Dry-cleaner presser – assigned to do dry cleaning and spot removal
8.Seamstress – does mending of guest laundry or employees uniforms
PROCEDURE OF PROCESSING GUEST LAUNDRY
1.Guest shall fill up the laundry list and shall request for pick-up either through
the housekeeping or laundry office guest phone or through the front desk or to
any room service or room attendant.
2.If the pick-up request is coursed for the processing of the items, call the linen
attendant, valet runner or room boy for pick-up of the items.
3.The laundry list and laundry items are picked up by concerned staff.
4.Upon pick-up of the laundry items, the attending staff checks items on the list in
front of the guest if he is around. If the guest is not around, he checks it in the
presence of a floor guard or room boy supervisor who will be serving as witness
for damages.
5.Items for washing are endorsed to washer for processing. Upon receipt of the
items, the washer shall count and double check items against the laundry list; sort
and classify them, then place the appropriate tag.
6.If the item is fit for other forms of processing, it is endorsed to other laundry
staff.
7.If the item needs no further processing, it is placed inside the pigeon box
according to tag.
8.If the item is ready for delivery, the linen attendant / valet runner sorts them
against the laundry list, collects altogether laundry items of each guest in the
garment bag, attaches the laundry list to the bag and endorses it to then presser
or linen attendant.
Interior designing:
Architecture and interior design are closely related. Together they comprise the
creative effect whose primary object is the composition of beautiful and
functional space by using principles and elements of designing extensively.
Therefore interior decoration is concerned with particular and special expressions,
their furnishings, furniture, wall coverings, floor coverings, its accessories and
other luxurious items finally governed by the way the room is set-up. “Art” is
involved in most of the objects. Fundamentals to impart “Art” with good taste are
of great need.
Good flexible guides to interior decoration and an understanding of its principles
helps one to differentiate between rich and gaudy, and recognize the potential
when the factor “beauty” changes the monotony in an imaginative world. With
application of these principles, the meaning of interior decoration broadens and
deepens. Training will show how merely a variation in proportion or addition of
simple note of contact will result in quality and beauty that may otherwise be
lacking.
Too often it is thought that “art” is synonymous with painting, drawings or
sculptures; but every item in interior décor may have the expression of “art”. “Art”
is of two kinds: –
1.Visible
2.Invisible
Art and designing are a process of choice, selection, organization, arrangement
and equalization of items with each other and the upkeep of this with two aims –
“order and beauty”. “Order” is that which denotes organization and set-up in
structure. “Beauty” shows the character through the interpretation of art and idea
by the individual.
“Art” has certain fundamentals which can be termed as elements and principles
which are to be borne in mind while decorating interiors.
Principles of design –
Principles Elements Objectives
Proportion Line Beauty
Balance Form Expressiveness
Emphasis Texture Functionalism
Rhythm Colour
Repetition Pattern
Harmony Light
Space
The keynotes for achieving at the successful interior decoration art are the five ‘S’.
1. Simplicity
2. Serenity
3. Spaciousness
4. Suitability
5. Sympathy
PRINCIPLES OF DECORATION
Proportion
The principle of proportion underlies all other principles. It states that the relation
between areas, between parts of the same thing or different things of the same
group should be satisfying. The implied measure of visual attributes like size,
weight and color. It affects other design principles like balance.
Proportion also deals with relationship in size, shape, colour, light, texture and
pattern.
The appearance of the exterior of a house is due to its proportions. First the total
mass, which depends on the height in relation to the length, then the proportions
of roof, walls and foundation, and finally the relationship of doors, windows, and
other elements that must be organized into an unified whole.
The shape of the rooms and of every article of home furnishing should be judged
by their proportions. Large furniture belongs to large rooms and small patterns
are required in small rooms. To achieve good arrangement that holds interest,
proportion between unity and space is required. An oblong with the ratio of sides
as 2:3 is good proportion and is called ‘golden oblong’. Rectangle should be in
ratio of 2:3 or 3:5 or 5:7.
Appearance can be changed by the use of strongly vertical or strongly horizontal
lines. The latter tends to increase the width of the object or room, and the former
makes a room appears lighter. The principle of proportion can be a guide in
grouping together different sizes successfully according to scale. Furniture that
seems to be small for a room should be arranged in a group so that the size of the
group and not individual pieces become units for comparison.
The Greeks discovered something about the difference between a ho-hum room
and a
beautiful one that isn’t immediately noticeable until you have the secret. They
called it “The Golden Mean”….and it is like a small recipe. It says that you should
think in percentages for color, mass, and even texture. You should have about
70% of any one thing; 25% of a related thing, and just 5% of a contrasting thing.
So, if we take color or pattern as an example: If you paper the walls of a room
(large percentage), then you can put a related stripe on a bedspread (the 25%
item) and then, throw a contrasting color onto a pillow or two (the 5% thing).
Balance
Balance is fundamental in interior decoration. In an interior, balance must be
attained in colour, texture, light, as well as weight, pattern and furniture
arrangement. Balance is the composure or equilibrium of forces. In furnishing a
room, it can be achieved by the arrangement of windows, doors and other details
around a visual center. Other factors are relationship of larger pieces to one
another, and to the background features of the room, the distribution of light and
dark colors and careful selection of textures
Balance is the result of equalization of attractions on either side of the central
point. Balance is analogous to nature; the great equalizer that provides a constant
to the space in which it exists. Criteria can be a comparison of one element such
as color or of several elements such as pattern, texture, or layout. Lack of balance
can also be used to portray spontaneity in a room.
Emphasis
Every interior or room should, if possible have a dominating colour, idea or
form. A center of interest – this principle is known as Emphasis. Direction the eye
travels and dwells as it first sees the room. This can be affected by elements and
principles including visual weight, color, proximity, line, and layout of the space.
In order to place emphasis on any special feature, others must be subordinated
or simplified. Emphasis can be created at any desired point in a room by using art
components in a dramatic way. Its success is dependant on A large room may well
have secondary points of interest also. Some decorators distribute the emphasis
so that observers will give attention to the accessories, the furniture, the floor and
the walls – in this order. Sometimes this order is deliberately reversed to withdraw
attention from things, which should be minimized. For example non-descript
furniture can be eclipsed by beautiful accessories – carpets or patterned curtains.
Although the floor is not the place to focus attention, some carpets and rugs,
especially Oriental carpets are so conspicuous, that they cannot be obscured. If a
patterned and decorative carpet is used, the only solution is to subordinate
everything else in the room. Certain areas or objects can attract attentions23 by
grouping them, using contrast colors or value, having sufficient space around or
using unusual lines or space or sizes. Figured wallpapers make poor background
for objects placed against them since objects have no chance for attention.
Rhythm
Rhythm is organized movement in continuity. It occurs in regular, repeated
movements and also in variable transitional movements. It is the related eye
movement by which the eye travels in an arrangement by means of lines, forms
and colors. There is no eye movement in a plain area but when a pattern is
introduced, the eye begins to travel and movement is created. The continuity or
lack thereof that creates stimulating design
Regular measured rhythm is the easiest and the oldest way of creating harmony
and it is an important element in architecture and interior design. It is a system of
regular accenting that is found in a row of duplicate columns or in a striped fabric.
Rhythmic eye movement is gained through repetition of shape, radiation of colors,
and proportion of sizes of different objects, patterns or use of continuous eye
movement. Repeated forms, colors and figured surfaces in a room are examples of
rhythm by transitional lines. Emphatic rhythm movement should be restricted for
small areas. The main line of each group of furniture arrangement should confine
itself to the lines of the room.
Variable rhythm is found in irregular intervals of dissimilar parts. This rhythm may
carry the eye along smoothly flowing lines or it may force the attention abruptly
here and there in order to convey the desired emotional effect. This type of
rhythm is employed to attract the eye throughout a painting until it is seen as a
whole. Such rhythm unites all the articles in a group of furniture and also connects
each group with adjoining groups.
Repetition
Repetition is closely related to rhythm, for its use may result in rhythm.
Repetition is necessary in producing beauty and it is the simplest way of achieving
order. A theme or certain colours should be repeated in a room or interior for the
purpose of making a composition. Lines, shapes used in any room should be
harmonious and repeated for the sake of unity.
Harmony
This refers to elements working together to form a visually pleasing
cohesiveness. This means unity of simple ideas and expressions. Everything in a
room is subordinated to simple or sensible ideas. The type of expressions or
words by the use of colors, lines, sizes and textures. For example, damasks are
beautiful but not suitable in cottages. The qualities and characters that are
expressed in interior design maybe social, domestic, impersonal, healthy or
secretive, in addition to masculine or feminine. Rooms which express a domestic
quality are likely to be informal, friendly and intimate. Rooms which are masculine
on quality normally have a sturdy texture, bolder column or line and heavier
scales are used, than feminine ones in character. The patterns in feminine interior
design would be dainty and feminine.
Minor Principles
Alteration – means repeating two lines or forms alternately
Parallelism – refers to the use of parallel lines or form
Symmetry – results from two vertical halves
Contrast – means opposition of things and qualities. It is a visual tension. Day
and night is an example of opposition. A work of art with contrast or opposition
stimulates interest and rouses excitement.
Transition – is referred to the method which increases rhythmic movement
from one line or form or color to another. Transition adds beauty to any
design.The triangle has sharp corners. As the eye follows the shape, it must make
abrupt change in direction at each corner. In the second figure, the eye can travel
around the figure easily due to the curved lines.
Unity – Unity refers to the designer’s concept and the honesty and thoughtfulness
that are brought to achieve the concept. Through repetition and similarity, a single
motivating idea emerges. When you design a home, make every effort to have the
objects and colors relate to each other in some way. Use repetition of color,
pattern, line and shape to establish unity. But use creative thinking to avoid being
stuck in the theme. Too much unity becomes monotonous.
Variety – Vary your colors, shapes, patterns and themes within the rooms, but
don’t sacrifice unity to do it. The right combination of variety and unity will bring
harmony to each room and ultimately to the home.
ELEMENTS
Line
Most designs are composed of many lines and there is often a predominance of
one type that contributes to the character of the design. Lines compel our eyes to
follow them. Line is a progressive movement or declination. Line is used to convey
its own intrinsic beauty or symbol to direct the eye over a given course. A line is a
force which can effect the eye movement. The different position of a line plays the
most unexpected tricks which can be termed as “optical illusions”
There are two types of lines – straight and curved
Straight (erect, upward) lines when vertical suggest strength and forcefulness, and
are likely to be dignified, masculine and formal. In interior decoration vertical lines
tend to suggest apparent height of the room. In rooms with low ceilings, vertical
lines should be used to make the room look taller. Horizontal (sideways) lines
suggest response and relaxation. It increases the width of a room and gives a feel
of informality. It can be provided with furniture like table, benches, sofas, etc.
Diagonal lines suggest action as they keep the eye moving. This action can be cut
down making the diagonal lines meet and stopping the action.
Curved lines express many different moods or ideas. Circular or voluptuous
curves express a feeling of gaiety. Softer ‘S’ shaped curve may express
gracefulness and refinement. But too many curved lines can produce restlessness.
Line combinations in the structural features of a room, furniture designs,
accessories and patterns must be carefully considered to achieve the desired
effect. A composition with too much of any one type of line may become
uninteresting or unpleasant, but emphasis on one type helps to promote the
theme.
Form
Lines are so much part of form that it is difficult to consider them
separately. The term line is applied to two-dimensional areas or shapes, but when
it acquires three-dimensional volumes or masses it becomes form. Form is a
structure. Shape and form are terms that are used interchangeably, but shape can
be understood in terms of pattern while form in terms of mass. Form refers to the
whole organization of an object. Beauty of form depends on the relationship of
the different parts to the whole.
There are basically three categories of form:
Rectilinear – square or rectangle
Angular – triangle or pyramid
Curved – circle, sphere, cone or cylinder
Form is one of the most important elements in interior designing. Most
interiors illustrate a combination of forms. Repetition of same forms can become
uninteresting. Even utilitarian articles can be beautiful in form. The two essentials
of good form are –
• The form of an object should suit it’s function
• The form of an object should be strongly influenced by the material with
which it is made.
Harmony of form is essential in assembling of furnishings. The dominance of one
kind of form or shape unifies a room. Different or diverse forms and lines in a
room lead to disharmony. Even accessories should confirm to the dominant line of
the room.
Texture
The word texture refers to the visual and tactile quality of the surface of
any object. The tactile quality can be felt and enjoyed with touch; like smoothness
of silk, softness of velvet, roughness of stone, etc. Texture can also be felt without
feeling, that is the visual quality; like lit candles, flames of fire shades of a picture,
etc. The pliability or rigidity of objects also has textural significance as it affects
the quality of the surface.
Texture is an element of art that is valuable in giving character and beauty
to objects, textiles, interiors, buildings, etc., as it plays a prominent part in all the
visual arts. Juxtaposing hard and soft accessories creates balance
One of the first decisions to be made in furnishing a room or a house is the
selection of the furniture wood, the polish that must be used on the furniture,
and the style for all other textures must be in harmony with the furniture. For e.g.
mahogany and rose wood suggest elegance and require delicate texture like silk,
satin, velvet, combined with deep piled rugs. The accessories should be delicate
and fine like crystal and silver. Obviously mahogany and wax polished teak wood
furniture cannot be combined. Coarser wood requires textures like rough silk,
cotton with copper or brass hardware, ceramics, wrought iron, etc. In a rough
cloth there is suggestion of depth caused by the rays of unevenly reflected light.
Even in a single article texture problems are present (if more than one type
of material is used), as only agreeable textures should be combined. For e.g. a
metal chair looks good if upholstered with leather as both of them are sleek.
Refinement in appreciation of texture suggests that a relationship exists between
colour and texture. Coarse textures and dainty colours are not harmonious,
whereas fine textures and pastel colours are consistent.
It is important while decorating a room to ensure that the texture
employed do not clash with one another. The texture of a single article should
never be considered separately, but as a contribution to the total effect to the
room.
Some examples of rough textures are – brick, timber, wicker work, carpets, coir
and sisal, suede, linen, furs – these elements create a rustic natural homely
feeling.
Some examples of smooth are glass (not patterned) chrome, plastic, lacquer paint
finish, Vinyl upholstery, High Gloss paint finish, chintz fabric – these elements
suggest a harder crisper formality to a room.
Comfort is an effect which can be created by clever choices in soft textures, using
soft fabrics like velvet or cotton on sofas, rugs over hard flooring and by scattering
cushions and throws over chairs.
Pattern
Pattern is a two-dimensional or three-dimensional ornament arranged in a motif.
Because textures and forms can create patterns, the entire arrangement of the
room creates a pattern. Pattern has a movement and should be arranged so it will
flow with the rhythm of the room or the object it adorns. Pattern should not
compete with the major focal point in the room, and too much pattern will make
the room seem busy.
How to use pattern: –
Most often a pattern accent is at it’s best against a neutral background
Usually bold patterns call for a large massive area, but this guideline also needs to
be viewed in terms of its exceptions.
Using the same pattern on many pieces is a good way to achieve harmony.
Mixing prints should be done with skill and a feeling for colour and design. Two
patters of the same colour may be effectively combined if they are of related
styles and design scales. The same pattern in another related colour may combine
well.
Geometric patterns may be combined with floral, if they use the same colours; the
dominant colour could then be used in solid areas of the room.
Size, scale and proportion should be taken into consideration with pattern. You
can generally get away with using small patterns on large pieces of furniture, but
the same cannot be said for the reverse. Large patterns on small items of furniture
can weigh them down and look too overpowering and dominant as well as out of
proportion. A small pattern or texture is generally a better choice. It is often wise
to use two or three different pattern sizes, small medium and large, and relate
these back to the items that you will be using them for in the room. I.e. a large
floral pattern on the sofa, with small floral print cushions, medium width striped
walls with a medium floral for drapes and a small stripe for the footstool. While
making these selections we must also remember that pattern will make a room
looks smaller no matter what size pattern or color way you use. There are no hard
and fast rules with pattern, you can use geometrics with floral, textures and
stripes, it is all a matter of balancing the weight of the patterns to the items they
will be covering and the overall look that you are trying to achieve.
Space
The element called space can be used to increase the size of the room
visually and to give the room a quite feeling of rest and beauty. Any form to be
seen clearly needs space around it to create the sense of edge that defines its
shape. Space is the working area with which we compose a picture. The utility of
any room depends on the empty space in it. The feeling of spaciousness can be
achieved by using light colours, use minimum contrast, use floor-to-ceiling glass,
use illusionist devices like mirrors, scenic wall papers, use lighting that emphasize
the ceiling, curtains with valance lighting, use furniture with legs, etc.
The first design has equal space left all around and hence looks poor. In the
second the object is in the corner and the rest of the space is out of balance. It
looks unrelated to other objects. Third design has pleasant balance.
DESIGN
Designing is defined as any arrangement of line, form, space, colors and texture.
There are two types of basic design: –
• Structural design
• Decorative design
Structural design is made by the size, from and texture of the object.
Decorative design is the surface enrichment of structural design.
Structural design is more important in some cases than decorative design. For e.g.
in hospitals, offices, kitchens etc. structural designs is important and essential to
every object, while decorative designs are luxurious, e.g. in guest rooms, etc.
windows are structural designs while curtains are decorative designs.
Embroidered towels, decorated service trays are examples of decoration
interfering with functions of objects.
Requirements for a good structural design: –
• It must be suited to the purpose
• It must have good proportion
• It must be simple
Requirements of good decorative design: –
• It should be used in moderation
• It should be placed at structural points to follow the shape of objects
• There should be enough background space
• The space should be beautiful as the pattern placed against it
• The decoration should suit the material used against it
One way to approach the object of selecting, decorating, balancing, assembling
and furnishing a place is to express some definite idea or theme in it. A well
designed room should carry a message of cheer, rest, power, repose, satisfaction,
freshness, welcome, warmth, coolness, richness, intimacy, privacy, importance,
delicacy, strength in addition to all other facilities. Sometimes coal or log
fireplaces, false ceilings, plasters or bricks or beams shown out may bring in
natural beauty.
The establishments of today function as machines. Every phase of planning should
be based on functions with places to sit, sleep, eat, relax, play, etc. the
establishment should provide enough facility to its occupants to find place for
comfort, relaxation and recreation which are the basic requirements.
Contract services-advantages & disadvantages:
Advantages of using contract services
• There is no capital outlay for equipment, so that money is available for
investment in other purposes.
• (In most cases, the contractor provides all supplies and equipment.)
• Contracts alleviate the necessity of buying or hiring specialized equipment.
• The difficulty of finding, training, organizing, and supervising staff is passed
on to the service provider.
• Good contract firms provide skilled labourers, well trained in their area of
expertise.
• Extra work may be carried out at certain times without increasing the basic
staff.
• Accurate budgeting can be done for a fixed period.
• Contractors provide uniformed workers and take responsibility for all their
wages and benefits.
 • Contract services alleviate many of the problems between the management
and workers’ union.
• Contract services can generally be terminated faster and more easily than
the services of regular employees, while reducing the likelihood of
employment claims and lawsuits.
Disadvantages of using contract services
• Contracting weakens the authority of the management over the quality and
loyalty of the staff.
• Workers brought in by the contract providers are not representatives of the
hotel and may not have the requisite skills for guest interactions, or the
same pride in their work or job satisfaction.
• There is loss of flexibility in effecting changes, as the housekeeper no longer
controls the entire operations.
• There is a natural tendency among contractors to use cheaper products,
which may be of poor quality and may damage the building and its contents
in the long term.
• There may be poor supervision, with the standard of work falling below par
as a result.
• Workers may not show up within the designated time frame.
• There may be problems regarding security.
• There may be problems regarding liaison and cooperation between
departments.
• Contract cleaners may not meet the hotel’s standards of quality.
• One of the reasons for this is the sudden growth of contract cleaning firms,
resulting in cut-price tenders being offered and accepted which do not
enable the contractors to employ a sufficient number of employees of the
right caliber to do the job properly.
UNIT III
Keys-types and their control, Lost and found
procedures, Sewing room, Dealing with emergencies,
Standard operating procedures; Cleaning agents; Room
report; Refurbishing and Renovation.
Keys-types and their control:
1. A key is a device which is used to open alock. A typical key consist of two parts:
2. The blade, which slides into the keyhole tounlock the door
3. The bow, which is left protruding so thattorque can be applied by the user to
open thedoor.
4.The blade is usually designed to open onespecific lock, although master keys
aredesigned to open sets of similar locks.
The emergency key
1.opens all guestroom doors, evenwhen they are double locked. It can be used,
for example,to enter a room when the guest needs help and is unable toreach or
open the door.
2.The emergency key should be highly protected and itsuse strictly controlled and
recorded; it should never leavethe property.
3. One procedure for emergency keys is to have themlocked in hotel safe, a safe
deposit box or a metal cabinetand signed out by the individual needing one.
4. The log should be dated and signed by the individualtaking the key.
5. The keys should not be used on day-to-day basis
Master Key
1. A master key is designed to open a set of several locks.
2. These keys open all guestroom that are not double-locked.
3. These locks also have keys which are specific to each one(the change key) and
cannot open any of the others in theset
4. Locks which have master keys have a second set of themechanism used to open
them which is identical to all of theothers in the set of locks
5. For example, master keyed pin tumbler locks will have twoshear points at each
pin position, one for the change key andone for the master key
6. A far more secure (and more expensive) system has twocylinders in each lock,
one for the change key and one for themaster key.
7. Larger organizations, with more complex"grandmaster key" systems, may have
severalmaster key systems where the top levelgrandmaster key works in all
of the locks inthe system
8. A master key opens all guestrooms that arenot double locked. Depending upon
the need,the master key may be further established asa housekeeping staff
master key, a floorsupervisor master key, and a grand masterkey for management
purpose.
Grand Master Key
Key operates all locks in the Hotel. Includinglaundry and linen rooms
Floor Supervisors Master Key
Key operates all sections on the floor/ floorssupervised by the particular
supervisor.
Housekeeping Staff Master Key
Key operates all rooms serviced byparticularroom maid or housekeeping staff.
Guest Key
1. The hotel guest room key is normallyissued to open only one room for which
itwas intended, viz. individualised key foreach lock.
2. If the guest room lock is in shut-out modethe guest room key can neither open
it norlock from outside of the room
KEY-CARDS
1.Metal room keys are being replaced byelectronically coded key-cards.
2. A key card, while not actually considered akey, is a plastic card which stores a
digitalsignature that is used with electronicaccess control locks.
3. It is normally a flat, rectangular piece ofplastic and may also serve as an ID card
4.There are several popular type of key cards inuse and include the mechanical
hole card, barcode card, magnetic stripe card, smart card(embedded with a read /
write electronicmicrochip), and RFID proximity cards.
5.The key card is used by presenting it to a cardreader; swiping or inserting of
magnetic stripecards, merely being brought into close proximityto a sensor.
6.Key-cards have the capability of being randomlycoded at the point of
registration, which re-emphasizes the guest perception of roomsecurity. Key-card
control is computer-based andtherefore creates the necessary audit
trailautomatically
7. Master keys can be changed in a matter of a fewkeystrokes and lost key-cards
are easilyremoved from the system.
8. One of the best security features is the ability ofthe computer to investigate
each door lock andget a printout of everyone who accessed aparticular room. This
dramatically cuts down ontheft from the rooms by hotel employees
9. The security advantage of the key-cards hasmade it popular and many medium
and largesized hotels are adopting this key-card system.
Security
Above keys will not open the lock when theGuest has Double Locked it from
inside.From a security point of view, master keying isundesirable; but from a
practical point of view,however it is necessary.
• Master keying presents two security drawbacks:
First is the danger that if a master key is lost orstolen, several locks in the system
would becompromised, thus providing access to all thoselocks.
Second is the loss of master key.
Key Control
A system of key control is essential to the security of alodging property.
It is the process of reducing theft and other security-related incidents by carefully
monitoring and tracking theuse of keys.All keys whether metal or electronic
should beadequately controlled. The security of a key lock systemis seriously
weakened when keys are issued to a greatnumber of people or to anyone who has
no legitimateneed for a key.
The best lock in the world may be unable to protect aproperty or its guests if poor
key control allows a criminalto obtain a key to that lock.
If there is no key card lock system, the following policies should be considered:
A) CODING : Precautions to be taken Room keys must not have any form of tag
thatidentifies the hotel.• Keys must not have the number on them. Theymust be
identified by a numeric or alphabetic code.The code should not be identical to the
building orthe room number.
B) Issuing KeysOnly authorised person should be allowed toaccess the keys and a
high level of security shouldbe maintained.
ADVANTAGES
1. It ensures complete security as no room number isprinted on card
2. At the time of issue more than one keycard can be givento the guest if there is a
double occupancy in the room It is possible to trace the receptionist who issues
thekeys from the print out at the end of the day (to avoidunnecessary or extra
duplication which may call forsecurity problems)
3. An alarm is set on when a wrong key card is usedthereby alerting security.
4. It helps the guest to avail other credit facilities form thevarious outlets of the
hotel. It also helps in conservingelectricity in the guest room
Handling Guestroom Keys
1.These key have the minimum access,unlocking just one room.
2.When keys are given to guest the roomnumber must not be spoken aloud.
3. The guest should be explained about hissecurity maintained through
codingsystem.
4. During the checkout, the guest should beasked for their room keys.
Handling Master & Sub-MasterKeys
1. All the floor master keys, room masterkeys, grand master keys should be
signedout each time they are taken and theirreturn noted in a key control shee
2. All the keys should be stamped “Do NotDuplicate”
3. Emergency Keys should be kept in asafety box.
Custody of keys
1. Employees should not be allowed to loanthe keys assigned to them to one
another.
2. Employees should handover keyswhenever they leave the property, evenfor the
meal breaks.
3. ndividuals who have been master keysshould be checked from time to time.
GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN KEYCONTROL SYSTEM
1. Security of keys is essential from the momentthey arrive on site. Keys should be
storedseparately and securely.
2. No unauthorised person should be allowedaccess to any key, either to examine
or handleit, since a photograph or impression can betaken in few seconds and
duplicatesubsequently made.
3. Keep a log book of all keys signed out.
4. Establish protocol for distribution of keys.
5. Use keys that do not identify the property’sname, address, logo, or room
number.
6. Perform an annual key audit.
7. When keys are lost or stolen, the locksshould be changed or rotated to
anotherpart of the property.• Authorised employees should remindguests to
return keys at check-out.
8. The loss or suspected compromise of a keyshould be reported immediately and,
afterdue investigation, a decision be made as towhether or not the lock should be
changed.
9. Place well-secured key return boxes in thelobby, at exit points of the property,
and incourtesy vehicles.
Lost and found procedures:
• An item left behind by guest either in the room or in public area identified
by any staff and brought under the notice of Housekeeping is termed as
“Lost and Found” item.
• There should be one dedicated location to receive lost and found items
whether it is found in guestrooms, meeting rooms, public area or
restaurants.
• The lost items must be secured in a locked closet or area that has highly
 restricted access.
• Employees are instructed to bring items to lost and found area, with
valuables receiving immediate attention.
• All items received to be recorded in a lost and found register.
• All items regardless whether it is valuable, non valuable items and
perishable items must be recorded on the Lost and found register.
• Items should be put in a plastic bag noting the serial number from the
register, place found, date, name of the person found the item etc.
• Valuable items like Jewellery, mobile, wallets, laptops, ipads etc. must be
stored in a locker.
• If the Property management system has Auto trace functionality then put a
trace on the guest profile stating the there is a lost item held with the
housekeeping department.
• Send Email to the guest to notify the guest about the lost item ( as per the
hotel policy )
• When guest calls up the hotel to ask about the lost item, only the person
who maintains the lost and found register should revert to the call.
Once the item is sent to the guest / collected by the guest authorized person an
appropriate entry to be made on the system.
Sample lost and found register:

The lost and found items are classified as follows:

1. Valuable items.
2. No valuable items.
3. Perishable items.
Valuable items :
• One separate Register is maintained for Valuable lost and found items and
the items are kept in a safe Deposit Locker.
• Valuable items are kept for a period of six months ( as per the hotel policy),
• If there is no response from the guest, auction to be conducted.
Non valuable items:
These category items are kept for three months in safe custody after making
necessary entries.
If there is no response from the looser till the time, these items are to be disposed
off. Eg: To be distributed to the finder.
Perishable items:
Perishable nature lost and found items are kept for three days.
In case of any quarry and need to keep further is to be done accordingly.
Sewing room:
A well-organized sewing room is crucial for a hotel’s housekeeping department. It
ensures efficient operations, timely repairs, and the maintenance of the hotel’s
high standards. In this blog, we’ll discuss the various activities that take place in a
sewing room and the areas that need to be provided to support these tasks.
The Role of Sewing Rooms in Hotel Housekeeping
Sewing rooms play a vital role in the daily operations of a hotel housekeeping
department. Some of the key responsibilities include:
Uniform Maintenance
• Repairing and altering staff uniforms
• Maintaining the appearance and fit of uniforms
Linen and Upholstery Care
• Mending torn bed linens, curtains, and upholstery
• Sewing and replacing buttons on pillows and cushions
Guest Room Repairs
• Fixing any fabric-related issues in guest rooms
• Ensuring the proper fit of bed skirts, duvet covers, and other decorative
items
Essential Sewing Room Areas
To support these activities, a sewing room should have the following areas:
Workspace
• A large table for cutting, measuring, and ironing
• Sewing machines, including standard and industrial machines for heavy
fabrics
• Serger machines for finishing seams and trimming excess fabric
• An ironing board with a steam iron
Storage
• Shelves or cabinets to store various fabrics, linens, and upholstery
• Drawers or containers for organizing sewing tools, such as scissors, rulers,
and pins
• A designated area for uniform storage, including hanging racks and shelves
Break Area
• A small area for staff to rest and take breaks
• A refrigerator, microwave, and coffee maker for staff convenience
• Seating and a table for meals and relaxation
Organizing the Sewing Room
A well-organized sewing room will increase productivity and reduce the likelihood
of mistakes. Consider these tips:
• Keep the workspace clutter-free by providing designated storage areas for
all tools and materials
• Use labels to clearly identify the contents of storage containers
• Create a system for tracking uniforms and linens that need repair or
replacement
Conclusion
A hotel housekeeping department relies on a well-equipped and organized sewing
room to maintain the appearance and functionality of staff uniforms, linens, and
upholstery. By providing the essential areas and organizing them effectively, you
can ensure that sewing room activities run smoothly and contribute to the overall
success of your hotel’s housekeeping operations.
Dealing with emergencies:
10 Types of Emergency Situations Encountered in Hotels
1) Bomb Threat emergency situation.
2) Fire Threat emergency situation.
3) Death of an In-house Guests in the hotel.
4) Accident emergency situation.
5) Lost and Found.
6) Theft emergency situation.
7) Illness and Epidemics emergency situation.
8) Vandalism.
9) Damage to property by the guest.
10) Handling drunken guest.
There are different types of emergency situations encountered in hotels during
the day to day operations and functioning of the hotel. These unforeseen
emergency situations which can come across anytime without any notice and the
hotel staffs should be well trained to identify such emergency situation and to be
able to act quickly on them.
1.Bomb Threat Emergency Situation:
In case of any call received regarding the bomb threat, the hotel should tie-up
with the local police authority and follow their instructions. The person who
receives the call should take complete details of the situation and should even try
to note down the voice and accent of the person calling regarding a bomb threat.
Immediately the hotel should inform the anti-bomb squad and should defuse the
bomb after locating the place where it is planted.
Signal the colleague to also listen in the call and try to find out the location
through the exchange. Listen to the caller carefully and make it prolong and get all
the information carefully like the place where planted, time of explosion and
strength of explosives.
If possible this call may be taped and note the back noise and try to catch
information from accent and police to be informed. Immediately after
disconnection, the G M and security officer has to be informed. If the location is
identified the department head should be also informed People from that
suspected area have to be evacuated from that particular location. After “all
clear” signal from the police, the normal process of the hotel can be continued.
2.Fire Threat Emergency Situation:
Fire is the most common emergency situation which could break in the hotel at
any point in time. The most probable reason for a fire break in the hotels can be a
kitchen or faulty wirings in the hotel. The concerned staff should be immediately
informed and fire brigade should be informed immediately.
Do not panic, If the hotel staff is well versed with the fire fighting equipment then
immediately fire extinguisher should be used. The supply of electricity and gas
should be immediately turned off whenever any news regarding fire comes to the
hotel.
3.Death of an In-House Guest in the Hotel:
Whenever information comes regarding the death of an in-house guest the Front
Office Manager should be reported directly who informs the General Manager
and the Security Manager. Later on, the police authority is even told and the hotel
doctor is summoned to confirm the death of the guest.
The residential address of the guests is also identified and the relatives are
informed. Once the doctor has confirmed the death and the police has given the
permission the dead body is removed by the help of a stretcher. In the meanwhile,
if the deceased guest was under some other doctor consultation then that doctor
is also enquired.
A death certificate is also prepared and a report is prepared to mention the time,
room number and other details related to the deceased guest. The guest room is
locked and sealed and after the permission and clearance of police the room is
opened and spring cleaned and can be resold again after the approval of the local
authority.
4.Accident Emergency Situation:
Accidents can take place in the hotels at any point of time due to faulty stairs,
ramps, and balconies and even due to the parking places. The hotels should
ensure that handrails, the non-slip surface should be used while framing the
architecture plan for the hotels.
5.Lost and found:
This is a term used in hotel parlance to refer to any item which is left by the guest
or temporarily misplaced by the guest but traced later by the hotel staff. Such
articles to be handed over to the housekeeping department which maintained a
special locker for this purpose.
If the item belongs to the guest who has already checked out, then a letter has to
be sent to the forwarding address left by the guest while checkout or which is
there in the registration card. If no reply is received by the hotel within a certain
time limit, that may be auctioned to the hotel employees or take a decision as per
the hotel policies and rules.
6.Theft Emergency Situation:
The front desk is having cash with them so there is also the possibility of theft.
Also, there are belongings of in house guest. To discourage theft, the front office
should inform the guest to deposit their valuables in the safety deposit locker.
7.Illness and Epidemics Emergency Situation:
There should always be a Doctor on call available for the hotel so that in case if
any guest suffers from any kind of problem he /she can be given the concern
treatment as soon as possible.
8.Vandalism:
The front office staff must call the hotel security and order the main door to be
locked. If the situation gets out of the hand then the security manager should call
the police immediately.
9.Damage to property by the resident guest:
The front office cashier is instructed to raise a charge for the value of the damages
to property, a responsible guest will never argue but if he does the subject to be
referred to the general manager.
10.Handling Drunken Guest:
A drunken guest may disturb another guest. In order to avoid this, the drunken
guest should be escorted to an isolated area like a back office. Hotel staff should
calmly handle the situation by following the SOP for Handling drunken guests.
SOP for Handling drunken guests
• Do your best to deal with each situation without putting yourself at risk.
• Act politely.
• Always stay calm.
• Don’t argue with the intoxicated guest.
• Don’t embarrass the guest, especially in front of other people.
• Deal with the situation in a calm, friendly way.
• Speak to the person directly, and firmly explain that what they are doing is
unacceptable.
• Listen and empathize with your guest.
• Acknowledge your guest’s anger or frustration, but also remind them that
you are responsible for their safety and don’t want to see them get hurt.
• Invite the problem guest to an area away from other guests, where you can
talk.
• Talk softly and lead him away from the public area.
• Point out that if they were sober they would agree that what they are doing
is a bad idea.
• If the drunk guest is behaving rudely then the last option should be to call
the security officer but try and handle the situation very calmly.
• The duty manager or the immediate supervisor should take the drunken
guest away from the reception/front desk area.
• Make the guest realize that this is not the right way to talk and then acting
very calmly and talking very politely with him the supervisor can escort him
to his room
• The manager can also indulge the guest in some other thoughts and just
keep the guest calm and as soon as possible send him back to his room.
• If the guest has come to a restaurant or bar and if you decide to ask this
person to leave, remember that you are still responsible for their safety (call
a cab, get someone to drive them home, or if the situation gets out of
control – call the security officer or police).
Standard operating procedures:
A standard operating procedure (SOP) is a set of written instructions that
document a repetitive activity followed by an organisation.The development and
use of SOP are an integral part of a successful quality system as it provides
individuals with information to perform a job properly and facilitates consistency
in the quality of a product or service.
Writing an SOP
SOPs should be written in concise, step by step, easy to read format. The
document should not be wordy or over lengthy.
SOPs should be written with sufficient details so that anybody with limited
experience or knowledge can successfully reproduce the work when
unsupervised. These SOPs should be made available for reference. SOPs should
periodically be revised to keep them updated
SOPs should be written in concise, step by step, easy to read format. The
document should not be wordy or over lengthy.
SOPs should be written with sufficient details so that anybody with limited
experience or knowledge can successfully reproduce the work when
unsupervised. These SOPs should be made available for reference. SOPs should
periodically be revised to keep them updated
SOPs should be written in concise, step by step, easy to read format. The
document should not be wordy or over lengthy.
SOPs should be written with sufficient details so that anybody with limited
experience or knowledge can successfully reproduce the work when
unsupervised. These SOPs should be made available for reference. SOPs should
periodically be revised to keep them updated
Every organisation has its style of writing an SOP. There are no ideal or correct
formats. Following is a sample format.
TITLE OF SOP
HOTEL ABC
DEPARTMENT:
SOP ID No:
DATE OF ISSUE:
Date of Review:
MADE BY:
APPROVED BY:
STEPS OF THE PROCEDURE
· Step 1
· Step 2
· Step 3
Cleaning agents:
Classification of Cleaning agents
1. Water
2. Detergents
3. Reagents -Acid cleaners or Alkaline cleaners
4. Solvent cleaners
5. Disinfectants
6. Deodorants
7. Laundry aid
8. Polishes
 9. Floor seals
10.Proprietary cleaning agents like Toilet cleaners and Glass cleaners
Water:-
Water is not mentioned in the list of cleaning agents. Water is used extensively in
cleaning processes. Water is used in making up cleaning solutions and is used for
sterilizing at a high temperature.
Water hardness can be temporary or permanent. Temporary hardness of water
contains calcium bicarbonate or magnesium bicarbonate. This can be removed by
heating water above 720C
Permanent hardness of water is caused by calcium and magnesium sulphate,
which cannot be removed by heating. Permanent hardness can be removed by
dissolving following alkalis in the water:
• Sodium hexametaphosphate also known as Calgon
• Sodium carbonate known as washing soda
• Ammonia
A water softening unit: Permutit passes hard water through a container filled with
resin beads containing sodium ions. The resin has a greater affinity for calcium
ions than for sodium ions so an ion exchange takes place; calcium ions are
removed from the water and are replaced by sodium ions, which do not cause
hardness in water.
DETERGENTS:-
Detergents work in the following way:
• Reduce the surface tension of water sufficiently to enable it to wet
thoroughly
• Dissolve in water
• Loosen & lift out dirt from a surface by emulsifying
• Suspend dirt in solution to prevent it being re deposited
• Rinse away easily
• Perform the above without harming surfaces or user
Detergents are made either from pure soap or synthetic detergents
Soapy detergents may be used as a solid block, for washing skin and cloths, as
flakes for washing delicate fabrics, or as a powder, for general purpose washing of
soft fabrics.
Soap is made by boiling fat with a strong alkali. The characteristic of soap depends
on the fat used e.g. coconut oil provide soap quick to lather, olive oil provides
soap which is mild on skin.
Synthetic detergents are used extensively in housekeeping. They are organic
chemical derived from petroleum. They can be formulated to suit any cleaning
task from washing up to decreasing a factory floor. According to their chemical
composition they can be group into following:
Anionic-------- account for 80% of all synthetic detergents
will remove only light soiling
e.g. washing up liquid, hard floor cleaning product
Non- ionic----------
• Effective at removing oil & grease
• Are expensive therefore added to cheaper anionic
• Used in scrubbing machine as produces less foam
• Rinsing is much easier as less lather is produced
Cationics------------
• They have very little cleaning power
• They are combined with non- ionic detergents to form QUATS (quaternary
ammonium compounds)
• These detergents repel dust from the surface where they have used
• Used as sanitizing agents in hospitals
Amphoterics-------------
• Expensive & found in specialty formulations such as those used in metal
cleaner, oven cleaner
• They have germicidal properties- can be in shampoos and medical
detergents
Alkaline--------------
• Much stronger, can remove grease
• Removal of water based polish
• Needs to be rinsed well as it can leave marks on floor making it looking dull
& unattractive
Solvent based----------------
• Removal of solvent based polish
• Cleaning of oily & grease floor
• Removal of oil & grease from equipments & machines
Additives (added to detergents):
• Washing soda (sodium carbonate): this softens water & emulsifies fat
• Bleach (sodium perborate): when dissolved in water above 40 degree
Celsius, oxygen is given out which reacts with may stains and turn them into
colourless substance. The hotter the solution more effective the bleach
becomes.
• SCMC sodium carboxymethyl cellulose: this is added to suspend the dirt in
solution
• Fluorescent whiteners: to counteract the yellowing of fabrics which occur
with age.
• Sodium silicate: assist in suspension of dirt
• Bulk fillers: chemicals added to keep powders dry & free flowing while
increasing their bulk & giving better appearance for better value of money
• Lather improvers: assist detergent to retain lather
• Enzymes: occur in biological washing powers. Assist in removing protein
 stain
• Perfumes: added to cover up the unpleasant smell
• Dyes: usually green or blue added to give good appearance
• Ground pumice: added to detergent to create rough texture which helps in
removing stubborn dirt. They can also be grouped as abrasive.
Acid Cleaners:
These can vary from acetic acid to corrosive hydrochloric acid. Type & use of acid
is given below:
Type Use
Citric/ acetic acid ----------------------------- Metal cleaning
Neutralizing alkaline cleaner
Removing light soiling & stickiness
from unvarnished wood.
Preventing colours from running
during washing.
Diluted Hcl ------------------------------------ Removing limescale from sanitary
ware, removing cement from newly applied tiles
Sodium acid sulphate------------------Removing water stain & scale
fromtoilets.
Oxalic acid ------------------------------- Removing stubborn water stains
Alkaline Cleaners:
Alkaline based cleaning agents are used a great deal in laundry and removing
grease based stains. Very strong alkalis are known as caustic and may be
poisonous. Types and use of alkali are given are below:
Type ----------------------------------------------- Use
Sodium Bicarbonate (Baking Soda),---- Removing acid based stains such as
Sodium Pyroborate (Borax)--------------- tea, coffee and stubborn grease
from smooth surface such as
plastic, enamel, fabric etc.
Excellent for cleaning refrigerators.
Sodium Carbonate (Washing Soda)----------
Added to soapy and synthetic
detergent powders to soften water
and remove grease marks.Cleaning
drains.
Sodium Hydroxide --------------------------- Removing tough grease found in
over, grills, blocked drains etc.
Ammonia -------------------------------------Remove stubborn grease stains
Added to carpet shampoos
Very strong fumes
Sodium Hypochlorite (Bleach)------------------Whitening and removing stains
 Disinfectant
Should not be used on silk, wool etc.
May be labeled household bleach
Sodium Perborate (Bleach)---------------------Whitening and removing stains
Inactive in solutions below 40 degree
Celsius.
Action increases with temperature of the solution
Hydrogen Peroxide (Bleach)------------------- Whitening and removing stains
Sodium Thiosulphite (Hypo)------------------- Removing iodine stains.
SOLVENT CLEANERS:
These cleaning agents are used for dry-cleaning and stain removals. They have
strong fumes and should be used in a well ventilated room. Solvents are used for:
• Cleaning grease or polish from surface which may be damaged by water
based solutions. Eg – silk fabric, porous floorings.
• Cleaning windows, mirror or pictures as they evaporate
• Present in window and glass polishes
• Present in floor polishes
The following are the main types of solvent cleaners – Percholoro Ethylene,
Tricholoro Ethylene (both dry-cleaning agents), Turpentine, Acetone etc.
DISINFECTANTS:
Should be used in areas where harmful germs are likely to exist.
Types of disinfectants are :-
• Halogens – may be added to anionic detergents. Good general purpose
disinfectants. Eg – Domestos, Diversol CX
• Phenolic – Must be used in high concentration for effectiveness. Eg – Dettol,
Izal
• Pine Fluids – not very efficient as easily inactivated
Type Definition
Sterilization (Moist – 121 degree Celsius for----------------Will kill all germs
15 minutes or Dry – 160 degree and bacteria and
their spores .
Celsius for 45 minutes

Disinfectant Bactericide --------------------------Will kill most germs

and bacteria but not their spores.
Antiseptic ----------------------------------- Provide unsuitable
conditions for the growth of bacteria.
Sanitizers --------------------------------Will reduce the number
of germs and bacteria to acceptab lelevel.
Following rules must be observed while using disinfectants –
 • Rinse away detergent solutions thoroughly before using disinfectant
• Wash, rinse and dry all equipments with after use with detergents and
disinfectants (Germs cannot breed in dry conditions)
• Remove all unwanted organic matters before using disinfectant
• Use softened water
• The effectiveness of disinfectant may depend on the types of germs present
• Dilute disinfectant accurately
• Allow time for a disinfectant to work. Time needed will depend on the
number and type of germs and the strength of the solution
• Never top up a disinfectant solution. Bacteria will survive a disinfectant,
may multiply in solution which has deteriorated. If a solution is stored and
used later, it may spread germs rather than kill them.
DEODERIZERS
They are used for reducing bad smell. They are expensive so good ventilation and
thorough cleaning needs to be done for reducing bad smell.
LAUNDRY AIDS
Stiffening Agents – Improves the appearance of the fabric. The following types of
stiffening agents may be used:
1. Boiling Water Starch – the starch grains are mixed with boiling water, they
burst and then gelatinize. This thick solution coats the fabric causing it to
stick together.
2. Cold Water Starch – Grains are stocked in cold water and the fabric is dried
till slightly damp and then ironed. The heat from the iron causes the grains
to burst and then filled the gaps in the woven fabric
3. Instant Starch – In this case, the starch grains are precooked giving a finish
like boiling water starch
4. Spray Starch – This method of applying starch is very expensive as it
requires a large amount. It can be used in case of an emergency
Conditioners – Like stiffening agents, they coat the fibers which make them
smooth. Towels are best washed without conditioners as they reduce the
absorption.
POLISHES
Polishes are used to give sheen on the surface from which the light is reflected
evenly. They do this by smoothing out any unevenness on the surface of article, as
in the polishing of the metals. They also provide a protective layer as in case of
floor and furniture polishes. Their compositions may be depending on the surface
to be polished.
Metal Polish – These remove the tarnishes resulting from the attack on the metal
by certain compounds in the air. They are fine abrasives which when rubbed on
the surface of the metal provide friction to remove the tarnish and produce
sheen. In many proprietary metal polishes such as Brasso, Silvo; the abrasive
powder is mixed with a grease solvent and in some case, an acid, to help in
removal of the tarnish. Jeweller’s rouge is a fine abrasive which is used for
polishing metals. Chemically it is known as Iron Oxide. It is used by the jewelers
for giving a finishing touch to the gold jewellery. They should be stored with the
caps well secured otherwise the solvent content will evaporate and the solution
becomes too dry to use.
Points to remember:
1. Protect yourself and the surrounding with paper
2. Work in well ventilated area
3. Use only on appropriate metals
4. Clean the metal surface before applying polish
5. Apply polish with a rag
6. Buff to shine with a duster
7. After polishing, any article to be used with food should be cleaned with
detergents
8. Constant use of tarnish remover (Silver Dip) on EPNS damages silver plating
9. Dispose off rags after use as they can increase the risk of fire
Furniture and Floor Polishes – They are protective finishes which provide the
surface of the furniture or floor with a thin layer of wax or resin. It can protect
against absorption of spillage and gives a smooth surface from which light may be
reflected to give sheen.
Requirements of a good polish are:
1. Give a hard, dry finish to ensure maximum protection
2. Gives an easily cleaned surface
3. Not mark easily
4. Reduce cost of cleaning and maintenance
5. No unpleasant smell
Furniture polish should only be used occasionally. Unvarnished or unpainted
furniture may require feeding with a polish frequently. Furniture polish is applied
on clean surface only and may be in form of paste, cream, liquid or spray. They
contain wax (to enrich porous surface), solvent (to remove grease), water (to
remove water soluble stains) and silicone (to lubricate the polish and provide
resistance to water, heat, dust and smears).
The various types of furniture polishes are:
1. Paste (High percentage wax) – suitable for antique wooden surface. Care
should be taken to remove all trace of polish from carved surface. Pastes
are applied with a rag and then buffed with a duster. A paste may be used
on wood which is in poor condition as the high percentage of wax will feed
it and help to create sheen. It may give a sticky finish if applied in excess.
2. Cream (High percentage solvent) – Cream polishes should be used on satin
or gloss finishes only as they increase the sheen on a surface with continual
use. There cleaning power is greater than the paste. Apply with a damp rag
and buff with a duster immediately. They are light emulsions of coloured
wax in solvent.
3. Liquid (High Percentage solvent): may contain a dye, which is useful for
covering up scratches in a varnished surface. Used on glossy surfaces they
will help remove light grease marks. Applied with a dry rag & buffed while
still wet to produce shine. Eg: French Polish Furniture
4. Sprays/ aerosol (High percentage silicone): these polishes clean and as well
polish. This saves time as pre dusting is unnecessary. Used on non porous
 surface like glass, plastic, gloss painted wood, etc. spray polish is applied &
rubbed with duster or may be sprayed directly.
Points to remember:
• Apply to clean surface.
• Use a little and apply with a duster. (too much polish will create a sticky
surface which is likely to attract dust)
• Applied with rag (expect spray polish)
• Replace the top of the polish container so that the polish should not dry.
• All furniture polished are used undiluted
• Polishes containing a high percentage of solvent are flammable.
Floor polishes can be: Solvent based or Water based
Solvent based or spirit based: this may be in the form of a liquid or paste and
consists of a blend of waxes dispensed in a solvent. After it has been applied, the
solvent evaporates, leaving a layer of wax which is buffed. Floor treated with
solvent based polish may dull quickly but will withstand frequent buffing up to
restore shine. It is used on porous floor – wood, cork, magnesite, linoleum, etc.
The polish can be removed by using solvent based detergents and a nylon web
pad under the machine which helps loosing the wax. The loosened wax should be
picked up with a mop or wet vacuum pickup.
Water based floor polish: it is in form of creamy liquid and consists of a blend of
waxes or resins suspended in water by means of emulsifying agent (ammonia may
be used to blend the wax & water). When applied to a floor surface, the water will
evaporate leaving a hard firm. Some floor polish may contain anti slip ingredient
(colloidal silicon). This polish dries with a shine and may require only little buffing.
It is also referred as dry-bright polish. They are applied on semi porous and plastic
floor like rubber, vinyl, etc. Disadvantage of using this polish is that it has very less
cleaning power.
Points to remember:
• Apply to a clean floor
• Apply to a dry floor
• Rinse floor thoroughly after stripping off old polish using mild acid
• Apply several thick coats of polish rather than one thick coat
• Allow each coat of polish to dry before applying the next
• Ventilate the area
• Use warning signs
• Buff up thoroughly
• Do not used water based polish on porous floor
• Do not used solvent based polish on plastic or semi-porous floor
• Remove any build up of polish with a suitable polish remover and an
abrasive pad or disc
• Damp mop floor after spray cleaning to remove any residue
• Clean all equipments after use and store correctly
FLOOR SEALERS
FLOOR SEALERS
Floor seals are semi-permanent finishes applied to a flooring to render it
impermeable to protect the surface from dirt, stain and other liquids and to
provide an easy to maintain surface. The floor surface must be clean and dry
before a seal is applied or it will not ‘key’ to the surface. Five major types of seals
are:
1. Oleo resinous seal – are penetrating and coat the surface. They are used on
wood, cork flooring etc.
2. One pot (ready to use) plastic seals – do not penetrate the surface and are
used for finishing touch. They consist of polyutherane and are used on
wood, cork flooring
3. Two pot plastic seal – contain either urea formaldehyde or polyutherane
and a hardener. They are used on similar surfaces as above.
4. Pigmented seal – are either synthetic rubber or polyutherance coloured
seal and are used on wood or cork flooring
5. Water based seal – provide a plastic skin over the surface and contain
acrylic polymer raisins and plasticizers to assist flexibility. They may be used
on PVC, rubber, terrazzo etc.
Sealed floorings may be polished with water based polishes.
FLOOR STRIPPERS
These are used to remove a worn out floor finish so that a new sealer or polish
can be applied. Most are based on alkalis with a high pH. There are two main
types available. One is based on ammonia and the other is a non-automated
product. Ammonia has an intense odour and therefore the area treated should be
well-ventilated for many days to get rid of the smell. Alkaline detergents with a
high pH are also used as floor strippers. It should be kept in mind that any
residual stripper solution needs to be rinsed away thoroughly with a mildly acidic
rinse. The ideal way is to add vinegar to the last rinse of water.
CARPET CLEANERS
These are composed of neutral water soluble solvents, emulsifiers, de-foamers,
soil repellants, sanitizers, optical brighteners and deodorizers. They are available
as sprays, powders, foams and liquid shampoos.
Use, Care, Storage & Control of Cleaning Agents –
• Indicate the dilution rate if required
• Ensure all tops are secured and containers are kept clean
• Store containers neatly to avoid damage and spillage
• Keep aerosol containers away from hot pipes and radiators
• Ensure shelves are strong enough to bear the weight of containers storing
cleaning agents
• Keep the store locked when not in use
• Keep bin cards up to date
• Rotate stock
• Use funnels for dispensing and pre-diluting
• Keep the store well ventilated
 • Do not store heavy item on high shelves
• Use dispensers where possible
• Clean the store regularly
• Check stock regularly
Room report:
This report shows the list of guests who have checked-in the hotel with details
such as the number of adults and children, number of nights, and housekeeping
status. This report is generated for the occupied rooms, rooms expected to be
occupied, checked-out rooms, and vacant or blocked rooms. This report is
generated for scheduling rooms for cleaning.
• ROOM STATUS CHECK – i.e. the room attendant now physically checks each
room in his/ her section for the occupancy and fills in the ROOM MAID’S
REPORT/ GUEST ROOM STATUS REPORT – this gives the information of
guest room status for that particular section and is signed by the room
attendant.
• This is then sent to the control desk for compiling the HOUSEKEEPERS
REPORT / OCCUPANCY REPORT – this shows the position of all rooms in a
hotel and is signed by the preparer( mostly the control desk supervisor) and
countersigned by the executive housekeeper.
• The housekeeper’s occupancy report is sent to the Front Office department
for comparison with the Front office occupancy report
• Note – Occupancy reports are made 3 times a day , normally in the
beginning of each shift i.e. at 8 am , 3 pm and 10 pm respectively
• NOTE – if there are any discrepancies in the room status between
housekeeping report and the front office records a discrepancy slip is
generated and the bell boy is sent for final verification. And details informed
accordingly.
Refurbishing and Renovation:
RENOVATION AND REFURBISHING
The four R’s
• Renovation: Making new and in general sense restoring a property to its former
condition.
• Refurbishing/ Redecoration: Freshening up a property. This includes cosmetic
changes like changing draperies, upholstery etc.
• Restoration: Restoring a property to its exact authentic design and material.
• Remodeling.Altering the structure.
Why hotels Renovate?
• To replace old furniture and fittings
• To improve standards
• To face competition, to give a new look and keep up with latest trends
• To improve guest satisfaction
Process followed for Renovation
This is given on a contract to an architectural firm consisting of architects and
interior designers. A project team is constituted by the management comprising
of the General Manager, a Project Manager and representatives from the
Engineering and Housekeeping department who will co-ordinate with the firm.
Renovation work is usually done during the off-season. The entire hotel or part of
the hotel is shut down for a fixed period of time.
• Prepare a project team including a Project Manager and representatives from
the engineering and Housekeeping Department. The Project Manager will be in
charge of all the activity.
• Define the project
• Workout details of renovation work to be done with specification in each area
and the budget for the same.
• Identify the resources available in-house
1. Budget
2. Staff
3. Equipment
• List the resources to be acquired.
• Contact designing firms. Check out their credentials in the market and chalk
out terms and conditions with the chosen firm.
• Establish a dead time line for completion.
Procedures followed by the Housekeeping Department
Before Renovation
• Outline the extend of Renovation work that must be done in consultation with
the management.
• Co-ordinate with the management and consultant to set op ‘Mock up rooms”
• Approve of the best style of Mock up rooms, make a list of all specifications of
items to be provided.
• Plan storage areas and disposal of items in existing areas.
• Make an inventory report before clearing out the areas to be renovated.
• Block areas to be renovated with minimum inconvenience to the guest
After Renovation
• Co ordinate for timely handover of renovated rooms. ( It usually happens that if
the Renovators overshoot the deadline date, the Hosuekeeping team are hard
pressed for time to clean the areas, The Sales and Marketing would have sold the
rooms with effect from the scheduled day.)
• Check the delivery schedules of new items and arrange for storage space until
installation.
• Make a Snagging list (Check list) This list specifies all the items that are to be
renovated with their specification. This is checked by the Project team in co-
ordination with the firm. Rooms or areas renovated are taken over only after
compliance.
• Prepare staffing charts of the personnel necessary to prepare the areas of
renovation.
• Prepare cleaning schedule to prepare rooms for sale, minimize inconvenience to
guests and prevent spoilage of adjoining areas.
Cleaning Process include
• Through clean of all case goods
• Wash the windows
• Clean the floor
• Through scrub bathroom including fixtures and fittings. (paint marks, cement
marks etc. must be removed)
• Lay the carpet and vaccum
• Set the room i.e., place the necessary linen and supplies. Hand the curtains and
draperies.
• Dust and re-vacuum.
• Check the room and rectify any faults
• Clear the room for sale.
UNIT IV
Flower arrangements- Equipment and material required
for flower arrangement,Principles, types, various
flowers and foliage, Types of arrangements in different
areas of hotels, Principles of design as applied to flower
arrangement.
Flower arrangements:
A flower arrangement may be defined as the art of organizing and grouping
together plant materials (flowers, foliage, twigs, etc.) to achieve harmony of form,
colour, and texture, thereby adding cheer, life, and beauty to the surroundings. It
is essentially a decorative piece and should be the centre of attraction. An
arrangement can be composed of only flowers and/or foliage or in combination
with vegetables and fruits. Flower arrangements have an ability to introduce a
personal touch in an otherwise staid and impersonal hotel room. Arrangements
can be used in lobbies, restaurants, suites etc. Guests appreciate flowers for the
freshness they bring to the surroundings. Arrangements need not be reserved
only for parties or special occasions. They can be used regularly depending on the
season and the theme. The unconventional and dry material can also be used to
make arrangements which are more economical and last longer.
Flower arrangements are done in the hotel because of:
• Creating ambience and décor
• Religious reasons
• Amenities for VIP guests
• Personalized service
• To fit empty unattractive spaces— acts as a camouflage
• Special functions
Who does flower arrangements in hotels?
• Housekeeping is responsible for all flower arrangements and their
placement in hotels
• Large hotels have a horticulturist who looks after the entire gardening and
 florist who supplies and arranges flowers under the supervision of
housekeepers
• Some hotels also have contract service in which flowers and arrangements
are brought in and taken away as per agreement
Flower arrangement in Hotels
In hotels, flowers are used extensively. Various types of arrangements are chosen,
as appropriate to the area and occasion. Medium-sized ‘round’ arrangements are
often provided at the guest relations executives’ desk in the lobby and on coffee
tables in the lounges. In most five star hotels, one can see huge, spectacular
arrangements in the lobbies. Restaurants generally have bud vases on each table,
with one or two flowers in them. Table arrangements for conferences must be low
so that guests may see over them. At informal banquets, large arrangements may
be seen. At wedding banquets, wall arrangements using gerberas are very popular
nowadays. On special occasions and festivals, some hotels even make beautiful
traditional flower carpets for the lobby.
Equipment and material required for flower
arrangement:
Following are major Equipment and material required for flower arrangement:-
1. Mechanics
2. Equipment
3. Containers
4. Bases
5. Accessories
6. Plant material
7. Support
MECHANICS
These are items used to keep flowers, foliage, and stems in place within the
container. Mechanics must be fixed securely and should be hidden from view.
Examples – florists’ foam (oasis), pin holders (Japanese term – kenzan), chicken
wire, prong, adhesive clay and tape, florist cone.
• Floral foam also called oasis, is a cellular plastic material, available in two
types – green foam and brown/grey foam.
• Pin-holders also called kenzan or needle-point holders, is a series of sharply
pointed pins are firmly held in a solid lead base, to hold thick and heavy
stems securely by impaling them on the pins.
• Chicken wire also called ‘wire mesh’ or ‘wire netting’, is a fine- gauge wire
used to cover floral foam blocks in large displays.
• Prong is the simplest type of floral foam anchor. It is a small plastic disc with
four vertical prongs. The base of the prong is attached to the container with
adhesive clay and the floral foam is pressed down onto the prongs.
• Florist’s cone also called a ‘flower tube’ or ‘flower funnel’. It acts like a
miniature vase. It is used in large arrangements, where foliage or flowers
need to be placed above their stem height.
EQUIPMENT
This includes tools used to ensure that a satisfactory arrangement of plant
material is created within the container. Examples – bucket, scissors, knife,
watering can, mister, wire cutter, cocktail sticks, turn, wire, floral tape, candle
holder, cut flower preservatives, and secateurs.
• Mister is a hand-held spray bottle to produce a fine mist of water droplets
to keep an arrangement look fresh in warm weather.
• Secateurs are used to cut through thick and woody stems.
• Cocktail sticks or a toothpick is used to make holes in florists’ foam for a soft
stem of a flower.
• Cut-flower preservatives is a bactericide, available in powder or liquid form,
to prevent slime and smell from developing in the vase water, plus sugar to
prolong the life of fresh flowers. A preservative can be made in-house by
adding 3 teaspoons of sugar and 1 drop of bleach to half a litre of water.
CONTAINERS
These are receptacles that hold the flower arrangement. They may or may not be
hidden by the plant material. The container must be waterproof and neutral
colours such as soft grey, dull brown, offwhite, or earth colours are most suitable
because they are inconspicuous and do not detract attention from flowers
displayed. Theme and simplicity should be kept in mind while choosing the design
of the container. Example – vases and jugs, basket, bowls and trays, wreath frame
etc.
BASES
An object that is placed underneath the container to protect the surface of the
support and/or to add to the beauty of the display is called a base. Example –
table mat, tree section, wood base, stone base, and oriental base.
SUPPORT
This refers to the structure on which the container stands. Example – tables,
sideboards, alcoves, and shelves.
PLANT MATERIALS
These can be divided into 3 basic types
a) Flowers ( dominant/ focal/ point material) – This consists of bold flowers or
clusters of small showy blooms. The dominant material provides a centre of
interest. Example – Gerbera, Chrysanthemum, lilies, Anthurium, Tulips, Poppies,
Roses, Dahlias, and Daffodils.
b) Fillers ( secondary material) – This consists of smaller flowers and all sorts of
leaves and foliage that are used to cover the mechanics and edges of the
container and also provide added interest and colour to the display. Example –
Asters, Ivy, Button Chrysanthemum, Carnations, Gypsophila (Baby’s breath),
Limonium and Marguerites.
c) Foliages ( line material ) – This consists of tall stems, flowering spikes, or bold
leaves that are used to create the basic framework or skeleton. This lining material
may be straight or curved and it sets the height and width of the finished
arrangement. Examples – Gladioli, birds of paradise, goldenrods, larkspur,
asparagus ferns, palms, tuberoses, and Peruvian lilies.
ACCESSORIES
These are non-plant materials included in or placed alongside the
arrangement.Their purpose is generally decorative but could be functional at
times. Accessories are added to the design for extra interest or to ‘stretch’ the
flowers when they are in short supply. Example – miniature dolls, hats, ribbons,
beads, painted wire, wooden fruit shapes, silk flowers and foliage, candles,
driftwood, shells, idols, interesting pebbles etc.
Principles:
knowing some flower arranging basics is helpful for anyone. In these instances, we
all like to imagine that we’re expert floral arrangers, but the truth is that without
some fundamental knowledge, you can end up making a bit of a mess of those
pretty blossoms. Arranging flowers has a long and storied history. Not to worry:
with a few rules under your belt, you can transform that loosely-arranged cluster
into something with standout style.
While flair and personal preferences vary greatly from one florist to another, there
are some fundamentals that inform all their techniques. Luckily, you don’t have to
sign up for floral arranging 101 to learn these skills. To help you out, we’ve put
together an overview of six of the main principles of arranging flowers.
Balance
Novice floral arrangers often take this principle to mean that the arrangement
needs to be completely symmetrical. This is not the case. Having balance in your
bundle of blooms simply means that the arrangement shouldn’t look lopsided
when you’re done. If any one side looks heavier than the other, then you still have
some rearranging to do.
For instance, if you have a heavier element on one side, you need something of
equal weight on the other side – even if they’re completely different things, such
as a big bloom on one side and a cluster of small ones on the other, or two
different kinds of flowers of similar size. Make sure to rotate your arrangement as
you make it to check from all angles.
Scale
Another basic flower arranging rule to keep in mind is scale. You want the final
product to ‘fit’ the space where it will be placed. For example, a large, bushy
arrangement would look out of place on a small countertop. In contrast, a dainty
arrangement is likely to be overlooked in a spacious room. Try to fit the
arrangement to the space it’s going to inhabit.
Dominance
Choosing one dominant element in your floral design creates a harmonious result.
The aspect can be a common color, texture, shape, or size. You just need to find
something to carry through your creation to create a feeling of unity throughout
the arrangement. This doesn’t mean that the exact same flower needs to be
repeated (though it can be); you just have to carry on a central element
throughout. Having two or more competing elements makes a piece feel divided
and is less likely to hold interest.
Rhythm
You want the eye to move across the completed arrangement rather than hone in
on just one spot. This is why one of the flower arranging basics is rhythm. Just as
with music, having rhythm in floral arrangements creates a pleasing overall piece.
One way to create rhythm is by repeating a color pattern throughout the
arrangement. The eye needs to easily flow from one part of the arrangement to
the next.
Color
Before crafting your floral piece, be sure to give some consideration to the feeling
you’re trying to capture. Those who understand basic flower arranging know that
different colors and color combinations bring out a range of emotions. Giving
some thought to the sentiment you want to get across should help you select the
right colors for your piece.
Orientation
In floral design, the goal is typically to have all elements appear to be arranged
around a single axis. Having various parts of the arrangement look as if they are
meeting at different points makes the final product look disjointed.
TYPES :
It is one of the most commonly used classic flower arrangement styles used by the
flower arrangers. In this flower arrangement, the flowers and leaves are arranged
in the shape of a fan. The leaves are like the flower blades. Some differently
colored flowers are also used for this flower arrangement. The same or different
types of flower with various colors are used for this type of flower arrangement.
The empty space within the flower arrangements are filled up by using the fillers.
These are gorgeous in looks with wonderful shape and size. Thus, this flower
arrangement is very popular.
Elliptical flower arrangement : In this type of flower arrangement, the flowers are
placed and arranged in the form of an ellipse. The flowers, which are commonly
used for this purpose are roses, sunflowers, dahlia, lotus, tuberoses, lilies and
many more. Thus, only bright flowers are used for this purpose. The flowers are
bright as well as sweet scented. These are mostly bouquet arrangement and ideal
to be presented in birthday, wedding and other types of parties. These are really
attractive in looks. The best color combination of the flowers is used for this
flower arrangement purpose.
Vertical flower arrangement : It is one of the mostly used flower arrangement in
bouquets as well as flower baskets. A mixture and combination of different types
of flowers with various colors and shapes are used for these arrangements. This
particular flower arrangement is cherished by all flower arrangers, florist
companies as well as by the customers all across the world.
Horizontal flower arrangement :
It is also a very common type flower arrangement used by the flower designers of
reputed florist companies round the globe. The flowers of different colors are
arranged in rows or on zig zag basis with the help of this type of flower
arrangement. Usually strongly scented or fragrant flowers are used for this
purpose.
Triangular flowers: It is the flower arrangement as the name suggests is triangular
in shape. The whole flower bunch is cut and trimmed in the shape of
Red_Rose_Handbaga triangle to make this shape. These flower arrangements
usually have a big flower in the middle, adding to the beautification of the flower
arrangement bunch. These flowers are arranged in bright flower bouquets
covered with glossy and transparent cellophane papers.
The crescent flower arrangement :This type of flower arrangement is also known
as the C type of flower arrangement in which the freshly plucked flower with
green leaves and stem fillers are used on a flower basket arrangement. The flower
basket with this flower arrangement looks very beautiful and gorgeous. These are
usually supported by glossy flower wraps and the leaves, and the flowers are tied
with silk, satin made colorful ribbons.
The ‘S’ shaped flower arrangement : It is the type of flower arrangement which
has the shape of ‘S’. These are arranged in the form of flower bouquets and
baskets. These are usually big in size and can be presented in any occasion or
celebration. These are placed in flower stands and look upright. A lot of leaves
with floral fillers are also used for this arrangement. The entire look of the place is
changed where this flower arrangement is placed.
The oval shaped flower arrangement :This type of flower arrangement are oval
shaped and are highly recommended by most of the reputed florist organizations
of the ExoticBeauty1world. The flowers, green stems and leaves are cut and
trimmed in the form of an oval shaped and skillfully placed in different flower
arrangements like bouquets, baskets and bunches. The flower arrangement looks
very much dense and bushy from outside. Thus, it is very much good looking. This
flower arrangement is widely used in interior decoration purposes and also
ceremony hall decoration purposes in different parts of the world.
The cascade flower arrangement : It is a gorgeous and bushy flower arrangement.
Apart of flowers, leaves and stems, a lot of fresh green grass is also used to
prepare this very special type of flower arrangement. These are mostly arranged
in flower bouquets and presented in the wedding anniversaries and wedding
ceremonies of all religions. The fresh fragrance and gorgeous color of the flower
arrangement makes the wedding ceremony more memorable and enjoyable.
Thus, it is very popular all over the globe.
Various flowers and foliage:
Before creating a floral arrangement for a customer, a professional
designer first plans the design in his/her mind. The principles and elements of
floral design guide the designer in determining the types of flowers and foliages to
select. Each type of flower and foliage used in the design will have a unique
function or purpose. Additional factors the designer considers in planning the
arrangement include:
• color scheme or theme of the arrangement,
• seasonal availability of the desired floral materials, and
• cost per stem of the floral materials.
In the global marketplace today, almost all flowers and foliages used in
floral design are available throughout the year. However, during the
season when a specific type of flower is most plentiful, its cost is lower
than when the flower is out of season or in greater demand. This is
characteristic of most commodities.
Availability and cost of floral materials are important considerations a designer
must keep in mind when planning and pricing weddings, parties, or other events
months in advance. To remain current, the designer should keep in contact with
local floral wholesalers for material availability and cost.
FORMS AND FUNCTIONS OF FLOWERS AND FOLIAGES
The individual shapes and forms* of floral materials have important influences on
the overall pattern or silhouette of American style geometric floral designs. As a
result, floral designers must consider the unique characteristics of floral materials
when selecting them for floral designs and arrangements. Floral designers group
flowers and foliages according to their shapes and forms. Four groups of floral
materials exist based on the form and function of the floral materials within an
arrangement. These groups include floral materials used for line, form, mass, and
filler. Floral designers use materials from any single group, or a combination of
groups, to create attractive floral arrangements.
Floral materials are not limited to being in only one group. A single flower type
may serve more than one function in different arrangements. The creativity of a
floral designer can express the form of the same flower in several different ways.
For example, a carnation functions as a mass flower in a round arrangement and
as a line flower in a bud vase. In a large arrangement, the same type of carnation
may function as a filler flower. If a carnation is of a new variety or color, it may
even be featured in an arrangement as a form flower.
The different groups of flowers and foliages serve as a guide for creating a floral
arrangement. Most floral designers begin floral design construction by placing the
line flowers first to create the outline and geometric shape of the design. Form
flowers added next develop the focal area, or focal point. Mass flowers added
after the form flowers add visual weight to the arrangement. Filler flowers added
last provide a finishing touch to the arrangement.
Types of arrangements in different areas of hotels :
When it comes to different types of floral arrangements, the list goes on and on. A
majority of the time the type of flower arrangement that you choose will depend
on what type of event you’re producing. For example, if you’re hosting a gala, you
may mainly utilize centerpieces. However, a product launch with multiple product
displays can benefit from branded long and low arrangements placed throughout
the room. No matter what type of event you may be coordinating, there is a
specific arrangement type that is meant for you.
Centerpiece:
A centerpiece is a classic flower arrangement that everyone knows and loves.
These arrangements typically come in vases that are four by four inches or even
five by five inches. Centerpieces are most commonly placed within the center of a
dining table, however, they also can be utilized as cocktail arrangements,
interspersed throughout product displays, incorporated into nooks of flower walls,
and much more. A centerpiece is a timeless arrangement that will never go out of
style.
Bar Arrangement:
A bar arrangement is a taller version of the classic centerpiece arrangement and
holds a sense of elegance and glamour that will draw guests to a new location. Bar
arrangements are most notably found on top of the bar to flank the busy,
happening area. They can also be used in many other areas of a venue. Some of
our other favorite spots to feature bar arrangements include fireplaces to frame a
mantel, product displays to provide varying dimension and height, and the sides
of photo walls to enclose the entire structure to create a cohesive moment.
Bud Vase:
Bud vases can be considered “miniature arrangements.” Often times bud vases
accompany centerpieces or bar arrangements by reflecting the same color
scheme, mood, or style. They can be placed near larger arrangements as
complementary accent pieces and they can also help fill space. Bud vases
generally have much fewer stems than their larger counterparts, but they still
work to make an event’s décor feel complete and well designed.
Long and Low :
A long and low arrangement is another cousin of the classic centerpiece
arrangement. Long and low arrangements are just as the name suggests! They’re
typically found in long, rectangular vases that are close to the surface. Long and
low arrangements can appear more voluminous than a traditional arrangement
because they are spread out over longer surfaces. They’re often used in
tablescapes to create one united floral story across a table. Additionally, long and
low arrangements work well for product displays to help break up the products
while keeping it all visually stimulating.
Principles of design as applied to flower arrangement:
The basic principles of art are also applicable to the art of flower arrangement.
The principles are as follows:-
• Design
• Scaling/Proportion
• Balance
• Physical
• Visual
• Suitable Background
 • Variation
• Rythm
• Proper use of Colour
• Emphasis
• Harmony
• Distinction
• Repetation
DESIGN-
All arrangements should have a proper design; that is the structural pattern of the
arrangement which determines the shape, size, and suitability of the various
component parts and their relationship to each other.
For creating a good design the following points should be considered:
• The stems should all flow from a central point, avoiding cross stems.
• The focal point(the central area from which flowers and foliages appear to
emerge) should be the tallest point.
• The flower used should not be monotonous.
• The height, width and depth required to be proportionate.
• The shape ought to be clearly defined.
SCALING/PROPORTION-
Means the size relationship between the component parts of an arrangement,
involving a good proportion of plant material, container, size and function.
To achieve correct scaling the points to be borne in mind are:
• i)One should avoid using together very different types of material.
• ii)Put huge flowers in a large low container rather than in a tall narrow one.
• iii)No flower should be more than one-third of the size of the container.
• iv)If a round vase is used then use a round base.
• v)One should fill ⅔ of the space in a given vase & use the surrounding space
to set off the arrangement.
• vii)The height of the material should be 1 & 1½ times the height of the
container (or the width of the container if it is long & low).
BALANCE-
It is shown in the way in which materials are grouped in a design and physical as
well as visual balance needs to be considered.The components of balance are a
form(a size which creates apparent weight) and colour( Darker colour gives an
impression of weight.
A)PHYSICAL BALANCE:
Symmetrical balance: This occurs when the material is so arranged that if we
draw an imaginary line through the centre of the arrangement one would find a
visually equal distribution of material on each side of the line.
Asymmetrical balance: This is so placed that high and light material on one side of
the imaginary line, balanced by larger shorter material on the other side.
Balance by placement: Means that the arrangement is placed to one side of a
long base.
Balance by accessories: Means that anything from a figurine to leaves may be
used on the weakest side.
B)VISUAL BALANCE: It can be achieved by following the points:
• Dark flowers look heavier than pale ones.
• Round flowers look heavier than conical ones.
• Large flowers to be placed centrally and close to the bottom of the
arrangement.
C) SUITABLE BACKGROUND:- The various aspects to be considered are:
• Style of the room
• Size of the room
• Type of wall surface
• Practicality
D)VARIETY OF PLANT TEXTURE:- Plant material comes in various textures like
glossy, velvety, dull, and prickly. A glossy flower is brightened when placed next to
matt foliage.
RHYTHM-
This is the feeling of motion created by using curved lines. It can be achieved by:
• Using graduating sizes or different degrees of opening of the flowers
• Using curves stems
• Using foliages of various sizes and contrasting shapes
• Having an irregular line of various – sized blooms
PROPER USE OF COLOUR-
Colours should be used judicially.
EMPHASIS-
Emphasis should be achieved by creating a focal point or centre of interest. The
usual methods of achieving emphasis are:
• Include a small group of bold flowers (dominant material)
• Use an unusual container
• Use striking foliage and use dark leaves to accentuate light colours.
HARMONY-
In the finished arrangement as a whole, the material used, the container, and
accessories should harmonize into one overall framework.
DISTINCTION-
This is the most important asset. Either your arrangement has it or not. It is
achieved by:
• Using of unusual material
• Unusual method of emphasis has been used
• The colour combination is useful
• The finish is perfect
• A good contrast has built up a strong design.
REPETITION-
In colour and form is essential for the arrangement to look harmonious but it
should not be carried too much. If not followed the arrangement looks incomplete
and if overdone it is monotonous.
The location of a flower arrangement affects the ‘principles of design’, as follows
1. Table arrangement
This refers to the arrangements used to decorate tables for seated meals,
banquets, buffets, etc. These should be –
a) Simple – e.g. fruits placed in a low container, two or three flowers and a few
leaves in a small container, etc.
b) Appropriate in size – since the table is in use for eating and not for showing
flowers, the arrangement should be small and neat and not so large and
overflowing so to fall into the plates, etc. It should not be too dominating.
c) Proper in shape – flowers should never interfere with a conversation on the
dining table. A low arrangement is most suitable and the design should look
attractive from all sides. The shape of the table will usually dictate the shape of
the flower arrangement. A rectangular table may need a design that is long, etc.
2. Reception desk
Bold arrangements are made keeping in view the large counters they have to be
put on and they should command a dominant position where they can be viewed
by a large number of people. Normally it should be front-facing.
3. Guest rooms
Strong smelling flowers should be avoided and the arrangement should not be
large for a small room or vice-versa. This means that the arrangement should be in
size and proportion to the room and site. Most arrangements are either placed on
a coffee table or dining table ( in suites) when they should be round and on
writing tables, usually with the back to the wall in which case they can be front-
facing.
It is important to note that flower arrangements are kept at different eye levels
which would affect the actual height of the arrangement. As a rule in a tall flower
vase – the height of the tallest floral material should be one and a half to two
times the length of the vase. In a higher level placed flower arrangements are kept
above the eye level and have the largest stem reduced below accepted measure
so as to conform to the visual scale of proportion. In lower flower arrangements
should not have the largest stem over and above the accepted scale.
UNIT V
Pest control management- common pest and control,
Pest control procedures, Waste disposal management;
PMS handling related to house-keeping; Eco-friendly
practices in house-keeping
Pest control management:
Pest control management is the process of identifying, controlling, and sometimes
eliminating a pest problem (rodents, insects, etc.) from places where they
normally should not be present. The intervention may or may not include the use
of chemicals (usually pesticides). When a professional service provider intervenes
on-site, certain protocols and procedures should be respected to effectively
eliminate or control the pest problem.
common pest and control:
Pests can cause a whole lot of damage they can spread disease and destroy your
homes. You need to employ various pest control methods to deal with them.
1. Traps: You must have used traps to catch mice and rodents. They are one of the
safest pest control methods. While some traps kill the pest as soon as it comes in
contact with it, others keep them alive and allow you to remove them from your
property.
2. Chemical repellents: They are one of the most efficient ways to get rid of pests
from home. With chemical repellents, you can keep away both large pests and
insects. Typically, they are specific chemicals that target only specific bugs and
prevent them from invading your house. However, they can be harmful as they
release toxins in the environment. So make sure that you keep them away from
the reach of children and clean the area after using them.
3. Pesticides: Pesticides act as poison and kill pests immediately. However, it is
important to know the target insect s habits before choosing the form of
insecticide. For example, flying pests like mosquitoes are best tackled with aerosol
sprays while crawling insects are best treated with surface powders. The only
downside of using pesticides is that they are quite toxic and should be handled
with care to avoid poisoning. Wear a mask before spraying and make sure you
wash your hands after using the pesticide. Pesticides could also be harming your
unborn child.
4. Poisoned bait:It is a standard method that kills rats, ants, termites and many
other pests. It attracts pests to ingest the substance and then kills. However, the
pest might become aware of the poison in the food and may avoid swallowing it
altogether.
5. Biological pest control methods: They can eliminate pests without causing any
serious harm to the environment. Biological pest control uses an agent to monitor
and manage the population of parasites around your home and restricts them
from growing. The biological agents interfere with their ability to breed,
preventing them from growing. For example, you can introduce nematodes into
the soil around your home to rid the surrounding area of termites. The use of BTI
(a larvicide composed of toxin-producing bacteria) has been successfully used for
controlling mosquito larvae.
6. Natural repellents: Rather than purchasing the chemical-laden insect repellent
products from the market you can consider using natural insect repellents. For
example, adding mosquito repellent plants to your garden can keep away
mosquitoes from entering your home. Application of certain oils such as citronella
oil also keeps away pests from getting in contact with your skin. These essential
oils are also useful as pest repellents.
Pest control procedures:
 Pest control, a process that maintains nuisance organisms below economic
thresholds, is a complex ecological process often mediated by biodiversity.
Agricultural intensification results in widespread losses of biodiversity, with
important implications for pest control.
If any hotel staffs find pests such as cockroaches, ants, rats, spiders, flying insects
etc. in any area of the Hotel they should immediately report it to the
Housekeeping Department.Housekeeping Staff will record the details in the Pest
Control Log Book. The Format is as follows:
• Date
• Time
• Description of Pest Problem
• Location of Pest Found
• Date of Pest Treatment Appointment
• Job Completed on.
• Staff accompanied.
• Signature
Housekeeping Manager is to review the Pest Control Log Book weekly to ensure
the proper treatment is complied with.
Housekeeping floor supervisor or the Housekeeping manager should co-ordinate
with the pest control contractor for monthly schedule and urgent implementation
arrangement of ad-hoc pest control.
Housekeeping Manager will advise other department of the schedule and the
type of treatment used for pest control, so the necessary safety measure can be
taken by the concerned department Eg. Covering of food, cancelling of table
settings etc.
Pest control contractor will be guided and accompanied by Housekeeping staff for
security and job performance control purpose.
Waste disposal management:
There are multiple waste management strategies and methods available. These
strategies can be combined or rearranged to form a waste management system
that fits an organization. Modern waste management strategies are geared
towards sustainability. Other alternatives for waste disposal is to reduce, reuse,
and recycle waste.
• Recycling – also known as physical reprocessing, recycling is ideal for the
disposal of inorganic waste such as plastic, glass, and metals. Though
organic waste such as paper and food can also be recycled, composting
would be a better waste disposal method as it converts organic waste into
nutrient-rich fertilizer.
• Waste-to-Energy – or WtE on the other hand, is the conversion of non-
recyclable waste into heat, electricity, or fuel using renewable energy
sources such as anaerobic digestion and plasma gasification.
• Anaerobic digestion – the biological reprocessing of animal manure and
human excreta into methane-rich biogas. Plasma gasification uses a plasma-
 filled vessel operating at high temperatures and low levels of oxygen to
transform hazardous waste into syngas. Another option for disposing of
hazardous waste is bioremediation, the treatment of contaminants, toxins,
and pollutants through micro-organisms.
PMS handling related to house-keeping :
A PMS housekeeping module connects housekeeping staff to the front office. A
front-office manager can make a list of tasks to assign, and housekeepers can
update room status. If this is a cloud-based PMS, housekeepers can update the
status of their assignments or rooms through a connected mobile app or tablet.
Also, this module keeps the list of maintenance tasks and reports for the users.
The main function of this module is housekeeping management and property
maintenance. Housekeeping functionality includes room status management,
maid assignment for room cleaning based on a block or floor location, and
keeping lists of tasks for housekeepers. Maintenance management keeps the
record of hotel disruptions and repair activities with the further assignment of an
attendant who can eliminate a problem.
Eco-friendly practices in house-keeping :
To make housekeeping eco-friendly:-
1.Stay away from chemicals
In the hotel industry there is a great usage of chemicals than in offices and
households.When purchasing cleaning products hotels must select ones which are
least harmful to health and surroundings together.The water run-off from hotels
can pollute water resources if toxic cleaning solutions are used.The use of
fertilizers and pesticides in the hotel premises must be in a safe and minimum
manner.Room fresheners are another source of many toxins like
formaldehyde,benzene,styrene, phthalates. So such products must be used which
are natural,pure and less toxic.
2.Safe chemicals must be used
The chemicals which are used must be handled vigilantly and with care because
exposure to such harmful chemicals will have a negative impact on housekeeping
staff.The safety of the staff must be a priority job and they must be provided with
adequate equipments and tools like safety goggles and gloves when working with
dangerous chemicals.The cleaning products must be appropriately diluted.The
strong chemicals must be stored in strong containers to avoid their leakage.
3.Green Cleaning
The standard of cleaning service of the hotel must be good.The most effective
cleaning options must be used to keep the surfaces,floors and everything else spic
and span,spotless.There are many products being used in daily chores which can
have a massive impact on the people and environment around them.For
eg,chemical-based fungicides can have a negative impact on local insect
populations including bees and some cleaning liquids can release toxic fumes or
harm if malhandled.
4.Investment in green equipment
The hotels must invest in green equipment to use the resources
minimally.Sustainable products must be used for floor and carpet care.For
eg,Green Seal gives environmental certification in the US and it recommends
vacuum cleaners that comply with Carpet and Rug Institute’s Green Label Program
requirements and work.Energy efficient air conditioners must be used in the hotel
including guest rooms.
5.Presence of Pest Management Plan
The pesticides and pest management methods used in a hotel must adhere to the
condition of being sensitive to the environment.Every hotel must have a good
indoor Integrated Pest Management Plan(IPM) that directs how pests will be
managed in the hotel in a harmless manner being non-toxic and natural.The
situation of their use too must be defined in the plan.According to LEED
guidelines,guests must be told about the use of pesticides before and after their
use in the hotel.
6.An educated and trained staff
The use of required products and processes may not just be the ultimate solution
if there is the lack of aware and trained staff to carry on their works flawlessly.So
the staff must be given required training and other needed courses to update
them totally.This step will help conserve water which may be otherwise wasted
due to unnecessary flushing of toilets or the use of certain cleaning methods.In
this way the staff can learn about various aspects of keeping the hotel in a proper
way including rationalization,water management,energy efficiency,water recycling
etc.
Paper 4 : Basic of Food & Beverage Production
UNIT I
Aims and objective, cooking art or science, different
kitchen equipments, care and maintenance and its use,
Attitude towards work, western and culinary terms,
Personnel grooming, Hygiene and Uniform.
Aims and objective Of F & B Production :
The aim or the intention of cooking is to see that the food cooked undergoes a
physical change, sometimes a chemical change and is acceptable.
The objective of cooking is to achieve certain results such as:
1) To facilitate and fasten digestion, so that the cooked food is absorbed by the
digestive system and subsequently assimilated by the body.
2) A physical change occurs when a substance changes its form, color or size, but
still remains that same substance, like water that changes to ice.
3) A chemical change occurs when a substance changes its form, color or size,
combining so as to form an entirely new body, e.g. milk changes to curd.
4) Cooking partly sterilize food above 40*c, so that growth of bacteria falls off
rapidly and boiling kills the living cells.
5) Cooking makes food more attractive to have eye appearance and variety.
6) Cooking increases taste and palatability.
7) Cooking helps to make food more digestible.
8) With one ingredient many dishes can be prepared.
9) Use of right cooking method so that there is minimum loss of color, texture and
nutrition.
10) Use of various ingredients to provide a balance diet.
Cooking art or science:
When it comes to cooking, opinions can vary drastically. Some believe that
cooking is an art, while others believe that it is a science. However, both camps
have some valid points.
Artists, for example, believe that the art of cooking is all about creating a dish that
is both visually appealing and tastes great. They focus on the nuances of their
recipe, such as the spices used and the way they are presented to the diner.
On the other hand, scientists believe that cooking is essentially a science. They
focus on the principles of thermodynamics, which is the study of the mechanical
properties of materials in the presence of heat. They try to create dishes that are
both delicious and healthy.
Cooking is both an art and a science, we can better understand it as a science, but
there is no way to take away its creativity. The art of cooking not only pleases our
eyes but also the palate. The visual representation of the kitchen lends itself to
art. Since then, cooking has become my biggest passion. Cooking is both an art
and a science, we can better understand it as a science, but there is no way to
take away its creativity. The art of cooking not only pleases our eyes but also the
palate. The visual representation of the kitchen lends itself to art. Since then,
cooking has become my biggest passion.
I hadn't realized it until recently, but cooking is unique in its ability to be a form of
art, science and social event; it allows me to explore my creative side while
remaining practical. I suspect another reason I love cooking is because of my love
of science. You can only become a great chef through the scientific method.
Researching why certain ingredients impart certain flavors or create certain
reactions, and then recreating those experiments by trying them out in the
kitchen, is what led me to read hundreds of pages of cookbooks and then test the
recipes with friends and family.
A good example of this is one of my favorite recipes, Spaghetti Aglio e Olio. The
only ingredients are pasta, olive oil and garlic. If you just threw these three
ingredients randomly into a frying pan without any prior knowledge, you would
end up with an oily, garlicky mess. But once you learn to retain water from pasta
cooking because it contains leftover starch, which emulsifies fatty olive oil,
creating a heavenly creamy sauce that then sticks to the pasta, you can create a
delicious dish worthy of any date night.
Like any other skill, cooking requires hundreds of accumulated experiences and
failed attempts to develop even a basic mastery of the skills needed to prepare a
tasty dish. From learning to throw food in a frying pan, learning to use a knife, to
understanding how much salt I need to add, I can point to a myriad of spills,
grease fires, cuts, over-salted dishes, and disgusting combinations that I had to go
through to learn what I know now. It is this constant evolution and final mastery
that makes me cook over and over again. Returning to Duckworth's book, she
writes: “The passion for your work is a bit of discovery, followed by a lot of
development, and then a life of deepening.
Now that I know that I can make good food after years of developing my skills, I
have reached a point where I always try to push the limits; modify that recipe a
little here, try a new cooking method there. Whenever I do something, I always
change the way I do things, I always run after the ideal, knowing that I will never
achieve it.
Different kitchen equipments:
1. Cooking Equipment
commercial equipment in a restaurant's kitchen
Cooking equipment is the cornerstone of any commercial kitchen. When choosing
cooking equipment for your restaurant, be sure to think about what pieces of
equipment you're going to be using most often. While smaller pieces of
equipment may be less expensive, they may not meet your capacity needs if
you're going to be using them regularly, costing your business more in the long
run.
Here's our list of essential cooking equipment for restaurants:
• Oven: This versatile piece of equipment can be used for baking, roasting,
 braising, and much more. As a result, an oven (or multiple ovens,
depending on your business) is essential.
• Range: You can choose either electric or gas ranges, depending on your
preferences and kitchen setup.
• Deep Fryer: While deep fryers are ideal for making french fries, chicken
tenders, and other customer favorites, you can use them for frying up a
variety of foods.
• Grill: Charbroilers and other grills impart a smoky and charred flavor that's
perfect for many different recipes.
• Griddles: Similar to grills but with a flat metallic surface, griddles are a
mainstay in diners and can be used for a variety of different cooking
methods.
• Holding Equipment: Holding cabinets keep your food at a specific
temperature, which makes them ideal for holding food until it's ready to
serve or proofing breads before baking.
• Salamander or Broiler: These products are perfect for finishing dishes,
toasting bread, or melting cheese. Also, salamanders have high enough heat
output to broil salmon or cook foods.
• Toaster: If your restaurant is going to be open for breakfast, a commercial
toaster is a must for your bread and bagels.
• Coffee Brewer: Coffee is a popular beverage, and it's a great addition to
your beverage service, even if you're not opening a cafe or bakery.
• Microwave: Microwaves are a convenient way to heat up sauces, defrost
frozen foods, and re-heat products.
Additionally, with cooking equipment, it's essential that you choose the right
power type for your kitchen. Also, be aware that you may need additional gas
hoses and other components to install your cooking equipment successfully.
2. Refrigeration Equipment
2. Refrigeration Equipment
Two commercial reach-in refrigerators in a kitchen
There are many different styles of refrigeration equipment, and the style you
choose will depend on your type of restaurant and your specific refrigeration
needs. But, here are some examples that a standard restaurant might choose:
• Refrigerator: Some common types of refrigerators include walk-in coolers,
reach-in fridges, pass-through options, or prep fridges. It is likely that your
restaurant will require a combination of different types.
• Freezer: Like refrigerators, freezers come in various sizes and styles to suit
your needs and food capacities.
• Ice Machine: Ice machines are an essential component for beverage service
at any restaurant. Additionally, cafes, bars, and grocery stores may use ice
to make smoothies or blended cocktails.
• Beverage Dispensers: Some establishments like fast food and fast casual
restaurants may have self service beverage dispensers, while others may
have them at wait stations. When choosing a dispenser, think of how many
soft drink options you want to serve and which brand of soda you're going
to choose.
3. Storage Equipment
Empty mobile sheet pan rack in a commercial kitchen
In addition to refrigeration, every restaurant will need storage equipment for
ingredients as well as smallwares and equipment. Here are some standard pieces
of storage equipment you'll find in most restaurants:
• Shelving: You can use shelving in your walk-in cooler or freezer for storing
different foods. You can also use shelving for storing pots, pans, dinnerware,
dry ingredients, and more. Shelving comes in a variety of sizes and
configurations, allowing you to customize your shelving for your space.
• Bussing and Utility Carts: Bussing and utility carts are essential to have in
the kitchen due to their utility. You can use them in the front-of-house area
for bussing tables or in the back-of-house area for moving heavy equipment
or ingredients.
• Sheet Pan Racks: Sheet pan racks are designed for storing and transporting
foods, but you can also use them for holding and proofing breads. Sheet
pan racks are designed to be tall rather than wide, so they have a small
footprint, which is ideal for cramped kitchens.
• Food Storage Containers: Food storage containers are the perfect multi-
purpose tools. You can use them to store prepped ingredients, mix up
sauces and stocks, or hold dry items like pasta or rice. Best of all, many food
storage containers come with colored lids or markings, so you can color
code them for easy organization.
• Drying Racks: Drying racks provide a place to not only store your
equipment, but to also air dry it. You can use drying racks for drying
dinnerware, glassware, cookware, cutting boards, utensils, and much more.
• Dunnage Racks: Dunnage racks are similar to drying racks in that they're
used for drying equipment, but dunnage racks are usually only a few inches
off of the ground. You can use them for heavy items, such canned goods,
bags of rice, or large pieces of equipment.
Additionally, when outfitting your new kitchen with refrigeration and storage
equipment, consider what your menu is going to look like, and what quantities of
food you'll have to store. This will give you a better idea of how many
refrigerators, freezers, and shelves you'll need.
4. Food Prep Equipment
Small commercial mixer on a stainless steel table
When it comes to food prep equipment, different restaurants will have various
items on their kitchen equipment list, depending on their recipes. Rather than list
all of the potential items you could order, we limited our professional kitchen
equipment list to essentials that most foodservice operations would need:
• Food Processors: These versatile appliances can help cut down on valuable
prep time. You can use them to make sauces, combine ingredients, chop
vegetables, slice cheese, and much more.
• Prep Tables: Place appliances and equipment on top of these sturdy tables,
or use them as a surface for prepping ingredients or assembling dishes.
• Mixers: While bakeries and pizza shops might use commercial mixers most
frequently, this is a useful piece of equipment that every restaurant should
 have.
• Spice Grinders: While using pre-ground spices is economical, freshly ground
spices and herbs have a unique flavor that can give your recipes more depth
of flavor.
• Blenders: Most commonly found in bars and cafes, blenders have a
multitude of uses. You can use them to make drinks, combine sauces, or
create marinades.
5. Smallwares
Chef wearing disposable gloves cutting vegetables
Smallwares are the tools that your employees will use in the kitchen to prepare
and cook your dishes. When ordering smallwares for your new kitchen, make sure
that you purchase the right quantity, so your employees aren't fighting for the
same item. Here's our list of the essential smallwares for your commercial kitchen:
• Chef Knives: A sharp set of knives are the most important set of tools in a
kitchen. Sharp chef knives not only make food prep easier, but they also
decrease the risk of accidents and cuts.
• Cutting Boards: Also, if you want to color code your kitchen to prevent
cross-contamination, you can purchase multiple colors of cutting boards
and follow HACCP guidelines.
• Mixing Bowls: When purchasing mixing bowls, be sure to get multiple sizes
for different applications.
• Pans: There are many different kinds of pans, such as sauce, saute, braising,
and fry. Consider which types your kitchen needs and in what quantity
before placing your order.
• Pots: Similar to pans, there are multiple types of pots, such as stock pots,
double boilers, pasta cookers, sauce pots, and more.
• Whisks: Whisks are a useful tool that you can use to incorporate air into
your ingredients, giving them a light and fluffy texture. You can also choose
from the different types of whisks for the one that best suits your needs.
• Food Pans: Prepare dishes in the oven in food pans or use them to hold
food in a food warmer until it's ready to serve. Food pans are especially
essential for caterers for transporting food and buffets for serving food on
steam tables.
• Kitchen Spoons: Stir sauces in the back-of-house area, serve foods at your
buffet, or remove ingredients from a bowl with kitchen spoons. These
versatile tools should be on every restaurant equipment list.
• Turners: If your restaurant or diner is planning on using griddles,
charbroilers, or grills, turners are must-have tools. Choose turners with
high-heat handles to keep your employees' hands safe.
• Tongs: Tongs have a lot of utility, and you can use them for food prep,
plating, or serving purposes, depending on your needs.
6. Janitorial Equipment
Cleanliness is essential in the foodservice industry, so you should be sure that your
new business has all of the janitorial equipment and cleaning supplies it needs.
Different restaurants may require various cleaning supplies depending on what
appliances and flooring they have, but here's a list of essential cleaning supplies
every operation will need:
• Microfiber cloths and cleaning rags: Microfiber cloths and rags have many
uses in restaurants, from cleaning up spills, wiping down tables and chairs,
polishing glassware, and more.
• 3 compartment sink: These products are essential for cleaning and
sanitizing your products completely and following health codes. In addition
to your 3 compartment sink, you'll also need to invest in a grease trap and a
commercial faucet.
• Foodservice chemicals and sanitizers: Choose the right chemicals for
cleaning your commercial equipment, and don't forget to also get sanitizing
chemicals that keep your products safe for food contact.
• Trash cans and recycling bins: Every establishment needs a place to get rid
of trash. Purchase trash cans and recycling bins and place them strategically
throughout your establishment.
• Mops and mop buckets: Mopping your floors at the end of the day helps
clean up any spills and messes that accumulated during service.
• Wet floor signs: In addition to mops, you'll need wet floor signs to alert
customers and employees to take caution when walking on the wet floor.
• Scrubbers and sponges: Order a variety of scrubbers and sponges with
different abrasiveness so you have heavy-duty options for stuck-on messes
as well as soft sponges for cleaning delicate items.
• Restroom supplies: Be sure to stock your restrooms with supplies like toilet
paper, paper towels, hand soap, urinal cakes, and baby changing tables.
• Brooms and dustpans: Sweep up food dropped on the floor, dust, and more
with these brooms. You can use them to clean up messes in the front- or
back-of-house area.
• Cleaning chemical buckets: Mix cleaning chemicals safely by using these
proper cleaning chemical buckets. Additionally, these buckets come in
different colors, so you can color code them for easier organization.
Care and maintenance and its use :
This guide allows you to create an equipment maintenance checklist. It includes
the main appliances to maintain and things you should check. They include:
1. Freezers and Fridges
They are crucial to keep ingredients in proper temperatures. A damaged freezer or
fridge can cost you a day’s business. Checklist includes:
• Checking the electrical connections
• Checking the level of refrigerant
• Calibrating the thermostat
• Inspecting and cleaning the insulation
• Checking the hinges and doors
• Checking and adjusting defrost temperatures and times
2. Stove Ranges
They are vital for a kitchen operation, so make sure you follow this checklist:
• Cleaning all parts and behind the ranges
• Securing and cleaning the grates and burners
• Checking and adjusting the thermostat
 • Checking and greasing the valve knobs
3. Sinks and Dishwashers
They are important for cleaning, washing, and keeping the hygiene level proper.
Checklist includes:
• Cleaning the filters
• Inspecting and changing the tank water
• Checking all chemical levels, including in the products
• Fixing all chippings, dents, and cracks
• Sanitizing the surfaces
4. Fryers
If you make a lot of fried foods, fryers must be included in the checklist, which
includes:
• Checking and cleaning the fans
• Checking for gas leak
• Removing dirty oil
• Checking the quality of oil used
5. Grills and Griddles
Grills and griddles have hidden parts that require thorough maintenance to keep.
Checklist includes:
• Cleaning filters and burners
• Wiping down all parts after each use
6. Storage Spaces
Storage spaces need to have proper condition and temperature to keep the
content in the best quality. Checklist includes:
• Proper labeling and storage system
• Proper temperatures for dry food storage
• Storage areas not touching the floor
7. Floor
Kitchen floor must be stable, slip-free, and clean. Checklist includes:
• Cleaning the oil and grease
• Sweeping and mopping regularly
• Fixing tripping hazards
• Replacing mats and carpets when necessary
Also read: Tips For Maintaining Restaurant Equipments
Kitchen Equipment ITS USE :
USES OF SINKS
1. Dirty plates ad cutlery are stored in the sink pending the times they will be
washed
2. Cooking utensils are washed in the sink
3. Fruits and vegetables as well as meat and fish can also be washed there.
USES OF REFRIGERATOR
1. They are used for preserving raw food
2. They are used for preserving cooked food items and other materials that
are easily perishable.
USES OF FOOD MIXERS
1. They are used for mixing pastry for cakes
 2. They are used for mashing potatoes
3. They are used for beating white eggs, mayonnaise, chopping vegetables and
meat.
Attitude towards work:
In order to be a good professional cook, you have to like cooking and want to do it
well. Being serious about your work doesn’t mean you can’t enjoy it. But the
enjoyment comes from the satisfaction of doing your job well and making
everything run smoothly. Every experienced chef knows the stimulation of the
rush. When it’s the busiest time of the evening, the orders are coming in so fast
you can hardly keep track of them, and every split-second count—then, when
everyone digs in and works together and everything clicks, there’s real excitement
in the air. But this excitement comes only when you work for it. A cook with a
positive attitude works quickly, efficiently, neatly, and safely. Professionals have
pride in their work and want to make sure it is something to be proud of. Pride in
your work and in your profession is important, but humility is important too,
especially when you are starting out. Sometimes new culinary school graduates
arrive on the job thinking they know everything. Remember that learning to cook
and learning to manage a kitchen is a lifelong process and that you are not yet
qualified to be executive chef. The importance of a professional attitude begins
even before you start your first job. The standard advice for a successful job
interview applies to cooks as well as to office professionals: Dress and behave not
for the group you belong to but for the group you want to join. Arrive neat, clean,
appropriately dressed, and on time. Get noticed for the right reasons. Carry this
attitude through every day on the job.
Western and culinary terms:
CULINARY TERMS

1. ABATS- Meat items such as offal’s, heads, hearts, liver, kidneys, etc.
2. AIGULETTES-Thin strips of the fish, breast of poultry, cut lengthwise.
3. AGING –To improve the tenderness of meat which is held at a cold
temperature.
4. A La- According to the style or a standard in vogue, such as a la francaise or
according to the French way.
5. A LA BOURGEOISE-Family style-plain.
6. A LA BROCHE-Cooked and roasted on a skewer. Meat or seafood served on a
skewer.
7. A La Carte-Food prepared to order; each dish priced separately.
8. ANGLAISE-To cook a 1’anglaise means to cook plainly in water. It also means the
preparation of a dish dipped in egg and breadcrumbs, and fried..
9. APPETISER-It is the first course, and it stimulates the appetite. Fruit juices,
sherry, cocktails or tidbits could be served.
10. AROMATES-Vegetables like carrots, turnips, onions, leeks, herbs and spices
that impart aroma to the dish they are put in.
11. ASPIC-Clear meat or poultry jelly. It is a gelatin in a thin syrupy stage used to
decorate dishes in the larder.
12. ARROSER-To baste as in roasting.
13. ASSORTI-An assortment.
14. AU BLEU-In French, it means underdone, i.e. the meat is not cooked properly,
another meaning is preparing and cooking of a live trout in cooking liquor.
15. AU FOUR-Baked in the oven.
16. AU GRATIN-Food covered with a sauce sprinkled with cheese breadcrumbs,
doted with butter and baked or gratinated in a salamander.
17. AU JUS-Served with natural juices or gravy.
18. AU NATURAL-Served in a simple unadorned style.
19. BABA-A yeast raised cake. A famous variety is flavoured and soaked in rum
before serving. Fruit, whipped cream is added. Baba au rum is cooked in rum.
20. BAIN-MARIE-A hot water bath in which utensils containing various culinary
preparations are immersed to warm or for the purpose of poaching and reheating.
21. BAKING-Usually the food is put in the oven and cooked by dry heat.
22. BARBECUE-A party in which usually meat (sometimes a whole carcass of
animal fixed in a rod) is basted and roasted in front of the people. It is usually held
in the open. Meat roasted in open fire is known as barbecued meat.
23. BARDING-Pieces of port fat placed over the lean meat, fish or the breast of a
bird to prevent drying.
24. BARQUETTE-A boat shaped pastry tartlet with a filling.
25. BASTE-To moisten food product with drippings or fat while cooking. The other
term for it is spooning of fat.
26. BARON-A double sirloin and rump of beef: also the saddle and two legs of
lamb.
27. BAT-To flatten slices of raw meat with a cutlet bat, dipping it in water to
prevent meat from sticking to the bat.
28. BATTER-Mixture of flour and liquid of a consistency that can be stirred. Batter
could be plain or with eggs. For the beignets and fritters, food items are dipped in
the batter and fried.
29. BEATING-Regular lifting motion to bring mixture to smooth texture.
30. BÉCHAMEL-A basic sauce, white in colour, prepared with flour, butter and milk.
31. BEURRE FONDUE-Melted butter.
32. BEURRE NOISETTE-Butter heated to a nut brown colour.
33. BEURRE NOIR-Butter heated to a very dark brown colour.
34. BEURRE MANIE-Equal quantities of flour and butter put in sauces, etc. for
thickening.
35. BEIGNETS-Fritters, savoury or sweet, e.g. banana beignet. Bind To cohere,
unite or hold together. To the croquette mixture, egg is added to bind.
36. BISQUE-A thick sauce or soup from shellfish or game.
37. BLANC-White.
38. BLANCHING-To submerge in boiling water for a short time. It is done in many
ways; tomatoes are dipped in boiling water to blanch, i.e. to remove the skin.
Cauliflower is dipped in boiling water to white the colour. French fried potatoes
are put in hot fat to let a skin form and to partially cook them.
39. BLANQUETTE-A white stew of veal which has been stiffened in butter and then
cooked in white sauce.
40. BLEND-Thorough mixing of two or more ingredients.
41. BOMBE-A frozen dessert. A combination of two or more frozen mixtures (ice-
cream, sherbets or mousse) packed in a round or melon shaped mould and frozen.
42. BOUILLON-Soup made of stock which is not as strong as consommé but
stronger than broth.
43. BOUCHEE-Very small meat patty or pastry shell filled with meat, poultry or
lobster.
44. BOUILLABAISE-The French Provencale “stew” made of numerous types of fish;
combined with savoury spices and oil, served with toasted French garlic bread.
45. BORTSCH-An unpassed soup with an accent on beetroot and is duck flavoured.
Native of Poland or Russia. The accompaniments are sour cream, duck bouchee
and beetroot juice.
46. BOUQUET GARNI-A bouquet of fresh herbs such as parsley, bay leaf, thyme
tied together in a cheese cloth bag, to flavour soups, stews and removed before
dish is served.
47. BRIOCHE-A feathery light yeast cake. A favourite breakfast bun in France.
48. BROIL-The ancient term for grilling.
49. BRUNNOISE-Cut into fine dices.
50. BUFFET-Display of ready to eat foods. Often self-service from a table of
assorted foods.
51. CAFÉ-Coffee.
52. CANDYING-Cooking fruit in heavy syrup until transparent. Then drained and
dried.
53. CANAPE-Small pieces of fried or toasted bread topped with a wide variety of
colourful appetisers. Eaten with fingers. Small fancy open faced item.
54. CARTE DU JOUR-Menu for the day.
55. CANNELONI-Italian farinaceous dish. It is a pasta preparation stuffed with
savoury minced meat and rolled into cigar shapes.
56. CAPON-A young male bird which has been castrated to improve flavour and to
fatten. Noted for its tenderness.
57. CARAMELIZE-To heat sugar until it turns dark brown. Used for coating moulds
and flavouring dishes.
58. CASSOULET-A hot hors d’oeuvre shaped like a small drum:
59. CASSEROLE-An earthenware or pyrex fireproof dish with a lid.
60. CAVIAR-Salted roe or eggs of fish, usually sturgeon, served as a sandwich
spread or in plates as appetisers.
61. CEPES-Species of mushrooms.
62. CHAMPIGNONS-Mushrooms.
63. CHANTILLY CREAM-Whipped cream.
64. CHAPELURE-Crumbs made from dried bread.
65. CHATEAUBRIAND-A steak cut from the head of the beef fillet usually broiled.
The steak has been named after the Vicount of Chateaubriand.
66. CLARIFICATION-To make clear, e.g. fat, stock or jelly. Claudfroid Veloute or
demi-glaze with aspic or gelatine used for masking cold dishes.
67. CHIFFONADE-Shreds of lettuce or sorrel.
68. CHINOISE-A conical shaped wire mesh strainer.
69. CISEL-To cut a vegetable after the manner of a chaffcutting machine.
70. COAGULATION-Proteins solidifying after the application of heat e.g. fried egg.
71. COAT-Cover with sauce.
72. CLOCHESOUS-Under bell, usually glass.
73. CLOUTE-Studded, e.g. clove, bay leaf in an onion.
74. COCOTTE Porcelain or earthenware fireproof dish.
75. CODDLING-Cooking below boiling point, e.g. coddled eggs.
76. COMPOTE-A dish of stewed fruit retaining their natural shape.
77. COOK OUT-Process of cooking the flour in the roux, sauce or soup.
78. CONCASSEE-Coarsely chopped, e.g. blanched tomatoes or parsley, etc.
79. CONDIMENTS-Seasonings.
80. CORRECTING-Adjusting the seasoning, consistency and colour of a dish.
81. CONSOMME-Clear soup made from minced meat, aromatic vegetables, hers
and stock, etc. It is clarified with egg white.
82. CORDON-To have a thin line of sauce.
83. COULIS-An essence made from shellfish, also used as a sauce.
84. COURT BOUILLON-A lightly flavoured cooking liquor in which fish is cooked.
85. CONTRE FILLET-Sirloin of beef, deboned.
86. COTE-A rib or chop.
87. CORDON-A thread or thin line of sauce.
88. CRACKLING-The rind of roast pork. Crepe Pancake.
89. CROUTE-Rounds made out of bread or brioche dough used as hors d’oeuvres
or as a garnish.
90. CROQUETTES-Thick white sauce or mashed potato base, plus mincedmeat, fish
or vegetables shaped as pipes dipped in beaten eggs, breadcrumbed and deep
fired.
91. CROUTONS-Small dices of fancy shapes or fried or toasted bread used as a
garnish for soups or as underliner for all kinds of canapes.
92. CUISINE-Art of cooking, preparation in the kitchen. Cult Cooked.
93. DARIOLE-A deep round sloping sided mould like a flowerpot.
94. DARNE-A section of fish cut across the bone of a large whole round fish.
95. DEGLACE-To swill a pan in which food has been cooked with wine/ stock to use
the sediment and essences.
96. DEMI-Half.
97. DEMIGLAZE-Brown sauce made by reducing equal qualities of brown stock and
brown sauce (espagnole). Diable Devilled.
98. DRAIN-Place food cooked in a strainer or colander.
99. DURAM WHEAT-Hard wheat with high gluten content used for making
pastaand semolina.
100. DREDGING-Coating with dry ingredients, e.g. sugar or flour.
101. DEPOUILLER-To skim.
102. DOCKING-Making holes in pastry goods to allow steam to pass.
103. DUXELLE-Minced vegetable stuffing or forcemeat consisting of mushrooms,
parsley and shallots.
104. DRIPPINGS-The fat and juice which drops from roasting meats Animal fat is
also called dripping.
105. DUST-Sprinkling fine sugar or flour.
106. EGG WASH-Brush food item with egg yolk.
107. EMINCE-Cut fine or shredded fine.
108. EMULSION-A mixture-oil and yolk incorporated, does not separate on
standing, e.g. mayonnaise, hollandaise.
109. ENCASSEROLE-Food served in the same dish in which it was cooked.
110. ENTRÉE-A main dish of meat or poultry for an informal meal.
111. ENTREMET-Refers to the sweet course, cold or hot.
112. EPIGRAMME-Boned breast of lamb.
113. ESCALOPES-To cut thin slices sideways.
114. ESTOUFFADE-Brown stock.
115. ESPAGNOLE-Basic brown sauce.
116. ETAMINE-Tammy or double thickness of cheese cloth for straining soups and
sauces.
117. FLEURON-Small crescent shape, puff pastry, used as garnish for poached fish,
meat, etc.
118. FARCE-Stuffing, and farci means stuffed.
119. FARINACEOUS-It is a word derived from the Latin word “Farina” meaning
flour, a wide-range of dishes mostly made from flour, e.g. spaghetti, macaroni, etc.
120. FILLETS-Boneless flesh under the loin of beef, veal or pork.
121. FLAKE-To break into natural segments (fish).
122. FLORENTINE-With spinach.
123. FLUTE-A long crisp roll of bread, thin slices cut on a slant and used for
garnishing soups.
124. FOIE GRAS-Flatted goose liver.
125. FOOL-A cold sweet dish made with sieved fruit and whipped to a light
mixture served with cream.
126. FORCEMEAT-Mixture of minced or chopped meat and’ seasonings, used for
stuffing.
127. FRAPPE-Partially frozen drinks or desserts.
128. FRICADELLES-Meat balls or round cakes made with either raw or cooked
meat.
129. FRICANDEAU-Is a slice of veal taken from the topside of veal and cut with the
grain 11/2″ thickness.
130. FRICASSEE-Small pieces of chicken, veal or rabbit cooked in white sauce, with
the addition of mushrooms, onions, etc. The other name for it is white stew.
131. FRITTERS-Small pieces of vegetables, fruit, cheese, etc. dipped in batter and
deep fried.
132. FRITURE-A pan that contains deep fat.
133. FRIZZLING-Cooking in small amount of fat until crisp.
134. FUMET-A kind of essence extracted from the bones and the skin of fish.
135. GALANTINE-Deboned chicken or fish or meat is minced and stuffed. The
forcemeat is seasoned mixed with eggs and cream (optional). Placed in a mould
with jelly and served cold. Served at cold buffets or as cold meats for meals.
136. GARNISH-To embellish, to decorate, “Farniture” in French means to garnish.
137. GELATINE-A soluble protein got from cow’s hoofs. Sold in powder form or in
sheets. Used for jellies and for preparing aspics.
138. GHERKINS-Small cucumbers (a few days old) usually pickled.
139. GIBLETS-Liver, heart and trimmings from poultry.
140. GLAZE-A semi-transparent or glossy coating. Also to colour, gives elasticity to
a dough.
141. GLUTEN-Vegetable protein found in cereal especially flour.
142. GNOCCHI-Italian-Light dumplings usually made from farina (cream of wheat).
143. GOULASH-A Hungarian beef stew with onions, tomatoes and paprika.
144. GOURMET-Connoisseur of food and drinks known as in epicure.
145. GRENADINE-Slices of veal, a little thicker than escalopes.
146. GRATINATE-To colour under a salamander or in the oven.
147. GRIDDLE-To cook on a solid surface or plate.
148. HASH-It is usually a rechauffe dish. A dish of meat diced or minced
andseasoned.
149. HORS D’OEUVRES-Small relishes or appetisers. Served as first course of a
meal.
150. INDIEHNE-An oriental dish. Indian style dish.
151. INFUSION-Liquid obtained from steeping a food, e.g. coffee and tea.
152. INCISE-To make small cuts across the back of fish prior to cooking.
153. ISINGLASS-Fish gelatine-(used for clarification).
154. JARDINIÈRE-Vegetables cut into batons.
155. JULIENNES-Refers to vegetables and meat cut into fine strips (match size) for
soups and salads.
156. JUNKET-It is a light, easily digestible dish, good for invalids and children. It is a
set milk product because of the addition of rennet. It can be flavoured.
157. KEDGEREE-It is an Anglo-Indian dish of fish, rice, eggs, and curried dish.
158. KOSHER-Meat sold within 48 hrs. after holding, in accordance with prescribed
Hebrew religious laws or style of Jewish cooking with restrictions.~ dietary
159. KROMESKYS-Similar to croquettes but it is dipped in a yeast batter and deep
fried.
160. LANGOUSTE-Crayfish.
161. LANGOUSTINE-Spiny lobster.
162. LIASION-Cream and eggs, blood, flour are used as thickening agents for soups
and sauces.
163. LARDING-Strips of pork fat inserted into meat with the aid of a larding
needle. This keeps the meat moist.
164. MACEDOINE-Mixture of fruit and vegetables cut in even pieces; fruit salad.
165. MAITRE D’HOTEL-Sauce of softened butter, parsley, lemon juice butter chilled
and served with fish, steak, etc.
166. MARASHCHINO-Italian cherry cordial. Also a type of cherries.
167. MARINADE-A spiced mixture of vinegar, oil, spices or wine.
168. MARMITE-Stock-pot, or earthenware pot in which soup is served.
169. MACERATE-To soak (in flavoured syrup, wine or liquor) often applied to fruits.
170. MANDOLIN-A hand held machine used for slicing vegetables, potatoes.
171. MASKING-To cover completely (usually with a sauce).
172. MATELOTES-Fish stew with wine, onions and seasonings.
173. MATIGNON-Minced aromatic vegetables, ham (optional) thyme, bay leaf,
used in dishes to impart a good flavour.
174. MEDIALLION-Round flat shaped piece of fish or meat.
175. MENU-List of fare.
176. MIGNONETTE PEPPER-Coarsely ground pepper.
177. MIREPOIX-Carrots, onions, celery, pork (salted optional) cut into fine dices,
with thyme, bay leaf. Improves the flavour of the dish
178. MISE-EN-PLACE-Basic preparation in the kitchen before serving.
179. MONO SODIUM-A flavouring added to meat products to increase glutamete
flavour. Known as Chinese salt.
180. MORTIFIER-To hand meat so as to tenderize it.
181. MOUSSE-Applied to a very light dessert generally prepared with whipped
cream, egg whites, gelatin and sugar, etc. chilled and frozen. Also referred to meat
dishes with egg, cream, gelatin and seasoning, served for cold buffets.
182. NAPPER-To coat or mask with sauce.
183. NAVARIN-Mutton stew with carrots and turnips.
184. NOODLES-Narrow strips of dried dough, used in soups, as garnishes, and also
used for Chinese dishes.
185. PANADA-Thick white sauce.
186. PARBOIL-To partially cook.
187. PARMESAN-Italian cooking cheese. Hard sharp cheese, used as garnishes for
soups and used for sauce, etc.
188. PAUPIETTE-Stuffed rolled thin slices of meat, etc. braised.
189. PAYSANNE-Cut into uniform shapes, whether it is round, or triangles, etc.
190. PIMENTOS-Red sweet Spanish pepper pod.
191. PIQUANT-Highly seasoned, tangy.
192. PLAT DU JOUR-Special dish of the day.
193. POISSON-Fish in French.
194. POTAGE-Soup usually thickened.
195. PUREE-Pulp or paste of vegetables or fruit, also a thick soup.
196. QUENELLES-Very light dumplings, which are made out of fish, chicken, or
meat, poached and used as a garnish.
197. RAGOUT-Thick savoury stew.
198. RAMEKINS-Food baked in shallow baking china dishes. Individual small
baking dishes.
199. RASPINGS-Fine breadcrumbs.
200. RECHAUFFE-A re-heated dish.
201. Reduce-To concentrate a liquid by boiling, usually without a lid.
202. REISH-A highly seasoned food item used as an accompaniment.
203. ROYAL-Used as a garnish for soups, cubes of a savoury custard. Also the name
of a kind of icing.
204. SABOYON-A griller with heat from above open front so that the dishes could
be placed on shelf for gratinating.
205. SALAMI-Sausage of pork, beef, highly seasoned.
206. SEARING-Browning surface by intense heat, usually meat. To form a
protective coating of coagulated proteins to retain the juices of the meat.
207. SCORE-To cut slits in the fat piece of pork before roasting.
208. SKEWER-A metal or wooden pin to hold meat or poultry pieces while
cooking, e.g. seekh kabab, shami kababs.
209. SOUSE-Herrings, etc. pickled in vinegar and spices.
210. SOUFFLE-Light puffed baked custard.
211. SPIT-Pointed metal rod to hold meat or poultry for roasting.
212. SUPREME-A fillet of a deboned fish or breast of a chicken. It is the tender
portion of the bird.
213. TABLE D’HOTE-Fixed price meal. A meal of definite number of courses.
214. TERRINE-Forcemeat stuffing moulded cooked and served cold.
215. TIMBALE-A cup shaped mould usually made from meat, fish or vegetables
added to a custard mixture and finely decorated.
216. TRIPE-The white fatty inner lining of the stomach, chiefly ox which has large
amount of connective tissue which gelatinizes on boiling and so it is easily
digestible.
217. TRONCON-A slice of flat fish with the bone.
218. VOL AU VENT-Puff pastry case.
219. WOK-A concave pan used for stir frying.
220. WHIPPING-Rapid beating to increase the volume of mixing air.
221. ZEST-The rind of orange or lemon grated and used for flavouring.
222. ZUPPA-Italian soup.
Personnel grooming :
Grooming Standards in Food & Beverage Service Department:
Grooming Standards For Gentlemen
Hair:
• Hair should be combed back, short, well-trimmed and should not cover the
forehead.
• Hair should not be grown below the nape of the neck.
• The natural colour of hair to be maintained and not be excessively gelled or
frizzy.
• Sideburns should not be below the middle of the ear.
Moustache and beard:
• Moustache if worn be well-trimmed and not cover the upper lip.
• Should be clean-shaven on duty.
• Beard permitted for religious reasons only should be well-trimmed.
Nails:
• Hand and toe Nails be clean and well-trimmed.
• No colour is permitted.
Jewellery:
• Jewellery must be limited to a minimum
• One ring on each hand
• Bracelets are not allowed unless for religious reasons.
• Metal watches of reasonable size with leather or metal strap to be worn.
• Earrings are not permitted
Breath:
• The breath must be fresh (no smell of foodstuff, cigarette smoke or alcohol)
Body odour:
• Ensure that deodorants and/or anti prespirants are used daily to ensure
that nobody odour is present.
Footwear:
• Black socks to be worn. Socks be changed daily so that it doesn’t smell
• Black shoes with laces to be worn
• Safety shoes by company are issued to engineering and Kitchen employees
 and the same to be worn.
Grooming Standards For ladies
Hair:
• Hair should be combed back, well-trimmed and should not cover the
forehead.
• Hair should be made into a bun and covered with a net.
• Hair length if just up to the nape of the neck could be made into a ponytail.
• Hair should not fall below the nape of the neck.
• The natural colour of hair to be maintained and not be excessively gelled or
frizzy.
Face:
• A light make up of foundation, eyeliner be worn.
• Rouge as per skin tone may be worn.
• A neutral or medium shade lipstick should be worn.
• Heavy or brightly coloured makeup to be avoided.
Nails:
• Hand and toe Nails be clean and well-trimmed.
• If nails are long they should be shaped
• Nail polish of neutral or light shades are permitted.
Jewellery:
• Jewellery must be limited to a minimum.
• No large or hanging or noisy jewellery to be worn.
• One ring on each hand
• One simple bracelet or bangle can be worn.
• Only one Ear studs to be worn.
• Metal watches of reasonable size with leather or metal strap to be worn.
Breath:
• The breath must be fresh (no smell of foodstuff, cigarette smoke or alcohol)
Body odour:
• Ensure that deodorants and/or anti prespirants are used daily to ensure
that no body odour is present.
Footwear:
• Stockings may or may not be worn with skirts.
• If worn should be of skin tone and plain in texture. Incase of trousers black
socks to be worn.
• Black shoes with a small heel to be worn.
• Pencil or high heels are not permitted.
• Safety shoes are issued by the company to engineering and Kitchen
employees.
Hygiene and Uniform:
Do’s for Personal Hygiene
• Bath or shower daily.
• Wear clean uniforms and aprons.
• Keep hair neat and clean. Always wear a hat or hairnet.
• Keep mustaches and beards trimmed and clean. Better yet, be cleanly shaven.
• Wash hands and exposed parts of arms before work and as often as necessary
during work, including:
• After eating, drinking, or smoking.
• After using the toilet.
• After touching or handling anything that may be contaminated with bacteria.
• Cover cough and sneezes, and then wash hands.
• Keep your hands away from your face, eyes, hair, and arms.
• Cover cuts or sores with clean bandages.
• Use spoons for a tasting, not your finger.
Procedure for Washing Hands
• Wet your hands with hot running water. Use water as hot as you can
comfortably stand, but at least 100°F (38°C).
• Apply enough soap to make a good lather.
• Rub hands together thoroughly for 20 seconds or longer, washing not only the
hands but the wrists and the lower part of the forearms.
• Using a nail brush, clean beneath the fingernails and between the fingers.
• Rinse hands well under hot running water. If possible, use a clean paper towel to
turn off the water to avoid contaminating the hands by contact with soiled
faucets.
• Dry hands with clean single-use paper towels or a warm-air hand dryer
Guidelines for Using Disposable Gloves
• Wash hands before putting on gloves or when changing to another pair. Gloves
are not a substitute for proper hand-washing.
• Remove and discard gloves, wash hands, and change to a clean pair of gloves
after handling one food item and before starting work on another.
• In particular, never to fail to change gloves after handling raw meat, poultry, or
seafood. Gloves are for single use only.
• Remember that the purpose of using gloves is to avoid cross-contamination.
• Change to a clean pair of gloves whenever gloves become torn, soiled, or
contaminated by contact with an unsanitary surface.
“More of protective clothing than uniform.” The chef’s uniform consists of the
following:-
Toque/Headwear
• Keeps the head cool and prevents the hair from falling into the food.
• Cotton/cloth caps are difficult to maintain whereas, paper caps are disposable
hence they are neat.
• The number of pleats on the chef cap indicates the number of ways in which an
egg can be prepared.
Scarf/Neckerchief
• Absorbs sweat.
• Identification/designation.
Double-breasted jacket
• Protects the chest and front.
• Easy to remove overhead or sideways.
• Cotton cloth buttons – heat resistant.
Apron
• Below knee level.
• Double protection prevents the jacket & trousers from becoming dirty.
Cotton checked trousers
• Double shade hides the dirt.
• Identifies designation.
Shoes and Socks
• Clogs can be used but it is expensive
• Metal frame in front protects the toes.
• Easy to remove legs.
• Socks
• Absorbs sweat.
• Provides good grip.
• Steady steps while walking
UNIT II
Hierarchy & Department Staffing: Classical Brigade,
Modern staffing in various category hotels, Role of
Executive Chef Duties & Responsibilities of various chef,
Co-operation with other Departments.
Hierarchy & Department Staffing: Hierarchy is a term that denotes
the task and authority relationship in an organization. It clearly shows the
reporting relationships of the members appointed at various levels of
responsibility and also shows formal lines of communication. Hierarchy is a system
in which grade or class of positions or authorities are ranked one above the other
in an order.
• Need for Hierarchy: Hierarchy basically deals with decision-making power,
responsibility, authority, and relationships, between two positions. It helps
in introducing delegation level of management, and span of control.
Without hierarchy, it is difficult to function smoothly and fulfil objectives of
a business. Hierarchy or/and organizational structure is made based on the
duties and authority.
• Duties: This is a list of activities to be performed by an individual under the
conditions of employment. The duties are determined by the employer and
may change from one organization to another. It becomes the responsibility
of the individual to deliver or perform as agreed in the employment
contract.
• Authority: It is a right to acquire action from others and the ability to get
 things done. It is only possible when the individual has sound knowledge,
skill, and personal attributes. The level of authority is determined by the
employer based on the above qualities.
One should clearly define the chain of command or the line of management when
framing an organizational structure. In other terms, this is called hierarchy. This
helps in a better assignment, integration, and delegation of responsibilities, and
duties.

Classical Brigade:
This reorganization divided the kitchen into departments, or stations, based on
the kinds of foods produced.
A station chef was placed in charge of each department. In a small operation, the
station chef may be the only worker in the department. But in a large kitchen,
each station chef might have several assistants. This system, with many variations,
is still used today, especially in large hotels with traditional kinds of foodservice.
The major positions are as follows:
1. Chef
The chef is the person in charge of the kitchen. In large establishments, this
person has the title of executive chef. The executive chef is a manager who is
responsible for all aspects of food production, including menu planning,
purchasing, costing, planning work schedules, hiring, and training.
2. Chef De Cuisine
If a foodservice operation is large, with many departments (for example, a formal
dining room, a casual dining room, and a catering department), or if it has several
units in different locations, each kitchen may have a chef de cuisine. The
chef de cuisine reports to the executive chef.
3. Sous Chef
The sous chef (soo shef) is directly in charge of production and works as the
assistant to the executive chef or chef de cuisine.(The word “sous” is French for
“under.”) Because the executive chef’s responsibilities may require a great deal of
time in the office, the sous chef takes command of the actual production and the
minute-by-minute supervision of the staff.
4. Station Chef/Chef De Partie (CDP)
The station chefs, or chefs de partie, are in charge of particular areas of
production. The following are the most important station chefs.
• The sauce chef, or saucier (so-see-ay), prepares sauces, stews, and hot hors
d’oeuvres, and sautés foods to order.This is usually the highest position of all the
stations.
• The fish cook, or poissonier (pwah-so-nyay), prepares fish dishes. In some
kitchens, this station is handled by the saucier.
• The vegetable cook, or entremetier (awn-truh-met-yay), prepares vegetables,
soups, starches, and eggs. Large kitchens may divide these duties among the
vegetable cook, the fry cook, and the soup cook.
• The roast cook, or rôtisseur (ro-tee-sur),prepares roasted and braised meats and
their gravies and broils meats and other items to order. A large kitchen may have a
separate broiler cook, or grillardin (gree-ardan),to handle the broiled items.The
broiler cook may also prepare deep-fried meats and fish.
• The pantry chef, or garde manger (gard-mawn-zhay), is responsible for cold
foods, including salads and dressings, pâtés, cold hors d’oeuvres, and buffet items.
• The pastry chef, or pâtissier (pa-tees-syay), prepares pastries and desserts.
• The relief cook, swing cook, or tournant (toor-nawn), replaces other station
heads.
• The expediter, or aboyeur (ah-bwa-yer), accepts orders from waiters and passes
them on to the cooks on the line.The expediter also calls for orders to be finished
and plated at the proper time and inspects each plate before passing it to the
dining room staff. In many restaurants, this position is taken by the head chef or
the sous chef.
5. Cooks and Assistants
Cooks and assistants in each station or department help with the duties assigned
to them. For example, the assistant vegetable cook may wash, peel, and trim
vegetables. With experience, assistants may be promoted to station cooks and
then to station chefs.
Modern staffing in various category hotels :
In the hospitality industry, staffing is a crucial aspect that can make or break a
hotel’s success. With the rise of technology and changing guest expectations,
hotels need to adapt their staffing strategies to stay competitive. In this blog post,
we will explore the modern staffing trends in various categories of hotels.
Food Production Department
The food production department is responsible for preparing and serving meals to
guests. In recent years, there has been a shift towards more specialized roles in
this department. Here are some modern staffing trends in the food production
department for various categories of hotels:
Luxury Hotels
Luxury hotels typically have large kitchens with specialized staff. In addition to
traditional roles such as chefs and line cooks, luxury hotels also employ pastry
chefs, sommeliers, and mixologists to create exceptional dining experiences for
guests. With the rise of technology, luxury hotels are also investing in digital tools
such as kitchen automation systems and inventory management software to
streamline operations.
Boutique Hotels
Boutique hotels often have smaller kitchens with a focus on locally-sourced
ingredients and unique menu offerings. As such, boutique hotels require staff with
specialized skills such as farm-to-table chefs and mixologists who can create
signature cocktails using local ingredients. With the rise of social media, boutique
hotels are also investing in staff who can create visually appealing dishes that will
attract guests on platforms like Instagram.
Budget Hotels
Budget hotels typically have smaller kitchens with more generalized roles. Staff
may be responsible for everything from meal prep to dish washing. However, with
the rise of technology, budget hotels are also investing in kitchen automation
systems and self-service dining options to reduce staffing needs and keep costs
low.
Conclusion
In conclusion, modern staffing trends in the food production department of
various categories of hotels reflect the changing needs of guests and the
hospitality industry as a whole. Luxury hotels require a large staff with specialized
skills to create exceptional dining experiences, while boutique hotels focus on
locally-sourced ingredients and unique menu offerings. Budget hotels keep costs
low by having a smaller staff with more generalized roles and investing in
technology to streamline operations. Regardless of the category, hotels are also
investing in digital tools to enhance the guest experience and improve efficiency.
Role of Executive Chef Duties & Responsibilities of
various chef:His prime function is to plan, organize and supervise the work
of the kitchen.
He prepares the menus for the management in accordance with the costing and
catering policies laid down. He has full responsibility for staff, selection and policy
or major responsibility for staff, selection and dismissal in conjunction with the
personnel department.
He will also be concerned with the planning and equipment of his kitchen. Thus,
the executive responsibilities for his Kitchen. Thus, the executive responsibilities
of the Chef de Cuisine can be considered under the principal head of.
• Food and food costs (through menu planning & ordering)
• Kitchen Staff
• Kitchen plant and equipment
Under his control, all three activities must be coordinated to produce goods
efficiently and economically. His status is normally second only to the manager
and he will expect complete control of his department.
In addition to the crafts skill and technical knowledge acquired as a result of an
apprenticeship, technical training, and experience, the Chefs de Cuisine must
additionally acquire managerial qualities and administrative knowledge
particularly in regard to the organization of work, control of staff, the efficient use
of machinery, costing and food control. He must be aware of modern
development in manufacturing and processing food for his kitchen. Present trends
indicate that the Chef must increasingly concern himself not only with cookery but
with the quality of the food and art of food presentation. In the widest sense.
This calls for a degree of the merchandising skill and on occasion showmanship.
Hygiene is of top importance in the kitchen and there is hardly a better beginning
than with the Chef’s own person.
A Chef de Cuisine must have knowledge of French, Current Affairs, commodities
and tools of his trade.
• Responsible for the overall smooth functioning of food production areas.
• Compiling of new menus.
• To advice on the purchase of equipment and raw materials.
• Responsible for planning events.
• Good interpersonal skills to interact with customers, clients, and guest.
• Planning, Coordinating, Budgeting, Controlling
Duties And Responsibilities Of Sous Chef
• Supervises kitchen shift operations and ensures compliance with all Food &
Beverage policies, standards, and procedures.
• Assists Executive Chef with all kitchen operations.
• Performs all duties of kitchen managers and associates as necessary.
• Recognises superior quality products, presentations and flavour.
• Maintains purchasing, receiving and food storage standards.
• Ensures compliance with food handling and sanitation standards.
• Calculates accurate theoretical and weighted food costs.
• Estimates daily production needs on a weekly basis and communicates
production needs to kitchen personnel daily.
• Coordinates banquet production with Banquet Chef.
• Supports procedures for food & beverage portion and waste controls.
• Assists in maintaining associate cafeteria operation and food quality
standards.
• Follows proper handling and right temperature of all food products.
• Knows and implements Hotel Hygiene Standards.
 • Helps the Executive Chef Research and test new food products in
conjunction with company initiatives.
• Assists the Executive Chef with maintaining all standard recipes.
• Participates in training the Restaurant and Catering staff on menu items
including ingredients, preparation methods, and unique tastes.
• Operates and maintains all department equipment and reports
malfunctions.
• Assists with an effective kitchen equipment repair and maintenance
program.
• Orders associate uniforms according to budget and ensure uniforms are
properly inventoried and maintained.
• Purchases appropriate supplies and manage inventories according to
budget
• Reviews staffing levels to ensure that guest service, operational needs, and
financial objectives are met.
• Interacts with guests/customers, community, Company representatives,
vendors, and local education systems as needed.
• Trains associates in safety procedures and supervises their ability to follow
loss prevention policies to prevent accidents and control costs.
• Effectively investigates reports and follows-up on associate accidents
Duties And Responsibilities Of Demi Chef De Partie
• Cooking and presentation as per the standardised recipes
• Allocation of work
• Checking mis-en-place on quality and quantity
• Control wastage
• Maintain quality
• Innovate new dishes
• Maintain discipline and grooming of staff
• To Maintain Hygiene and sanitation
• Portion control
• Storage of food and provisions
• Raw material quality check
• Allot duties to commis
• Control over production and wastage.
• Assist in implementing TBEM processes
• Adhering to HACCP
• Enabling and adherence of the principles and work practices detailed under
HACCP System in the department viz., Food Safety, Hygiene and Cleanliness,
Health, Storage etc as applicable to the area of your workplace.
Responsibilities of Other Chefs
• Smooth functioning of their areas. • Maintaining Food cost and Quality
Chef Garde Manger
The Chef Grade Manger is in charge of the larder. The larder is not only a place
where food is steamed but also a place where the raw materials of cookery are
prepared and dressed.
In larger establishments larder work may be broken into sections and in one or
two instances, it is possible that the sub-sections may have independence of the
Chef Garde Manger, i.e. Boucher might by directly controlled by the Chef De
Cuisine or Sous Chef.
This is rarely true in smaller establishments, the sub-sections within the Grade
Manger will both indicate the wide range of this Chef de Parties duties and explain
why he enjoys a status in the Kitchen brigade comparable to that of the Chef
Saucier.
The Chef Grade Manger is normally accommodated adjoining the main kitchen
but will have its own cooking facilities. According to the size of the establishment,
its sub-section too will be separate to a greater or smaller extent. This also
incorporates Hors d’oeuvres section and a salad room, sometimes a fruit room
where such items as melons, grapefruit, fruit salad etc. are prepared. There is a
great deal of work organization and careful distribution of work to be carried out.
Chef Grade Manger caters to such dishes as those commonly found on a cold
table, and comprises not only of cold dishes and salads. Sandwiches are his
responsibility with the exception of sale of the hot or toasted sandwiches such as
club sandwiches (Chef Rotisseur). Mayonnaise, vinaigrette sauce, and other
dressings and sauces for cold food are made by Chef Grade Manger. Various
sections looked after by Chef Grade Manger are as follows:
Job Description Of Chef Garde Manger
• Performs all duties of Culinary and related kitchen area associates to train
new associates and step in and assist during high demand times.
• Supervises daily shift operations and oversees production and preparation
of culinary items.
• Opens and closes kitchen shifts and ensures completion of assigned duties.
• Maintains food handling and sanitation standards.
• Works with Restaurant and Banquet departments to coordinate service and
timing of events and meals.
• Assists with developing menus and promotions.
• Operates all department equipment as necessary and reports malfunctions.
• Purchases appropriate supplies and manages food and supply inventories
according to budget.
• Supervises staffing levels to ensure that guest service, operational needs
and financial objectives are met.
• Understands and implements Marriott’s 30 Point Safety Standards.
• Develops railroad-cleaning schedules for associates; ensures associates
follow cleaning schedules and keep their work areas clean and sanitary.
• Ensures all associates have proper supplies, equipment and uniforms.
• Communicates areas in need of attention to staff and follows up to ensure
follow through.
• Helps train associates in safety procedures and supervises their ability to
execute departmental and hotel emergency procedures.
• Participates as needed in the investigation of associate accidents.
• Understands and complies with loss prevention policies and procedures.
Other
• Performs other duties as assigned to meet business needs.
• BOUCHERIE (Butcher Shop):
Boucherie in hotel differs in many important regards from that of retail trade. It
includes the dissecting of quarters of beef and careasses of lamb etc. It will also
include the dressing of meat either for joints such as contre filet or small cuts like
noisette, cotelettes or tournedos etc.
Chacutier (Pork Butcher And Sauage Maker):
Charcutier involves Pork butcher, the preparation of Pork products and sausage,
etc. He is also responsible for the rendering and clarifying of dripping. Again, the
extent to which the Charcutier work is separated from the staff of the Grade
Manger depends on the volume of work.
Volailleur (Poulterer):
Where there is an extremely large establishment, the Poulterer who is responsible
for the plucking cleaning and dressing not only of the poultry, but game birds,
hares and rabbits may be separated from the fish monger and the larder proper.
Poissoner (Fishmonger):
The hotel fish monger prepares fish not in the style of the tradesman, in retail
trade for he must have the raw materials ready for the immediate attention of the
appropriate Chef, either for the Chef Piossoner or in some instances for cold
dishes for Chef Grade Manger.
A wide range of products of sea, river and lake will normally come to him for
treatment which includes skinning, illeting and portioning. Fish, such as eel,
osysters, lobsters and ernbs will demand his attention as well as the ordinary
range of river, sea and shell fish.
Hord D’oeuvrier (Hors D’ Ocuvre Cook) :
Where work justifies it, the preparation of Hors d’ oeuvre of all kinds is organized
separately. The dishes for this section can be great and involve the regular
preparation of commodities e.g. preparation of dressings, varieties of vegetables
salads (Potato, Russian), varieties of meat and fish dishes found on the Hors d’
oeuvries is often entrusted not only to a Chef Horss d’ oeuvrier and assistant of
Chef Grade Manger but to semi-skilled hands, often women workers trained only
in assembling prepared material and in decorating dishes.
Sladier (Salad Maker):
The person responsible for the preparatory work and assembling of salads usually
works in the Grade Manger.
Chef De Nuit
Night duty cook is a chef whose main duties are to take over when the main
kitchen staff leave.A separate Chef de Nuit may be retained in the Grade Manger
but normally one person suffices. Night duty cook does not necessarily remain on
duty throughout te night but only until such time, the late meals have ceased.
The duties of Chef de Nuit are sometimes carried out by a Sous Chef. The Sous
Chef doing this is present for the service of dinner but not lunch and is responsible
for all the work when the normal brigade has gone off duty. This system is used in
75% of places where late service is given. Sous Chef must make sure that he has
all the necessary facilities and that the correct mis-en-place is left by Chef de
Partie before they go off duty.
Chef Potager (Soup Cook)
The Chef’s importance within kitchen is also supported by the fact that the
repertory of soups including consomme, cremes and veloutes, purees, broth’s
bisques and many speciality and nation favouring essences and garnished in
hundreds of ways, besides all basic stocks are prepared by him.
Chef portager can be supplied by other parties with some of the garnishes
required. For example, he receives material not only from the Grade Manger but
for consommé celestine, receive pancakes from the Chef Entremetier. He receives
stocks from the Chef poissonier for fish and other ordinary tools, particularly
producing vegetables of wide variety of shapes and sizes. Like all cooks, a
cultivated palate is an importance requirement for adjustment.
Chef Saucier (Sauce Cook)
He prepares all fundamental sauces i.e. Bechamel, tomato sauce, veloute. He
prepares all light and heavy entrees for example volauvent (light entrée). Heavy
entrée (Steaks) i.e. meat, poultry and game dishes which are not roasted or
grilled.
It is difficult to differentiate between the duties of Chef Saucier and that of Chef
Rotisseur. The Saucier prepares the peolage stews braised, boiled and sauted
dishes which approximates a roasting process.
He is considered to be the senior Chef de Partie and normally takes over the
responsibility of the Sous Chef when absent. He requires knowledge because his
work covers an extensive variety of dishes and specialty sauces.
Chef Communar (Staff/cafeteria Cook)
The staff cook provides the meals for the employees who use the staff room for
the wage-earning staff and includes uniformed and maintenance staff,
chambermaids, waiters, lower grade clerical staff, etc. Catering of this nature
should be influenced by nutritional factors.
Chef Entremtier (Vegetable Cook)
The Entremet course is, on the modern menu, the sweet, which is the
responsibility to the Chef Patissier and not the Chef Entremetier. Traditionally, an
important Entremet course on traditional menu in France was however the
entremet de legumes when skillfully prepared and cooked vegetables were
presented on a dish apart. An entremet was originally something sent to the table
between the courses and this practice still sarvives in France as far as vegetables
are concerned.
The Entremetier therefore is concerned mainly with the following things:
• All vegetables dishes
• All patato dishes other than deep fried
• All egg dishes
• All farinaceous dishes
N.B.: In some circumstances, it is not possible to employ a Chef Potager,
therefore, Chef Entremetier prepares all soups.
Chef Rotisseur
This is a very responsible sercion, Finest roast cooks are English as roasting has
always been renowned in England as a specialization. Roasts are very popular.
This partie is responsible for deep – frying of foods of all kinds, including fried
potatces and the Rotisseur may have an assistant le friturier (Frying cook) for the
task.
Chef Rotisseur is responsible for savouries such as Welsh Rarebit and for Hot
Sandwiches (Club Sandwich types). This corner is also occupied with the
preparation of stock for gravies which accompany the roasts and other dishes.
Foods to be roasted cover a wide range of poultry, game and meat include the
baking or pies, the joints poultry and game to be cooked by the Rotisseur are
given the basic preparatory treatment (plucking, preparation etc.) for the oven in
the larder by the butcher or poulterer. Sometimes commis from the roast corner
may help the larder for clearing the trussing of poultry of dissection trimming and
trying of joints of butcher’s meat. The roast corner is located in the main stove
section and all the necessary cooking apparatus for roasting, for deep frying for
finishing of savouries under the salamander are grouped together and make this
section of the hottest. Some dishes are identical basically, but different methods
of handling are employed therefore they are sometimes done by Rotisseur and
sometimes by the saucier.
In short, the duties of roast cook are:
• Responsible for roasting poultry and game feathered and furred.
• Responsible for all deep-fried dishes, Pommes frites, pont- neuf, etc.
• Responsibility for all deep-fried fish dishes.
• Mis-en-place e.f. if separate grilled pommes pailles mut be prepared by
Rotisseur. These are used as a garnish on certain grills.
• Savouries e.g. Oyster rolled in bacon grilled on skewer, Welsh rarebit.
Certain types of savouries, scotch wood cock, scrambled eggs, are prepared by
entremetier but it is completed and served at the last minute by the Rotisseur.
Trancheur (Craver)
Chef Trancheur or carver may be under the control of the Rotisseur. Trancheur is
killed only in carving not in cooking. He may operate only behind the scenes at
the hotel service counter or may alternatively stationed in the dining room and
patrol the restaurant with a heated voiture (trolley).
Chef Grillardin Grill Cook/chef Savourier (Savoury Cook)
The work of the grill cook is simply undertaken by a subordinate of the Chef
Rotisseur.
Where a separate grillardin is set he might deal with the savouries & combine the
functions of grillardin with that of Savourier (Savoury Cook).
The grill cook is a semi-skilled speciality cook, his duties relative to those of other
chefs are narrow but deal with grilling, using charcoal or more modern grills using
electricity or gas. Experience and judgement is required for this job.
Chef Poissonier (Fish Cook)
The Chef Poissonier is responsible for the cooking, garnishing and sauce making
for the fish courses with the exception of deep fried fish, the grilled of fish
possible by done by the grill cook.
Cleaning including scaling, skinning, fileting portioning and bread crumbing are
the responsibility of the Chefs Grade Manger. The subordinate engaged in egg
and crumbing is called in French the Panadier.
This chef is responsible for the cooking, garnishing, sauce maiking and the dishing
of fish. Fish featuring fresh water fish, sea water fish, shell like crab, crayfish,
shrimps, lobster and mussels.
Oysters are ordinarily served either direct from fishmonger or a convenient cool
place. If they are cooked, they are dished out direct from Chef Poissonier.
Methods of cooking fish include poaching, a’la menuiere, en poele and elaborate
dressings are done by Chef Poissonier.
Veloute de poisson is a fundamental sauce produced only by Poissonier made
froma roux and a fond de poisson. Poissonier is responsible for making stock and
then veloute, the fish bones are supplied by the Grade Manger.
He stores the sauces properly which are made in advance as precautions against
food poisonisng. The Reportoire of fish dishes and their accompanying sauces
requires great experience training and judgement from this Chef de Partie.
Chef De Banquets (Banquet Chef)
In large establishments completely separate arrangements may be provided if not
for the complete cooking of banquet and function meals at least for their
assembling and service. The Chef given responsibility for special service of
banquet may be known as Chef de Banquets.
Chef Patissier
The Chef Patissier has a different status but certainly not less than the Chef
Saucier and the Chef Garde Manger. The work of this department is normally
separated from the main kitchen and is self contained in the matter of cold stage,
machinery and equipment for making ices and with its own baking and cooking
facilities.
Chef Patissier is responsible for all hot and cold sweets, lunches, dinners and
functions and for pastries served at tea time or other occasions. He is also
responsible for the making of pastes like short and puff pastry, frying batters,
making noodles and Italian pastas for supply to other corners of the Kitchen.
Sorbets and water ice-like items are made in pastry section. The service of ices
and these sweets which are based upon ice cream are prepared and assembled in
Patisserie. They include the sweet ‘omelette au surprise’ and ‘souffle surprise’,
‘peach melba’, ‘Poire Helene’, dipped fruits, etc.
The art of pastry includes work like colored sugars to make flower baskets and
similar decorative center pleces, work with fondant and icing sugar, gum pastes,
fashioning of praline into boxes and decorative objects containing chocolates.
The work of the Patissier has always been highlighted by the beauty of the cold
sweets, ices and their accompaniments. Chef Patissier requires great skill,
imagination and experience. In bag establishments semi, skilled assistants will
prepare fresh fruit salads for service not only at lunch and dinner but also at
breakfast. The Chef Patissier is therefore like the Grade Manger, something like a
Chef de Cuisine of a specialty kitchen and in addition to his own skills must
coordinate and organize the work of a number of subordinates.
• Boulangers (baker):- He is baker working under chef pattisier. He is
responsible for all baked items bread rolls, breads, breakfast rolls like
croissant, brioches etc.
• Glacier: He would be responsible for making various kinds of ices such as
bombes, biscuits, glaces and many varieties of ice cream. He is one of the
assistants of chef patissier.
Co-operation with other Departments:
The primary function of the food and beverage department is to provide food and
drink to a hotel’s guests. In earlier times, when an inn had a single dining room
that could hold a limited number of guests, this was a fairly simple task. Today,
however, providing food and drink is much more complicated. A large hotel might
well have a coffee shop, a gourmet restaurant, a poolside snack bar, room service,
two banquet halls, and ten function rooms where food and beverages are served.
It might also have a lounge, a nightclub, and a lobby bar. On a busy day (or night),
it’s quite likely that functions will be booked in many outlets at the same time. In
addition, some outlets may have multiple events scheduled for a single day. As
you can see, there is great diversity in the types of activities performed by a food
and beverage department, requiring a significant variety of skills on the part of its
workers. The primary function of the food and beverage department is to provide
food and drink to a hotel’s guests. In earlier times, when an inn had a single dining
room that could hold a limited number of guests, this was a simple task. Today,
however, providing food and drink is much more complicated. A large hotel might
well have a coffee shop, a gourmet restaurant, a poolside snack bar, room service,
two banquet halls, and ten function rooms where food and beverages are served.
It might also have a lounge, a nightclub, and a lobby bar. On a busy day (or night),
it’s quite likely that functions will be booked in many outlets at the same time. In
addition, some outlets may have multiple events scheduled for a single day. As
you can see, there is great diversity in the types of activities performed by a food
and beverage department, requiring a significant variety of skills on the part of its
workers.
Because of the diversity of services provided, the food and beverage department
is typically split into subunits. The executive chef, a person of considerable
importance and authority in any full-service hotel, runs the food production, or
kitchen, department. A variety of culinary specialists who are responsible for
different aspects of food preparation report to the executive chef.
The actual serving of food in a large hotel’s restaurants is usually the responsibility
of a separate department, headed by the assistant food and beverage director.
The food service department is composed of the individual restaurant and outlet
managers, maitre d’s, waiters, waitresses.
Because of their special duties and concerns, many large hotels have a separate
subunit that is responsible only for room service. Because of the high value and
profit margins associated with the sale of alcoholic beverages, some hotels have a
separate department that assumes responsibility for all outlets where alcoholic
beverages are sold. The person responsible for this department is the beverage
manager.
Most full-service hotels also do a considerable convention and catering business.
The typical convention uses small function rooms for meetings and larger rooms
for general sessions, trade shows, exhibits, and banquets. As a hotel or lodging
business increases the use of its facilities for conventions and meetings, it may
form a separate convention services department. The convention services
department and its personnel are introduced to the client, a meeting planner, or
an association executive by the marketing and sales department. The convention
services department then handles all the client’s meeting and catering
requirements. Individually catered events include parties, wedding receptions,
business meetings, and other functions held by groups. To provide for the unique
needs of these types of customers, hotels often organize separate catering and
convention departments.
Depending on the size of the hotel, the job of cleaning the food and beverage
outlets themselves as well as of washing pots and pans, dishes, glasses, and
utensils is often delegated to a subunit known as the stewarding department.
It is only through continuous cooperation and coordination that a hotel’s food
service function can be carried out effectively. A guest who is dining in a hotel
restaurant requires the joint efforts of the kitchen, food service, beverage, and
stewarding departments. A convention banquet cannot be held without the
efforts of the convention and catering department along with the food
production, beverage, and stewarding departments. The sequence of events and
cooperation required among the food and beverage staff is even more important
than in the rooms department, thus increasing the importance of communication
between managers and employees alike. Another challenge faced by management
is the diversity of the employees in the food and beverage department; the
dishwasher in the stewarding department is at a dramatically different level than
the sous chef in the kitchen.
Coordination is not as important an issue in the marketing and sales department,
which is generally much smaller than the food and beverage department. The
primary responsibility of the sales managers who make up the marketing and
sales department is sales, or the selling of the hotel facilities and services to
individuals and groups. Sales managers sell rooms, food, and beverages to
potential clients through advertising, attendance at association and conference
meetings, and direct contacts.
In many hotels, the accounting department combines staff functions and line
functions, or those functions directly responsible for servicing guests. Another
dimension of the accounting department’s responsibilities deals with various
aspects of hotel operations, cost accounting, and
cost control throughout the hotel. The two areas of central concern to the
accounting department are rooms and food and beverage. The accounting
department’s front office cashier is responsible for tracking all charges to guest
accounts.
The food and beverage department may be responsible for food preparation and
service, but the accounting department is responsible for collecting revenues. The
food and beverage controller and the food and beverage cashiers keep track of
both the revenues and expenses of the food and beverage department. The food
and beverage controller’s job are to verify the accuracy and reasonableness of all
food and beverage revenues.
UNIT III
To understand the functioning of food production
department, organization structure, layout, Duties and
Responsibilities of staff, Inter- department relations, the
methods of Preparation, Mis-en-place, Method of
mixing. To understand the texture of Cooked Food
products, various texture, faults & remedies.
To understand the functioning of food production
department:
The food production department, commonly called the Kitchen department,
involves the preparation of food, while the delivery is done by the F&B
department. The food production department consists of the main kitchen (hot &
cold), banquet kitchen, soup section, pantry section, pastry section, baking &
confectionery.
Job Roles
Entry Level
Trainee Steward: A trainee is someone who is still learning to assist in keeping a
restaurant and bar clean and sanitary, in cleaning dishes, and tending to
customers’ needs.
Kitchen Steward: A Kitchen Steward helps a restaurant with cleaning and
restocking tasks, ensuring that all kitchen areas are sanitary and supplies are
available.
Apprentice / Trainee: Helps a Chef prepare and cook dishes while training to be
full-time chefs themselves. They also oversee food supplies in refrigerators and
storerooms, clean and serve food.
Commis I: The Commis I Chef prepares food and ensures a courteous and
professional service in keeping with operational standards. Is also responsible for
assisting the Sous Chef in cooking and ensuring all stations are clean.
Commis II: A Commis II is responsible for daily food preparation and duties
assigned to meet the set standard. Will also support the Demi Chef de Partie or
Commis I.
Commis III: Prepares section mise en place, assists the Chef De Partie in his duties
to ensure that all food is served. Will also assist Commis II and CommisI.
Supervisory Level
Assistant Chief Steward: Manages the inventory of all equipment, crockery,
cutlery and glassware. Also manages the stewarding team in order to ensure a
clean and safe working environment for the F&B team.
Demi chef de Partie: A Demi Chef de Partie is responsible for the preparation and
cooking of food. Assists in all areas of the kitchen for breakfast, lunch and dinner.
Ensures the kitchen areas are clean and tidy.
Chef de Partie: A Chef de Partie oversees a specific section of the kitchen. This
could be either the butchery, pastry, fish, vegetable, sauces kitchens. This position
is sometimes referred to as line cook or station chef. In larger kitchens, the Chef
de Partie is usually assisted by a Demi-chef de Partie, Commis or Trainee Chef.
Supervisory Level
Assistant Chief Steward: Manages the inventory of all equipment, crockery,
cutlery and glassware. Also manages the stewarding team in order to ensure a
clean and safe working environment for the F&B team.
Demi chef de Partie: A Demi Chef de Partie is responsible for the preparation and
cooking of food. Assists in all areas of the kitchen for breakfast, lunch and dinner.
Ensures the kitchen areas are clean and tidy.
Chef de Partie: A Chef de Partie oversees a specific section of the kitchen. This
could be either the butchery, pastry, fish, vegetable, sauces kitchens. This position
is sometimes referred to as line cook or station chef. In larger kitchens, the Chef
de Partie is usually assisted by a Demi-chef de Partie, Commis or Trainee Chef.
Organization structure :
layout : A successful commercial kitchen layout is easy to use, meets the
restaurant’s needs, and enables your service staff to deliver an amazing restaurant
experience. Whether you’re building a restaurant from scratch, or have (literally)
hit a wall with your current design and need to renovate.

Duties and Responsibilities of staff:

DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF SOUS CHEF
• Supervises kitchen shift operations and ensures compliance with all Food &
Beverage policies, standards, and procedures.
• Assists Executive Chef with all kitchen operations.
• Performs all duties of kitchen managers and associates as necessary.
 • Recognizes superior quality products, presentations and flavor.
• Maintains purchasing, receiving and food storage standards.
• Ensures compliance with food handling and sanitation standards.
• Calculates accurate theoretical and weighted food costs.
• Estimates daily production needs on a weekly basis and communicates
production needs to kitchen personnel daily.
• Coordinates banquet production with Banquet Chef.
• Supports procedures for food & beverage portion and waste controls.
• Assists in maintaining associate cafeteria operation and food quality
standards.
• Follows proper handling and right temperature of all food products.
• Knows and implements Hotel Hygiene Standards.
• Helps the Executive Chef Research and test new food products in
conjunction with company initiatives.
• Assists the Executive Chef with maintaining all standard recipes.
• Participates in training the Restaurant and Catering staff on menu items
including ingredients, preparation methods, and unique tastes.
• Operates and maintains all department equipment and reports
malfunctions.
• Assists with an effective kitchen equipment repair and maintenance
program.
• Orders associate uniforms according to budget and ensure uniforms are
properly inventoried and maintained.
• Purchases appropriate supplies and manage inventories according to
budget
• Reviews staffing levels to ensure that guest service, operational needs, and
financial objectives are met.
• Interacts with guests/customers, community, Company representatives,
vendors, and local education systems as needed.
• Trains associates in safety procedures and supervises their ability to follow
loss prevention policies to prevent accidents and control costs.
• Effectively investigates reports and follows-up on associate accidents
DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF DEMI CHEF DE PARTIE
• Cooking and presentation as per the standardized recipes
• Allocation of work
• Checking mis-en-place on quality and quantity
• Control wastage
• Maintain quality
• Innovate new dishes
• Maintain discipline and grooming of staff
• To Maintain Hygiene and sanitation
• Portion control
• Storage of food and provisions
• Raw material quality check
• Allot duties to commis
• Control over production and wastage.
• Assist in implementing TBEM processes
• Adhering to HACCP
• Enabling and adherence of the principles and work practices detailed under
HACCP System in the department viz., Food Safety, Hygiene and Cleanliness,
Health, Storage etc as applicable to the area of your workplace.
Responsibilities of Other Chefs
• Smooth functioning of their areas.
• Maintaining Food cost and Quality
Inter- department relations:
It coordinates with kitchen department for the preparation of various food and
beverage items as per the orders. The kitchen also coordinates with food and
beverage service department regarding the functions, outdoor caterings, and
promotional activities.
COOPERATION WITH FRONT OFFICE
• Front office will communicate arrival and departure list which will help to
forecast about the quantities to cook.
• With the association & assistance of front office with kitchen people promote
sales by explaining the guest as to what is a available and where it is available.
• Front office gives the list of V.I.P arrivals in order to increase the reputation of
the establishment.
COOPERATION WITH HOUSE-KEEPING
It is mainly for the supply of linen & uniform i.e. aprons, kitchen, towels, dusters
etc and to keep the kitchen clean. However, chefs also coordinate with the
horticulture section, which at times falls under HK department – for fresh herbs,
salad leaves, delicate veggies, micro greens and few vegetables from chef’s
garden.
COOPERATION WITH F & B SERVICE
There should be a close liaison between f & b service and the kitchen staff
because f & b personal are involved in the selling of the products made by the
kitchen department. It is the duty of the f & b personal to give the intimation
about the various parties to be hosted in future and in turn it is the duty of the
kitchen people to provide food at right time in hygiene condition. Also, f & b
personal must be aware as to how much time does a dish require to get ready
because they are the ones who are directly associated with the guests.
COOPERATION WITH MAINTENANCE
Maintenance will keep the equipment in working condition. Further this
department maintains all the electrical fittings. Also, they introduce as well as
instruct about the use of new equipment.
COOPERATION WITH STORE/PURCHASE
This department will provide all the raw materials required by the chef. The chef
must indent in time to ensure that the purchase personal get sufficient time to
procure these raw materials. The chef also gives purchase specification from time
to time depending upon the recipe requirement.
COOPERATION WITH MANAGEMENT
Department must cooperate with the management and should provider the
results which the management want to have i.e. As per the menu requirements.
Further the department should in-cooperate the new changes, which the
management suggests so a good cooperation b/w the kitchen staff and the
management should be promoted.
The methods of Preparation :
When raw materials are ready to be cooked, they are sent to the preparation area
or hot section of the kitchen where it gets exposed to heat. Following are some of
the techniques in preparation. The list may be enriched as and when you start
actually cooking.
 • Stirring – this mixes two or more ingredients as they get cooked. Wooden /
stainless steel flat spoons, round spoons, perforated spoons etc. of various
sizes could be used. Liquids, as well as solid and semi-solid ingredients,
need stirring. Generally, it helps in even dispersion of heat leading to even
cooking.
• Masking – to prevent food from getting burnt in case of baking/roasting, it
needs to be masked with some other food material. It can also be done to
get a desired color and appearance.
• Coating or dipping in batter – as mentioned earlier, the batter is a mixture
of flour and liquid (mostly equal quantities). Certain foods are dipped in
batter and deep fried. The aptest example would be potato vadas. The
batter should coat the stuffing fully and not expose any stuffing. This needs
skill because food should be dropped in hot oil immediately after dipping in
batter. So, in a split of a second, the process has to be completed. Thus, the
consistency of the batter plays a very important role.
• Basting – this is a technique which goes hand in hand with roasting. This
means to apply fat/butter on the food while being roasted. It helps by
protecting the surface from going dry and also by giving a pleasant brown
color to the roasted food.
• Tadka / baghar – these terms and technique are used in Indian cuisine. Oil
is heated to the required temperature and certain spice ingredients are
added to it (which should crackle,) then the food (like cooked dal or
chopped vegetables) are combined with this. It develops additional taste
and flavor to the dish. A peculiar flavour which is the characteristic of the
dish can be added through the ingredients in the tempering. Sometimes,
continental dishes, especially rich soups, and sauces are also ‘tempered’;
but the technique is applied for a different purpose and using different
ingredients. A mixture of egg yolk and cream (liaison) is added to a dish to
enrich it, to give it a glaze and to make it smooth. A little of the hot
soup/sauce is first mixed with the liaison, and then it is slowly stirred into
the larger quantity of soup/sauce.
• Seasoning – seasonings bring about the natural taste and flavours of the
ingredients. No dish can be complete without seasonings. ·
• Flavouring – these are those ingredients which impart additional flavours in
the dishes. Nutmeg powder in creamed potatoes, cardamom powder in
Indian sweets like kheers, vanilla essence in vanilla buns are some of the
examples. Flavorings could be added in various forms – powders drops or
whole spices (which are removed before serving the dish to the guest).
Mis-en-place:
Mise-en-place is a French term which means to “put in place”. Before starting the
actual work in the restaurant, everything should be in its place at the right
position in a correct way. It is a preliminary preparation, which includes getting
ready both food and beverage equipments and Surroundings so that the serving
of food and beverage can be carried out
efficiently. Performing mise-en-place should involve keeping ready in advance the
customers’ arrival in the restaurant.
Different Area of Mise-en-place
1. Restaurant Cleaning:
• Brush and dust tables and chairs every day.
• Polishing of all brass fixtures/ sideboards/windows and door frames as per
requirement.
Restaurant, cleaning and sweeping is done by housekeeping department.
2. Linen: Collect all dirty linens and get them exchanged from housekeeping, spare
linen
to be kept in the cupboard.
3. Silver:
• Clean and wipe all cutleries and keep them in their respective slots in the
cupboard.
• Clean all ash trays and keep them on tables and spares in the cupboards.
3. Crockery: Collect all crockery from dish washing, count and keep the breakage
aside and later inform the captain about the same. Wipe all the crockery out by
using moist cloth and then by dry cloth.
4. Accompaniments: Check all the dry accompaniments as required in the
restaurant, to be served by the restaurant staff. For example, tomato ketchup,
chilly sauce, chilly vinegar, pickles, etc. are to be requisitioned and brought to the
restaurant. Serving dispensers to be refilled and kept on the table or on the
sideboard, including cruet sets.
5. Side Boards/Cupboards: Items must be kept on the sideboard after proper
cleaning and
wiping. Following are the important items to be included in side board.
• All assorted cutlery
• Assorted crockery
• Folded napkins
• Service trays and salvers
• Soup ladles
• Bread baskets.
• KOT/BOT pad, rough pads etc.
• In case Gueridon service is operated, then Gueridon equipments must be
kept ready.
6. Bar/Pub: Mise-en-scene in the bar includes the followings such as:
• Clean the bar counter and cupboards.
• Check stock and bring the stock from the stone if required.
• Department and clean the glassware and keep properly.
• Clean cocktail equipments and display properly the counter.
• Prepare all the items for garnishes and accompaniments.
• Chill the wines, beers, soft drinks etc.
• Display all the liquors properly in the display rack.
• Glassware to be arranged as required
7. Miscellaneous: Prepare all the tables for service with proper layout. Captains
check full mise-en-place and then grooming of service staff.
Method of mixing :
1. Beating: - generally applied to thin mixtures of liquid. Should be done with
the aim of incorporating air. E.g. Beating of egg in cake making.
2. Blending: - mixing one or more ingredients thoroughly with a help of
blender/whisk/ or a food processor/mixer.
3. Cutting in: - incorporation of fat in flour with the help of a knife by cutting is
called as cutting in. this produce a coarse division of fat and does not result
in blending.
E.g. Cutting of fat into pastry mixture.
 4. Creaming: - softening of fat by frication of a wooden spoon or by hand. This
is generally followed by incorporation of sugar as in cake mixing.
5. Folding: - mixing mixtures by lifting and dropping motion. The edge of the
spoon is used. The mixture is carefully lifted and turned completely and
then gently replaced.
6. Kneading:-Manipulating by altering pressure with folding and stretching
motion. The food is pressed with the knuckle. The dough is brought from
outside of the basin to the centre and at the same time the bowl is moved
so that the different sections are kneaded at the same time. This will ensure
even distribution of ingredient.
7. Rubbing in: - Rubbing of fat into flour with the help of fingers. Rub until the
mixture becomes like a bread crumb. This is normally done with the tip of
your finger.
8. Rolling in: - rolling of fat in the dough as in the puff pastry. (Butter) into the
soft dough this is normally done with rolling pin.
9. Pressing in: - This is done to shape up the cooked foods e.g. Cutlets or as,
the method to separate the liquids from solids by weights or mechanical
pressure as in the making of paneer.
10.Stirring:- Mixing foods with a suitable tool such as a spoon by a circular
motion in a concept with the pan
i.) To prevent the food from burning.
ii.) To drive out the air as previously enclosed.
iii.) To blend.
To understand the texture of Cooked Food products:
Raw foods get exposed to some form of heat and then are called ‘cooked’ for
consumption. The term TEXTURE is used to describe the characteristics of a
finished (ready-to-eat) food product. The final product will have a certain texture
depending on
• the order in which ingredients are added
• the way of mixing
• the method of cooking
A correct texture has to be brought about in the food. The chef should not only
know the correct texture but should be able to produce the same in the food. The
various textures which are listed down, are difficult to explain in words, they
should be felt and understood better. There are very thin differences between
some of these, which one should learn better during practical.
1. Firm and close – biscuits and plain short pastries can explain this texture.
Raising agents are used while preparing these, but they do not make the product
very light or brittle. In fact, they are hard as a result of many tiny air bubbles
created by raising agents. But the biscuits are not too hard either, because of the
fat included.
2. Short and crumbly – nankhatai and tarts are good examples of this texture. Fat
included is more than that in biscuits, so it breaks more easily into smaller
particles.
3. Spongy – Swiss rolls, sponge cakes, idli, and dhokla are spongy. A soft, elastic
texture due to the incorporation of more air results in this texture.
4. Light – Madeira cake has plenty of large holes in it, making it ‘light’. It is firm,
but not hard and tough. It is neither as short as a tart nor as spongy as a Swiss roll.
5. Flaky – chiroti, lacchha paratha, chicken or veg puffs and Khara biscuits are
flaky. Thin, crisp layers are formed by spreading fat in between two layers of
dough which get separated during baking/frying and remain separated due to air
pockets. The flakes by themselves should not be tough/hard. Ideally, the layers
break easily and melt in the mouth.
6. Coarse – large and uneven holes are a result of too much of the raising agent or
too little liquid. This is not a good texture to have in food; in fact, it is something to
be avoided. Such cakes and other products are sunken at the center.
7. Tough – too much liquid, over mixing, incorrect mixing, too little fat and long
cooking time could result in toughness in food. Mostly, like the coarse texture, this
also is to be avoided.
8. Hard – another texture which should be avoided as far as possible. In fact, it is
considered to be a fault in the product. Too much pressure while mixing, excessive
liquid in the product and incorrect quantity of fat result in this texture. Air that is
incorporated gets removed out of the mixture, making the final product hard.
Various Texture:
1) Firm and Close: the creation of air bubbles by adding raising agents in the
baked products due to which volume is increased, which are many and small. The
products are crisp and not spongy, e.g, biscuits and plain short pastry.
2) Short and Crumbly: this is the same as firm and close, but more fat is added,
e.g. shortbread, nankhatais, biscuits, shortcrust pastry, etc.
3) Light and Even: there are plenty of holes and of a fair size. The food is firm but
not tough or hard. It is neither short nor spongy. E.g. Madeira, queen cakes etc.
4) Spongy: an elastic and soft appearance with air holes created by the inclusion
of air, it is soft and elastic to touch as in idlies, khamang dhoklas, swiss rolls, etc.
5) Flaky: this is created by the addition of fat to the dough by rolling and folding
different layers. The crispness is due to the method of rubbing fat with the flour. In
order to get a good flaky texture, the right amount of ingredients, proper mixing
and correct temperature are essential, e.g. puff and flaky pastry, tikona parathas,
mathis, etc.
6) Smooth: when a dry ingredient is added to a liquid and the blending results in a
smooth texture, e.g. sauces, batters, gravies.
Faults & Remedies:
Faults in Bread Making
Shape Faults
1)Poor Volume: Too much salt, too little yeast, weak flour, over or under mixing,
improper fermentation or proofing, oven too hot.
2)Too much volume: too little salt, too much yeast, too much dough scaled, over-
proofed.
3)Poor shape: too much liquid, improper moulding, improper proofing, too much
steam in oven.
4)Split or burst crust: over-mixing, under-fermentation, improper moulding (seam
not on bottom), oven too hot, not enough steam in oven.
Texture and Crumb Faults
1)Too dense or close grained: too little yeast, under-proofed, too much salt, too
little liquid.
2)Too coarse or open: too much yeast or liquid, incorrect mixing time, improper
fermentation, over proofed, pans too large.
3)Streaked crumb: improper mixing procedure, poor moulding or make up
techniques, too much flour used for dusting.
4)Poor texture or crumbly: fermentation time too long or too short, over-proofed,
oven temperature too low, flour too weak, too little salt.
Crust Faults
1) Too dark: too much sugar or milk, under-fermentation, oven temperature too
high, baking time too long, insufficient steam at beginning of baking.
2) Too pale: Too little sugar or milk, over-fermentation, over-proofed, oven
temperature too low, baking time too short, too much steam in oven.
Remedies :
Bread is composed of various ingredients, each playing a particular role and
contributing to the flavour and texture of the finished product. To be familiar and
understand these ingredients is the first step in good bread making.
1)Yeast
It is a tiny living fungus that thrives on sweetness, warmth and moisture. Through
the process of fermentation yeast acts on carbohydrates and turns them into
carbon dioxide and alcohol. This carbon dioxide causes the rise in baked products.
Alcohol evaporates during baking yet helps in development of flavour in the
bread.
2)Flour
The main ingredient in any bread is flour, which gives it its structure. Wheat flour,
with its rich protein called gluten, gives doughs their strength and elasticity.
Gluten is capable of expanding greatly; thus creating a network of little pockets
that trap the gasses produced by yeast that would otherwise escape. As discussed
earlier, whole-wheat flour contains all of the wheat grain; i.e. bran, germ and
endosperm. All-purpose flour contains only the endosperm, which yields the
highest percentage of gluten. Bread recipes that use yeast must contain at least
some white or whole-wheat flour to provide gluten.
3)Liquid
It is the liquid in the dough that turns into steam during baking. This steam helps
create texture in the bread. Water, milk or even beer can be used in bread making.
The difference in breads will stem form the components within the liquid. Milk
will produce richer bread with a tender crust and a less grainy taste. The
proportion of liquids to flour will vary from formula to formula and is caused by
the composition of the flour used and the liquid.
4)Salt
It has three primary functions in bread dough, the first being improvement of the
bread’s flavour and enhancement of the flavours of other ingredients. The second
function is that it has an inhibiting effect on yeast fermentation. Salt reduces the
gassing power of yeast, allowing the development of a uniform rise in the product.
The third function is the strengthening and tightening of gluten in the dough. Thus
salt, when used, should be in balance with the flour or results could be disastrous.
5)Sugar
This makes the dough rise quickly as well as helps brown the crust. Sugar should
be used sparingly as too much will inhibit the action of yeast. Always follow the
formula carefully. Granulated sugar is most commonly used, though other
sweeteners like honey, molasses, corn syrup or brown sugar as well as raisins and
dates can be used. They all add a different variety of flavour, texture and colour to
the bread.
6)Shortening
It is often added to enrich bread, however it is not essential to any bread formula.
Shortening gives flavour to the bread and makes it tender. Breads also keep longer
and better. Shortening also must be used in limit as too much could inhibit the
growth of yeast. In olden days hog lard was used in bread making, but today the
preferred fats are vegetable shortening and butter.
7)Eggs
Eggs too are an optional ingredient in bread making. They provide richness,
flavour and improve texture. Breads also have a longer shelf life is eggs are added
to the dough. Eggs are best used in the production of sweet enriched doughs.
8)Other Ingredients
Spices, dry fruits, nuts and various seeds and cereals are also used in bread dough.
They contribute to flavour, texture and nutritional value of the bread.
UNIT IV
Composition of different ingredients and the action of
heat on fat, carbohydrates, classification of cooking
factors, fats, raising agents, sweetening agents, eggs,
liquid/stock, flavouring & seasoning.
Composition of different ingredients and the action of
heat on fat:
Foods are composed of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and water, plus small
amounts of other compounds such as minerals (including salt), vitamins, pigments
(colouring agents), and flavour elements. It is important to understand how these
components react when heated or mixed with other foods. You will then be better
equipped to correct cooking faults when they occur and to anticipate the effects
of changing cooking methods, cooking temperatures, or ingredient proportions.
The following discussion is concerned with the physical and chemical reactions
that affect the components of food.
Carbohydrates : Starches and sugars are carbohydrates. Both compounds are
present in foods in many forms. They are found in fruits, vegetables, grains, beans,
and nuts. Meats and fish also contain a small amount of carbohydrate. For the
cook, the two most important changes in carbohydrates caused by heat are
caramelisation and gelatinization. Caramelization is the browning of sugars. The
browning of sautéed vegetables and thevgolden color of bread crust are forms of
caramelization. Gelatinization occurs when starches absorb water and swell. This
is a major principle in the thickening of sauces and in the production of breads
and pastries. Acids inhibit gelatinization. A sauce thickened with flour or starch
will be thinner if it contains acid.
Fats: Fats are present in meats, poultry, fish, eggs, milk products, nuts, whole
grains, and, to a lesser extent, vegetables and fruits. Fats are also important as
cooking mediums, as for frying.
Fats can be either solid or liquid at room temperature. Liquid fats are called oils.
When solid fats are heated, they melt, or change from solid to liquid. The melting
point of solid fats varies. When fats are heated, they begin to break down. When
hot enough, they deteriorate rapidly and begin to smoke. The temperature at
which this happens is called the smoke point, and it varies by type of fat. A stable
fat-one with a high smoke point-is an important consideration in deep-fat frying.
Many flavour compounds dissolve in fat, so fats are important carriers of flavour.
When fats melt and are lost from food, some flavours, as well as some vitamins,
are lost with them.
Minerals, Vitamins, Pigments, And Flavour Components: Minerals and vitamins
are important to the nutritional quality of the food. Pigments and flavour
components are important to a food's appearance and taste and may determine
whether the food is appetizing enough to eat. So it is important to preserve all
these elements. Some of these components are soluble in water, and others are
soluble in fats. All of these components may be leached out, or dissolved away,
from foods during cooking. Vitamins and pigments may also be destroyed by heat,
by long cooking, and by other elements present during cooking. It is important,
then, to select cooking methods that preserve, as much as possible, a food's
nutrients, taste, and appearance.
Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates are one of the three macronutrients essential for the human body,
along with fats and proteins. They are the primary source of energy for the body
and are present in a wide variety of foods, from fruits and vegetables to grains and
dairy products. In this blog, we will cover the function and types of carbohydrates.
What are Carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
in a ratio of 1:2:1, respectively. They are the most common source of energy in the
human diet, with a single gram providing four calories of energy.
Carbohydrates are classified into three main types – monosaccharides,
disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are the simplest
carbohydrates and cannot be broken down into smaller units. Glucose, fructose,
and galactose are examples of monosaccharides. Disaccharides are made up of
two monosaccharides joined together. Lactose, maltose, and sucrose are
examples of disaccharides. Polysaccharides are made up of many
monosaccharides joined together. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are examples of
polysaccharides.
Function of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the primary source of energy for the body. Glucose, the
simplest form of carbohydrate, is the preferred fuel source for the brain and
central nervous system. Carbohydrates are also important for exercise, as they
provide energy for the muscles. In addition to providing energy, carbohydrates
also have other important functions in the body. For example, they are involved in
the structure of cells, play a role in the immune system, and are important for the
digestive system.
Types of Carbohydrates
Simple Carbohydrates
Simple carbohydrates are made up of one or two sugar molecules and are quickly
broken down by the body. They are often referred to as “bad” carbohydrates
because they can cause a rapid increase in blood sugar levels. Simple
carbohydrates are found in foods such as table sugar, honey, candy, and soft
drinks.
Complex Carbohydrates
Complex carbohydrates are made up of many sugar molecules and take longer to
break down. They are often referred to as “good” carbohydrates because they
provide a slow, steady release of energy. Complex carbohydrates are found in
foods such as whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and legumes.
Classification of cooking factors:
The methods of cooking are classified as given in table 1.1
a. MOIST HEAT METHOD
In this method, food comes in contact with moisture either by water or steam
under pressure. Some common ways of cooking food by moist heat are described
below.
1. Boiling
Boiling is cooking foods in a liquid (water, bouillon, stock, milk) at boiling point.
Boiling is a method of cooking foods by just immersing them in water at 100 ºC
and maintaining water at the temperature till food is tender. Rice, egg, dhal, meat,
roots and tubers are cooked by boiling method.
Advantages
· Boiling is a safe and simple method of cooking.
· It is suitable for large scale cooking. Boiled food is also digested easily
Disadvantages
· While boiling, water soluble nutrients are lost if the water in which the food is
boiled is discarded. Some people may not like boiled food as they find it bland.
2. Stewing
When food is cooked with the heat from water vapors, it is called stewing. This
method requires the food to be cooked in steam. Stewing is a long and slow
cooking method where food is cut into pieces and cooked in the minimum
amount of liquid, water, stock or sauce. The food and the cooking liquid are
served together. In this slow method of cooking the liquid is heated to boiling
point and heat is reduced to maintain simmering temperatures (820 ºC – 900 ºC).
Advantages
· In stewing, the juices of the food are retained and the food tastes good.
· The nutrients are also conserved better.
Disadvantages
· Food takes longer to cook.
· The process is time consuming and there is wastage of fuel.
3. Steaming:
It is a method of cooking food in steam generated vigorously from boiling water in
a pan. The food to be steamed is placed in a container and is not in direct contact
with the water or liquid. Idli, custard and idiappam are made by steaming.
Vegetables can also be steamed.
Advantages
· Steaming shortens the duration of cooking and helps to conserve
· nutritive value, colour, flavour and palatability of food.
· Steamed food is light, nutritious and easy to digest. Such foods are good,
especially for people who are sick or people with weak digestion or for the elderly.
Young children can be served with steamed food.
Disadvantages
· Steaming equipment is required.
· This method is limited to the preparation of selected foods.
4. Pressure cooking :
When steam under pressure is used, the method is known as pressure cooking
and the equipment used is the pressure cooker. In this method the temperature of
boiling water can be raised above 100 ºC. Rice, meat, roots and tubers are usually
pressure cooked.
Advantages
· Pressure cooking kills all bacteria and hence the food is safe and hygienic to
eat.
· The food gets cooked faster i.e. almost 1/3rd time than boiling.
· Saves fuel, time and energy.
· Several foods can be cooked together in the pressure cooker by using
separators.
· It is not necessary to immerse food in water while cooking and this reduces the
loss of water soluble vitamins and minerals.
Disadvantages
· If food is cooked for very long, it loses its texture and may even burn.
· Knowledge of the usage, care and maintenance of cooker is required to prevent
accidents.
5. Poaching:
This involves cooking in minimum amount of liquid at temperatures of 800°C –
850°C that is below the boiling point. Foods generally poached are egg, fish and
fruits. For poaching eggs, the addition of little salt or vinegar to the cooking liquid
lowers temperature of coagulation. Eggs get cooked quickly by poaching.
Advantages
· A variety of liquids can be used (stock, wine, milk, syrup).
· Liquid can improve flavor.
· Food becomes more digestible.
· Ideal for high-protein foods, eg. Fish
Disadvantages
· Requires constant attention.
· Range of suitable foods is limited.
· Foods overcook quickly.
6. Blanching:
In meal preparation, it is often necessary only to peel off the skin of fruits and
vegetables without making them tender. This can be achieved by blanching. eg.
tomatoes can be blanched in this method, food is dipped in boiling water for 5
seconds to 2 minutes depending on the texture of the food. This helps to remove
the skin or peel without softening food.
Advantages
· Peels can easily be removed to improve digestibility.
· Destroys enzymes that bring about spoilage.
· Texture can be maintained while improving the colour and flavour of food.
Disadvantage
· Loss of nutrients if cooking water is discarded.
b. DRY HEAT METHOD
Dry heat cooking gives a crisp texture, brown colour and pleasant flavor to the
foods. Some common ways by which you cook food by dry heat are described
here.
1. Roasting:
This method of cooking food by dry heat is roasting. While roasting, the food is
subjected directly on a hot tava or girdle or sand or fire and cooked. Eg.
Groundnuts
Advantages
· Food is tastier when cooked in this way. It also adds variety to a meal.
· It improves the appearance, flavor and texture of the food.
· Spices are easily powdered if they are first roasted.
Disadvantages
· It is a relatively slow method of
· cooking. Roasted food sometimes become too dry, therefore, it may be served
with a chutney or sauce.
· Roasting denatures proteins reducing their availability.
2. Grilling:
Grilling or broiling refers to the cooking of food by exposing it to direct heat. In
this method food is placed above or in between a red hot surface. Papads, corn,
phulkas, chicken can be prepared by this method.
Advantages
· Grilling like roasting also gives nice flavor to the food.
· A variety of dishes can be prepared using this method.
Disadvantage
· Constant attention is required to prevent charring.
3. Toasting:
This is a method where food is kept between two heated elements to facilitate
browning on both sides. Bread slices are cooked by toasting.Eg. sandwiches.
Advantages
· Easy and quick method.
· Flavour improved.
Disadvantages
· Special equipment is required.
· Careful monitoring is needed to prevent charring.
4. Baking:
In this method, the food gets cooked in an oven or oven like appliance by dry
heat. The temperature range maintained in an oven is 120 ºC - 260 ºC. The oven
has to be heated slightly more than required temperature before placing the food
in it. Foods prepared by baking are custards, pies, biscuits, pizzas, buns, bread and
cakes. The same principle is used in tandoor ovens were you get tandoori chicken,
tandoori meat and fish.
Advantages
· Food cooked using this method adds a variety to the texture in our plate.
· Baking lends a unique flavor to foods.
· Foods become light and fluffy. Eg. cakes, custards, bread.
· Certain foods can be prepared only by this method – bread, cakes.
· Uniform and bulk cooking can be achieved. Eg. Bun, bread.
· Variety of dishes can be prepared.
Disadvantages
· Special equipment like oven is required.
· Baking skills are necessary to obtain a product with ideal texture, flavor and
colour.
5. Sauteing:
This method involves cooking in just enough of oil to cover the base of the pan
(greasing the pan).The food is tossed occasionally or turned over with a spatula to
enable all the pieces to come in contact with the oil and get cooked evenly.
Sometimes the pan is covered with lid, reducing the flame and allowing the food
to be cooked till tender in its own steam. The product obtained by this method is
slightly moist, tender but without any liquid or gravy. Foods cooked by sautéing
are generally vegetables used as side dishes in a menu. Eg. poriyels in Indian
cuisine.The heat is transferred to the food mainly by conduction.
Advantages
· Takes less time.
· Simple technique.
· Minimum oil is used
Disadvantage
· Constant attention is needed as there is chance of scorching or burning
6. Frying:
In this method, the food to be cooked is brought into contact with a large amount
of hot fat. Frying is of two types namely deep get frying and shollow get
frying.When food is totally immersed in hot oil, it is called deep fat frying. Samosa,
chips, pakoda are examples of deep fat frying. In shallow fat frying, only a little fat
is used and the food is turned in order that both the sides turn brown. Eg.
Omelets, cutlets, parathas.
Advantages
· The calorific values of fried food is increased since fat is used as the cooking
media.
· Frying lends a delicious flavor and attractive appearance to foods.
· Taste and texture are improved
Disadvantages
· Fried food especially deep fried food is difficult to digest and has high calorific
value. Excessive
· consumption of fried foods are bad for health.
· Can be a risk factor to develop life style diseaces.
c. COMBINATION OF COOKING METHODS
Braising
Braising is a combined method of roasting and stewing in a pan with a tight fitting
lid. Flavourings and seasonings are added and food is allowed to cook gently. Food
preparations prepared by combination methods are :
1. Microwave Cooking:
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves of radiant energy with wave lengths in the
range of 250 x 106 to 7.5 x 109 Angstroms. It is a comparatively new method of
cooking and gradually becoming popular. In this method food is cooked by
microwave radiation. Water molecules in the food vibrate rapidly due to
microwaves. The heat generated in the process cooks the food .
II .Solar Cooking:
A solar cooker is a device that changes the light energy of the sun to heat energy
to cook food. There are three main types of solar cooker:
Panel-type
A hybrid of reflector and box-type solar cookers, using both a curved reflector and
a cooking container into which the food is placed. This combines the reflective
properties of a curved surface with the heat retaining properties of a container.
Parabolic type
A solar cooker that uses reflective surfaces to collect, concentrate and direct the
sun’s rays onto the food being cooked.
Box-type (or oven-type)
A solar cooker that uses plane reflectors (such as mirrors) to reflect radiation
through a glass or plastic window into an insulated cooking container. The
container normally has reflective sides and a black metal base.
FATS :
Fats and oils are nutritionally useful and in some form economical source of
energy and give an important value to the dish. They also contribute a unique
taste, flavor and texture. They are used worldwide as the medium of cooking.
Fats are solid at ordinary/ room temperature and melt when heated. Oils are
liquids at ordinary temperature, only coconut oils solidify at low temperature.
various fats used in cooking are Pig’s fat (Lard), Fat around kidney’s (Suet), Tallow
beef fat (Dripping) , Margarine, butter, clarified butter (ghee) hydrogenated fat,
cocoa butter (for confectionery).
Fat is used for the various salad dressings hot animal fat dressing, which consist of
bacon fat, vinegar and seasoning, served hot, are used on green hot salads.
Cooked dressing is a mixture of egg, vinegar, fat, starch and seasonings (cooked).
Animal fat is heated and melted as this renders fatty tissues, Tallow, suet and lard
are usually rendered and used for cooking. The fat is cut into small pieces and
placed in a pan and put in the oven or on slow fire, until the fat melts, and there
are crisp brown pieces of tissues left. This should be strained through a fine cloth
into a clean bowl.
The fat which has been used in the kitchen, it should be clarified and then used
for better result in cooking. Strain the used fat and then mix double the quantity
of water in a pan and bring it to a boil. It should be strained again, cool and place
it in a refrigerator. The fat will solidify and float on top. Lift the cake of fat, turn it
upside down and scrape off the foreign particles that have collected. Heat the fat
on slow fire till the water evaporated and then strain and store it in a cool place.
Rising agents :
Leavening or raising means to increase the surface area of any dough or batter by
creating gas bubbles inside the dough or batter. This also makes a product light in
weight. The expansion of gas bubbles during baking increases the volume of the
product and gives a desirable porous structure.
Raising agents that are used in the kitchen can be classified into the following
categories:
 • Biological (yeast)
• Chemical (baking powder, baking soda, baking ammonia)
• Mechanical (beating, whisking, creaming, sieving)
• Lamination
• Combination of all
Biological Raising Agent
Yeast can be of two types:
1. Fresh or compressed yeast
2. Dry yeast
The scientific name of yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Yeast is unicellular
microscopic fungi.
The structure of yeast consist :
• Cell wall
• Protoplasm
• Vacoale
Food
Simple sugar like dextrose or fructose.
Suitable climate
80 to 85°F, at least 70% humidity can give the best result.
Fermentation activity
The protoplasm of yeast contains the following enzymes:
Invertase
It converts cane sugar or sucrose into a simpler form of sugar which is known as
invert sugar, which is a combination of dextrose and fructose.
Maltase
It converts maltose sugar into dextrose which can be directly fermented by yeast.
Zymase
This is the most important fermenting agent which breaks invert sugar and
dextrose to carbon dioxide, some amount of pure alcohol, and a very small
amount of glycerine, acetic acid and some amount of lactic acid. It also produces
some flavourful aroma which gives a pleasant fermentation flavor.
Protease
It softens down the flour protein, thus gives a better stretchability for the bread
(to be specific on gluten) so that it can get a good volume and structure.
Storage of yeast
Stored at 45 degrees F. Yeast is killed by heat in a range of 127 degrees to 140
degrees F.
The symptom of damaged or rotten yeast
• Buttery consistency
• Brownish in color
• Crumbly in texture,
• Very obnoxious smell.
Chemical Raising Agent
Chemical raising agent is brought about by the production of carbon dioxide in a
solution of acid and alkali, in the presence of heat.
Baking Powder
It is a leavening agent made up of a mixture of an acid reacting salt with
bicarbonate of soda. We also add some starch to the mixture to keep it in a dried
condition and also to act as a separator between sodium bicarbonate and acid
reacting salt, until used.
On the presence of both heat and moisture, the acid reacting salt reacts with
sodium bicarbonate and releases carbon dioxide. A part of the gas is entrapped
into the gluten structure or small air cells of a batter which already has developed
because of creaming action of fat, these structures now expand with the
production of the gas and during baking also and the small part of the gas is
absorbed by the media itself.
Cream of tarter is a form of refining tartar which is a by-product of precipitation
from the grape wine manufacturing process .
Ammonium Carbonate
It also produces carbon dioxide in the presence of heat but because of the strong
offensive flavor, it is always to be used with very strong flavoring agents.
Mechanical Raising Agent
It is an incorporation of air by beating, creaming, whisking and sieving. Whisking
of egg and sugar, creaming of fat and sugar, sieving of flour are the eg of
mechanical raising. All these actions involve physical movement hence known as
mechanical raising or leavening.
Lamination Or Water Vapour
Lamination acts as a raising procedure where the fat and dough is folded and
rolled. The moisture incorporated in the fat and the dough also will vaporize
during baking and gives it the lift (or raising).
In Indian cuisine, idlis and dhoklas are steamed where heat helps to puff up the
final product by vapourising the steam. In popcorn, the corn pop because of the
moisture present inside and ultimately its volume increase. In choux pastry water
vapor acts as raising agent.
Combination Of All
Danish pastry is an eg. of combination raising where we use yeast in the dough
and fat is used by a lamination process. Some other eg. are vanilla buns, fruit cake,
etc, where we use whisking, creaming and chemical raising, agents.
Sweetening Agents :
Generally, Sweetening agents can be classified into two main categories:
• Plant-derived Sweetening agents: such as Erythritol, Lactitol, Maltitol,
Mannitol, and Xylitol etc.
• Artificial Sweetening agents: such as Aspartame, Neotame, and Alitame etc.
Sweetening agents are chemical substances that are added to either mask the
unpleasant taste or enhance the perception of a sweet taste in some oral
pharmaceutical preparations such as tablets, syrup, suspension etc.Some of them
are so sweet that dextrose or maltodextrin is added to reduce the intense
sweetness of artificial sweetening agents. These sweetening agents are generally
obtained from the substitutes of synthetic sugar, but they can also be formed from
natural substances, including herbs or sugar itself.
Artificial sweetener is one of the most attractive substitutes for sugar as it does
not add many calories to our diet. It can be used directly in processed food such
as puddings, dairy products, candy, soft drinks, baked goods, jams and many other
foods and beverages. It can also be used after mixing it with starch-based
sweeteners.
Also, Sweetening agents can be classified into two main categories:
• Nutritive or caloric Sweetening agents: such as Glucose, Lactose, and
Dextrose, etc.
• Nonnutritive or low-calorie Sweetening agents: such as Aspartame,
Neotame, and Alitame etc.
EGGS:
An egg is a nutritious alternative source of protein to ovavagens. It is packed with
a lot of protein and other energy-giving nutrients.
Initially, eggs were treated as non-vegetarian in nature, but today science has
proved that unfertilized egg
can be treated as vegetarian.
Egg cookery is very vast by itself. Eggs are used for cooking, baking, poaching, etc.
be it in Indian style of cooking or continental, it plays a vital role. Eggs of hens,
ducks, geese, quails, ostrich, and emu are used frequently nowadays.
The most popular and widely used eggs are of hens in India, although eggs of
turkeys, guinea fowls, ducks, and geese are also used.
Color
The color of eggshells and egg yolks varies with the breed of hen and the food
they eat, but this makes no difference to the food value.
Temperature
The ideal storage temperature for eggs is 2-5°C.
Significance
Eggs are essential to all kinds of cooking, not only in the preparation but as food in
their own right. They produce meals that are economical in price, and with a
minimum of waste and time. By the term egg we mean those of the domestic hen,
but these are not the only edible eggs. There are those of ducks, geese, turkeys,
also of wild birds such as plovers and gulls.
An egg has been described as a “Complete Food” because they are highly
nutritious and used in a range of recipes. Yolks and eggs are used separately.
In all culinary preparations, eggs are used for binding, coloring, enriching,
increasing volume, coating, etc.
Liquid/Stock:
Stock is nutritional liquid that is made with the Chicken or Chicken bones, Fish or
Fish bones, Mutton or Mutton Bones and other vegetables that enhance the
frangrance and flavour of liquid.
Stocks are aromatic and strongly flavoured liquids which are foundation liquids
used for the preparation of various dishes like soups, sauces, gravies, curries,
stews, braisings, rice and many more dishes.
The preparation of stocks take too long time, slow cooking of ingredients and cold
water used for stock. Fish stock does not take long simmering process as it may
become cloudy. It must be properly stored for a day at 1 °C to 4 °C.
The points to keep in mind while preparing Stock:
• Fat should be completely removed from the bones because it makes the
stock rancid and greasy.
• Bone marrow must be removed. Marrow is used for making other dishes
like Marrow toast, soup (Petit Marmite).
• The boiling method makes the stocks milky and cloudy therefore it should
be simmered.
• Bouquet garni is tied and tied to a handle of stock pot. Mire poix must be
added later on as it flavours the liquid. The vegetables will begin to
disintegrate, discolouring the stock.
• The scum must be discarded.
• At the time of storing the stock, The fat must be removed from the surface,
it may cause the stock to turn sour.
• The lid must be avoided during simmering process as it makes the stock
cloudy.
Flavouring & Seasoning:
The first step is to understand the difference between seasoning and flavoring.
Seasoning means enhancing the natural favors of a food item without significantly
changing its base taste. Flavoring is adding a new flavor to a food item thus
changing or modifying its original flavor. The difference may be a matter of
degrees. For instance, salt is mainly used to enhance natural flavor, but on a soft
pretzel its presence actually changes the product’s flavor profile. Some dishes
suffer when herbs or spices dominate the natural flavors of food. Too much
tarragon can leave your mouth feeling like you ate a pound of black licorice. Yet
some flavorings are welcomed to dominate – like sherry in a cream sauce.
So where does one begin when learning to season or flavor food? The key is to
understand the flavors that an item will impart and how it is released or absorbed
in the cooking process in order to better understand how to use
seasonings/flavorings.
Here are a few key Herbs and Spices and their uses:
Salt – No seasoning is more feared or more misused than salt. Salt is essential in
enhancing flavors and accentuates the natural flavors of foods. Not all salt is
created equal. My preferences are sea salt, expensive but healthier than table
salt. When first using sea salt, use less than kosher salt due to a more intense
flavor. Kosher salt is just slightly more expensive than iodized table salt and better
for you since you will use less. Its crystalline structure cuts into food giving a
better flavor release than table salt.
Pepper – Pepper is one of the most widely used seasonings in the world. Black,
white and green peppercorns are all the same berry from the same plant. Black
peppercorns are picked unripened, white is ripened with the outer hull removed.
This is why they hit taste buds at different points in the mouth. Black pepper hits
the front of the mouth and finishes in the back of the throat, where as white
pepper hits the back of your throat. I prefer back pepper except in cases where
long cooking will cause it to discolor a white sauce. Since pepper, like most spices,
contains volatile oils that harbor its flavor, grinding it fresh will cause you to use
less and have a more pronounced flavor.
Garlic – This member of the lily family comes in many forms, but fresh is
preferable. Garlic needs to be cooked since in its raw form it has a strong burning
favor that overwhelms the palate. Low heat will help mellow the flavor. High will
result in a bitter, burnt flavor.
Lemon juice – Always use fresh lemon juice. Reconstituted does not have the zip
and power of fresh. Lemon juice works well in cutting through fats and oils,
providing a contrast that enlivens most foods. Try reducing the content of salt in
your favorite recipes adding instead a squeeze of lemon that flavor will surprise
you.
UNIT V
Kitchen Organization & Lay Out: General layout of
kitchen in various organization, Layout of Receiving
Areas, Layout of storage Area, Layout of service and
wash up, Various Fuels used, Advantages &
Disadvantages of each.
General layout of kitchen in various organization:
GENERAL KITCHEN LAYOUT
Kitchen is a busy place and cross-traffic can really hamper the operation. There are
certain factors that one needs to keep in mind while planning a kitchen. This is
usually done by “facility planning department” which carefully plans the layout of
the kitchens. Some hotels contract out these services but certain hotel chains,
such as Oberoi Hotels and Resorts, have their own facility planning department
which is responsible for planning and layout of all the kitchens.
RECEIVING ―> STORING ―> PROCESSING ―> COOKING ―> SERVING

When we talk of designs of a kitchen, it would generally mean the overall planning
of the space with regards to the size and shape of the operations. The layout
would mean the detailed arrangement of the floor of the kitchen and allocation of
places for the kitchen equipment to be placed where the specific tasks would be
carried out.
A well-planned layout is not only important for the smooth workflow in the
kitchen but it also adds to the profitability of the entire operation. Smooth
workflow will ensure timely pick up of food for a busy meal period thus creating
happy guest and good timely pick up of food for a busy meal period thus creating
happy guest and good reputation. Such an operation is also directly linked to the
motivation and overall morale of the staff.
Well-planned kitchen operations would always follow a basic three-flow pattern,
which would be back-front-back. All the raw materials are received at the kitchen
(back of the operations) then processed and sent to the restaurant are received
(front) for consumption. The leftover unstable food is brought back and disposed
of as garbage.
Layout of Receiving Areas:
RECEIVING AREA
Receiving area is a place where the goods are received into the hotel. This place is
not only used to receive raw food commodities but also to offload all the supplies
of the hotel. This area also restricts the entry of unauthorized personnel into the
hotel and is located near the rear entry of the hotel also known as staff entrance.
Various jobs are carried out in the receiving area and this is one place in the hotel
where all the supplies are received. From food commodities to engineering
supplies, everything lands up at the receiving dock, where the items are checked
as per specifications given to the supplies and recorded in various formats. Let us
discuss some of the receiving procedures carried out at this place.
ORDERING VEGETABLES
All ordering is done through the purchasing department for proper control. All
order sheets should be sent to the purchasing department in the evening, at the
time agreed by the kitchen and the receiving department. If an order is placed
directly to the suppliers due to emergency, a mail should be sent to purchase
stating the reason as well as the ordered quantity. The procedure of ordering
through purchase ensures that the orders are placed to the suppliers in time and
the receiving can be done as per the standards specified by the hotel. When the
goods are received, they are entered into a format known as daily receiving report
(DRR).
QUALITY CHECK
Receiving personnel takes charge of the receiving of vegetables, stacking, and
cleaning of the receiving area. The receiving clerk receives the commodities as per
the standard specifications agreed by the hotel and the vendor.
SENSITIZATION
All vegetables should be sanitized with 50ppm chlorine. Usually, a double sink is
used for washing and sanitizing of vegetables.
AWARENESS
A standard purchase specification with photographs of the product should be
made available to the receiving clerk to make the receiving more accurate.
Layout of storage Area:
Layout of a good food store
• Size and shape of a store room varies from establishment to establishment
and depends on individual requirement, availability of source of supply,
volume of business and inventory turnover.
• Inventory turnover by 3 to 4 times a ideal condition and can be calculated
by the formula:-
• Rate of stock turnover = Cost of food consumed / Average value of stock at
cost price
• Illustration:- In 28 days trading period the cost of food consumed was Rs
60,000 and opening stock on day 1 was Rs 20,000 and closing stock on day
28 was Rs 10,000
• Rate of stock turnover = 60,000 / (20,000 + 10,000)/2 = 60,000 / 15,000 =
4.0 times
• In 28-day trading period the total volume of stock turnover is 4 times and
that an average of 1 week’s stock was held during the period.
Layout of service and wash up :
The Service Area is situated between the kitchen and the restaurant and has the
following functions.
1. Cleans dirty equipment corning from the restaurant or floors.
2. Supplies clean equipment to the restaurant and kitchen.
3. Calling point for food orders.
4. Delivery of food.
5. Cashiering.
Issuing meals to the restaurant is carried out in this area. A kitchen clerk called the
Aboyeur is stationed at the survey counter throughout the meal period. On
receipt of the waiter’s check (KOT), he announces in a loud and clear voice the
order with special instructions. The section must acknowledge the order in return.
Most orders are executed in parts (en suite.)
The Cashier prepares the bills and gives it to the waiter for a presentation. The
paid check and cash is returned to the cashier who will stamp it with a PAID
stamp. A dispense bar is also situated in this area for drinks in the restaurant and
in rooms .
The Wash-up Area: Dishwashing has a high rate of importance because of its
significance in sanitation and hygiene. The wash-up area consists of three parts,
manned by the kitchen steward.
a)Loading – dirty equipment is pre-washed and loaded on baskets/trays for
machine or hand washing.
b)Washing – consists of cleaning, rinsing and sanitizing.
c)Unloading – The clean equipment is kept on racks, picked by waiters or delivered
by stewards.
Pre-rinsing calls for a water of warm temperature. 120º F will melt fat but not
cook foods firmly onto the surfaces.
The washing temperature must be 140º F hot enough for effective cleaning action.
Sanitizing calls for a temperature of 180º F for 10 seconds. In small hotels,
dishwashing is done manually, but the process is the same. Ideally, separate
workers should be provided for handling dirty and clean dishes. To ensure
effective dishwashing water temperatures must be maintained, detergent
concentration should be effective and correct handling procedures followed.
Various Fuels used:
The catering industry relies on a range of fuels to power a diverse array of
equipment and appliances, including stoves, ovens, grills, and deep fryers.
However, with so many different types of fuels available, it can be challenging to
determine which fuel source is best for a particular application. In this blog, we
will explore the different types of fuels used in the catering industry, their calorific
values, and conduct a comparative study to help determine the best fuel for
specific equipment and applications.
Types of Fuels Used in the Catering Industry
The most commonly used fuels in the catering industry include:
Natural Gas
Natural gas is a popular fuel source in commercial kitchens, offering a reliable and
cost-effective option for powering equipment such as stovetops, ovens, and grills.
It is a clean-burning fuel that produces fewer emissions than many other types of
fuels.
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
LPG is another common fuel used in the catering industry, particularly in areas
where natural gas is not readily available. LPG is a clean-burning fuel that is easy
to transport and store, making it a popular option for mobile catering operations.
Electricity
Electricity is a versatile fuel source that can power a wide range of catering
equipment, including ovens, grills, and deep fryers. While electricity is a clean-
burning fuel, it can be expensive, particularly in areas where electricity rates are
high.
Charcoal
Charcoal is a traditional fuel source for grills and barbeques, offering a unique
flavor that is difficult to replicate with other types of fuels. However, charcoal can
be messy and difficult to handle, and it produces high levels of smoke and
pollutants.
Wood
Wood is another traditional fuel source used in the catering industry, particularly
in wood-fired ovens and grills. Wood offers a unique flavor that is difficult to
replicate with other types of fuels, but it can be challenging to source and store,
and it can produce high levels of smoke and pollutants.
various type of fuels
• Coal: With high heat output and low cleanness, coal produces high smoke
emission. It has a calorific value of 24-33 MJ/kg and is low cost.
• Wood: With medium to high heat output and low to medium cleanness,
wood produces high smoke emission. It has a calorific value of 14-21 MJ/kg
and is low to medium cost.
• LPG (Liquid Petroleum Gas): With high heat output and high cleanness, LPG
produces low smoke emission. It has a calorific value of 46.1 MJ/m³ and is
high cost.
• Natural Gas: With high heat output and high cleanness, natural gas
produces low smoke emission. It has a calorific value of 38.7 MJ/m³ and is
medium to high cost.
• Diesel: With high heat output and high cleanness, diesel produces medium
smoke emission. It has a calorific value of 35.8 MJ/liter and is high cost.
• Biodiesel: With medium heat output and high cleanness, biodiesel produces
low to medium smoke emission. It has a calorific value of 33-38 MJ/liter and
is high cost.
• Electricity: With low heat output and high cleanness, electricity produces
no smoke emission. It has no calorific value and is high cost.
• Charcoal: With high heat output and low to medium cleanness, charcoal
produces high smoke emission. It has a calorific value of 29-33 MJ/kg and is
medium cost.
• Pellets: With medium heat output and low cleanness, pellets produce low
smoke emission. It has a calorific value of 16.5-19 MJ/kg and is medium
cost.
• Oil: With high heat output and high cleanness, oil produces high smoke
emission. It has a calorific value of 41.9-45.5 MJ/kg and is high cost.
Advantages & advantages of each :
Kitchen Layout: Advantages and Disadvantages
1. Straight-Line Kitchen Layout
Advantages: simple structure, space-saving, suitable for small area kitchens. There
are no obstructions during operation and everything is clear at a glance.
Disadvantages: The cabinet is relatively small and can’t store too many things; the
counter is small and crowded with many people, making it inconvenient to
operate.
2. L-Shaped Kitchen Layout
Advantages: Complete functional partitions and sufficient storage space. In line
with the concept of the “triangular area” in the kitchen, the triangular area of the
kitchen refers to the storage area, washing area, and cooking area of the kitchen.
The L type can basically meet the settings of these three areas and improve the
efficiency of cooking.
Disadvantages: the price is higher than the one-line type, and the wall cabinets at
the corners are prone to visual blind spots.
3. U-Shaped Kitchen Layout
Advantages: large area, can accommodate many people, and storage space is also
larger. The U-shaped shape can realize a complete and smooth kitchen flow of
“(take out) cleaning ingredients-processing ingredients-cooking”, and it can also
be more smooth and convenient when cooking.
Disadvantages: There are requirements for the area of the kitchen, and the two
corners are more difficult to handle during production, so the price is more
expensive.
4. Island Kitchen Cabinets
Advantages: It is mostly used in open kitchens, in which the island can be used as
an operating table, as well as a bar or dining table, acting as a partition. The island
is not only practical but also more welcoming. It can allow multiple people to cook
together, increase the interaction during cooking, and reduce the loneliness of
cooking alone, which is more in line with the needs of modern people.
Disadvantages: There are certain requirements for the area of the kitchen. The
location of the smoke machine pipe, circuit, natural gas pipeline, etc. should be
set before installation; and because it is an open kitchen, the oil fume is easy to
run into the living room or other places, which affects the smoke machine The
function has higher requirements.
5. Gallery kitchen Cabinets
Advantages: Clearly divide the kitchen functional area, one side can be used as a
cleaning area, and the other as a cooking area, so there is more storage space.
This type is mostly used in the back kitchen of canteens or restaurants, which can
effectively use all the space and improve the efficiency of cooking.
Disadvantages: low integrity, waste of space in-home installation.
Paper 5 : Advanced Course in Front office Operations:
UNIT I
Departure procedure in fully automated systems, Mode
of settlement of bills, Potential check-out problems and
solutions, Late check outs.
Departure procedure in fully automated systems :-
INTRODUCTION
Front office is the department which is responsible to do registration of the arrival
guests and to provide the best suitable package according to the guest’s
preference. Once the guest has been utilized the hotel’s facilities such as Room,
Food & Beverages, Spa and Gym facilities and many more in various forms. Then
it’s time to depart as per his schedule, the check out procedure is followed and
maintained.
DEPARTURE PROCEDURE/CHECK OUT PROCEDURE
• Guest arrives at F/O for C/O Cashier updates guest folios.
• A Check out request is received at the Front Desk Departure Notification
Slip
• Bell Desk is informed Cashier presents the bill Guest settles the account
• Bell Boy collects the luggage Bell Boy deposits the key at front desk Bell Boy
loads the luggage in the car.
• Front desk updates the F.O. records
• Check out information sent to all
• Front Desk makes luggage pass out
CHECK OUT REQUEST
• Check Out request is received from the guest either at the front desk or bell
desk.
• The information is communicated to all the concerned departments and
points of sale.
• The employee must ask details like guest name, room number etc. and
check the departure date. In case of early departures other departments
should be informed.
LUGGAGE HANDLING
The front desk requests the bell captain to send a bell boy to bring the guest
luggage to the lobby. The bell boy fills the departure errand card and the bell
captain makes the entry in the control sheet.
Housekeeping attendant is responsible to look around the room for signs of any
damage to the hotel property. Draw the curtains and lock the balcony and
windows. Check for any guest belongings left behind by mistake Collect the room
keys from the guest Lock the room and hang “Clean my room” tag on the door
knob.
ACCOUNTING ALL TRANSACTIONS
The front desk informs housekeeping and all points of sale to rush the latest credit
transactions to the front desk, so that the cashier may add them to the guest
account. As the guest may refuse to pay any charges after she/he has checked out,
the hotel should ensure that all the transactions have been billed to the guest at
the time of account settlement
UPDATING GUEST FOLIO
Front Desk cashier updates the guest folio: Adding the latest credit transactions
received from the points of sale. Checking if any late check-out charges are
applicable and to examine the current entries in guest account
PRESENT THE BILLS ALONG WITH SUPPORTING VOUCHERS
• Enter the method of payment
• Take out the guest folio
• Check the room number
• Prepare bills in duplicate
• Bills are prepared on the basis of guest folios.
DETERMINATION OF MODE OF PAYMENT
• The methods of payment of bills may be cash – in local and foreign
currency; cash equivalents like demand draft, traveler’s cheque and debit
card or through credit modes like credit card, travel agent voucher and
corporate billing .
• Receiving Payment
• The guest reviews the bill and makes the payment in the pre decided mode.
MARKETING ACTIVITY
During the check out the cashier should: Ask guest about their experience at the
hotel and ask them to fill a feedback form if guests have any complaints, the
cashier should note the same and apologize. The cashier must inform the guest
about the upcoming offers. The cashier may suggest future reservation for the
guest’s return trip
UPDATING FRONT OFFICE RECORDS
• Current Room Status
• Guest History Card
• Arrival / Departure Register
MODE OF SETTLEMENT OF BILLS :-
FOREIGN EXCHANGE
• All the entire foreign visitor’s in a hotel can settle their accounts in the
currency of their country – dollar, euro, pound etc. Hotels have to take a
valid license from RBI to deal with foreign currency. Hotels can buy and sell
foreign currency after obtaining the purchase license.
• Currency Exchange Procedure Guest contacts the F.O. cashier for currency
exchange The cashier requests the guest for passport to verify his identity
The cashier asks the guest the amount to be exchanged The cashier checks
the exchange rate from RBI The cashier prepares the currency exchange
certificate The cashier requests the guest to sign the certificate.
• The guest gives the foreign currency to the cashier The cashier calculates
 the total amount to be paid in local currency The cashier gives the amount
to the guest along with the original currency certificate. The 2nd copy is
attached with the currency The cashier fills the details of the currency
exchange in the control sheet.
CASH SETTLEMENT
• The cash payment is one of the most preferred modes of settlement of
guest accounts. At the time of settlement, the cashier zeroes the balance in
the guest account.
• If there is a credit balance in the guest folio, the cashier requests the guest
to sign the certificate. If there is a debit balance, the hotel requests the
guest to pay the balance.
TRAVELLER’S CHEQUE
• A Traveler’s cheque is an internationally accepted cheque for a sum in a
specific currency that can be exchanged for local currency.
• It is issued by a financial institution and can be protected against loss or
theft. It is useful especially in the case of overseas travel where all credit
and debit cards are not accepted.
Procedure for settling the bill through TC: Ensure that the 2nd signature is put in
front of the cashier on the TC.
• Check the guest’s passport to establish identity Note down the passport
number behind the TC Calculate the value as per the daily rate Return the
balance to the guest in local currency.
DEBIT CARD
• It is a card that allows customers to access their funds immediately,
electronically. It enables the holder to withdraw money or to have the cost
of purchases charged directly to the bank account without paying by cash or
writing a cheque.
• In case of insufficient funds, the bank does not authorize the transaction
and the guest is requested for an alternate mode of payment.
CREDIT SETTLEMENT
• Credit Card
• Travel Agent Voucher
• Bill to Company
CREDIT CARD
It is a payment card that allows the owner to obtain goods and services on credit
terms.
PROCEDURE:
• Check the card holder’s name on the card Check the expiry date of the card
• Swipe the card through the machine for verification and authorization from
the issuer of the card,
• Ask the guest to sign on the transaction slip,
• Verify the guest signature with the signature on the backside of the card,
• Return the credit card and carbon copy of the transaction slip to the guest.
TRAVEL AGENT VOUCHER
• The tour operators receive advance payment from traveler’s at the time of
selling the tour package. The TA sends a voucher to the hotel with the
 details of the billing procedure and the services to be provided to the guest.
While Check Out the cashier must:
Check the billing instructions:
• Collect payment for the services not covered
• Check the expenses covered by the voucher
• Read the voucher carefully.
• Send the guest bill and vouchers to the accounts department for the
collection of the amount from the TA.
• Do not give the copies of the signed bill to the guest as they need to be
given to the TA
• Attach all the vouchers signed by the guest with the master bill and ask the
guest to sign the bill. ¨
BILL TO COMPANY
• The executives carry a letter from their company, which is called a bill to
company letter, as a proof of their identity.
• The reservations are made by the company on behalf of the travelling
executives.
• Some companies, whose executives, travel at the expense of the company,
make a deal with hotels, whereby they determine the rates for different
types of rooms and meal plans to be offered to their executives.
PROCEDURE: Ask the guest to show his identity card and BTC letter Verify that the
company is listed in the CVGR (Company volume guarantee rate) list of the hotel
Check the billing instructions Prepare the guest bill and ask the guest to sign Send
the bill to the accounts department for collecting payment from the company .
Potential check-out problems and solutions :-
Potential check-out problems and solutions
• LATE CHECK – OUTS
• If a guest vacates his room after the check out time, it is considered late
check out. This may create a problem especially during high peak time.
A hotel may take the following preventive measures:
• Inform the guest about the late C/O charges Print the C/O timings on the
key card cover Add the late C/O charges in the guest bill Offer to keep the
luggage in the “left luggage room”
LONG QUEUES AT THE CASHIER
Check out may take time; therefore hotels have come up with various solutions:
• EXPRESS CHECK – OUT
• SELF CHECK – OUT
EXPRESS CHECK OUT
• The guest leaves the hotel without having to go through the standard C/O
procedure. The guest signs the ECO form and authorizes the hotel to charge
the outstanding balance to his credit card. The guest is given the Express
C/O form on the morning of his date of departure.
• The hotel sends the signed ECO form and the credit card imprint to the
credit card company towards payment of the bill The cashier prepares the
guest’s final bill and mails a copy to the guest.
SELF CHECK – OUT
• Only fully automated hotels are equipped with self service terminals, which
allow guests to C/I and C/O promptly. Self C/I and C/O kiosks identify guests
by their room number, credit card number. Guests can access and review
their folios and settle their accounts using the credit card.
IMPROPER POSTING OF CHARGES:
• There are occasions when a guest’s financial transactions are not properly
posted in the guest folio and the final bill is inadequate. This might be due
to human/system error. This could lead to a dispute with the guest and
delay other guests in queue. To avoid this, hotels should install guest
accounting systems, which are accurate and faster, leading to guest
satisfaction .
Late check outs :
Late checkouts are those guest who had not vacated the room even after the
hotels normal checkout time.
It is depends upon the management policy that late checkout request will be
accommodated at no charge or all late checkouts will be charged with and
additional late checkout fee.
Example Late check out fee calculation:
1. Checkout between 12:01 hrs to 14:00 hrs - 15 % of room rate.
2. Checkout between 14:01 hrs to 16:00 hrs - 20 % of room rate.
3. Checkout between 16:01 hrs to 18:00 hrs - 50 % of room rate.
4. Checkout between 18:01 hrs to 00:00 hrs - Full room rate.
• At the time of guest registraiton process front desk staff usually specify that
there is an additional charge for checkout after the established hour.
• But normally when possible, Front desk should try to accommodate late
checkout requests at no charge. (As per the management policy).
• At 12:00 hrs (hotels standard checkout time) daily, the duty manager should
print the list of all due-out guests lists.
• A follow-up call should be made to the guest room or to the guest booker
(in case the guest is not reachable) and reconfirm the departure time.
• Duty manger should enter appropriate remarks on the system along with
the new expected time of departure.
• If the guest request for a late checkout then:
• Check the hotel position and reconfirm back to the guest if this request for
late checkout can be accommodated (without/without additional charge).
• If you are unable to accommodate a late checkout request, then necessary
arrangements should be made for storage of guest luggage and also suggest
guests about other hotel facilities Eg: SPA, Swimming pool etc.
• Once the late checkout request is approved by the front desk, the
receptionist must enter the new time of departure on to the reservation
record of the hotel software.
• An appropriate Remarks or Traces should be also put in, so that the
managers or other front desk staffs know that a late checkout has been
approved for this guest while performing the follow-up call.
 • Notify Housekeeping department of the actual expected checkout time.
• When the guest does check out of the room, Housekeeping should be
notified immediately, so the room can be made up as soon as possible.
• The latest a guest may check out without additional charge is 18:00hrs.
After this time, the full rate must apply, as housekeeping cannot normally
make these rooms up in time to resell them.
• In case of any guest disputes, then the Front Office Manager will have the
discretion of granting late checkouts under exceptional circumstances.
UNIT II
Front office accounting-types of accounts; Front office
accounting cycle - creation, Maintenance and
settlement; Night auditing-nigh audit, Duties and
responsibilities of night auditor, Process of night
auditing.
Front office accounting-types of accounts :
• Creates and maintains an accurate accounting record for each guest or non
guest account.
• Front office accounting system tracks financial transactions through the
guest cycle.
• Front office accounting system ensures internal control over cash and non
cash transactions.
• Front office accounting system records settlement for all goods and services
provided.
There are two types of accounts maintained by front office department with
front office accounting system:
1.Guest Account
A guest account in front office accounting system is to record of financial
transaction between a guest and the hotel. It is created when the guests
guarantee their reservations or during registration. The front office usually seeks
payment for charges during the departure and settlement stage of the guest cycle.
2.Non-Guest Account
A hotel may extend in-house charge privileges to local businesses or agencies as a
means of promotion or to groups sponsoring meetings at the hotels. The front
office creates non-guest accounts to track these transactions which may also be
called house accounts or city accounts.
FOLIOS
Front office transactions are charted on account statements called folios. A folio is
a statement of all transactions (debits and credits) affecting the balance of a single
account. There are basically five types of folios used in front office accounting and
maintained with front office accounting system:
1. Guest Folios – Accounts assigned to individual guests or guestrooms.
2. Master Folios – Accounts assigned to more than one guest or guestroom,
usually applicable for group accounts.
 3. Non-Guest or Semi-Permanent Folios – Accounts assigned to non-guest
business or agencies with hotel charge purchase privileges.
4. Employee Folios – Accounts assigned to employees with charge purchase
privileges.
5. Split Folios – Accounts assigned to a guest on his/her request to split
his/her charges and payments between two personal folios – one to record
expenses to be paid by the sponsoring business company and the other to
record personal expenses to be paid by the guest. In this case two folios are
created for the same guest.
VOUCHERS
A voucher details a transaction to be posted to a front office account. There are
several types of vouchers used in front office accounting system:
1.Cash Voucher – A voucher used to support a cash payment transaction at the
front desk.
2.Charge Voucher – A voucher used to support a charge purchase transaction that
takes place somewhere other than the front office.
3.Allowance Voucher – A voucher used to support an account allowance.
4.Cash Advance Voucher – A voucher used to support cash flow out of the hotel,
either directly to or on behalf of the guest.
5.Correction Voucher – A voucher used to support the correction of a posting
error which is rectified before the close of business on the day the error was
made.
6.Credit Card Voucher – A form designated by the credit card company to be used
for imprinting the credit card and recording the amount charged.
7.Paid-Out Voucher – A voucher used to support the cash disbursed by the hotel
on behalf of a guest.
8.Transfer Voucher – A voucher used to support a reduction in balance on one
folio and an equal increase in balance on another. Transfer vouchers are used for
transfers between guest accounts and for transfers from guest accounts to non-
guest accounts when they are settled by credit cards.
9.Travel Agency Voucher – In travel agent guaranteed reservation, the travel agent
forwards a voucher to the hotel as proof of payment and guarantees that the
prepaid amount will be sent to the hotel when the voucher is returned to the
travel agency for payment.
POINTS OF SALE (POS)
The term ‘point of sale’ denotes the location at which goods or services are
purchased. Any hotel department that collects revenue for its goods and services
is considered a point of sale. The front office accounting system must ensure that
all charge purchases at these points of sale are posted to the proper guest or non-
guest account. A computerized POS system allows terminals at the points of sale
to communicate directly with a front office computer system, and helps front
office staff to create a well documented folio statement with a minimum number
of errors. Some basic information to be provided by the POS includes the amount
of the charge, name of the POS outlet, room number, name of the guest and a
brief description of the charge.
LEDGERS
A ledger is a summary grouping of accounts. A front office ledger is a collection of
front office account folios. There are two types of ledgers in front office
accounting system:
• Guest Ledger – It refers to the set of accounts related to the registered
hotel guests. It is also known as Transient ledger, Front Office ledger or
Rooms ledger.
• City Ledger – Also called the non-guest ledger, it is the collection of non-
guest accounts. It can contain credit card payment accounts, direct billing
accounts, and accounts of past guests due for collection by the hotel.
ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS
• Non-Automated: Guest folios in a manual system contain a series of
columns for listing debit and credit entries accumulated during occupancy.
At the end of the business day, each column is totaled and the closing
balance is carried forward as the opening balance of the next day.
• Semi-Automated – In this system, transactions are printed to a machine-
posted folio.
• Fully Automated – Computerized systems in which POS transactions are
automatically updated in the front office accounts.
CREDIT MONITORING
• The front office accounting system must monitor guest and non-guest
accounts to ensure that they remain within acceptable credit limits.
• Guests who present an acceptable credit card at registration may be
extended credit facility equal to the floor limit authorized by the issuing
credit card company.
• Guest and non-guest accounts with other approved credit arrangements are
subject to limitations established by the front office called house limit.
• The night auditor is mainly responsible for identifying accounts which have
reached or exceeded the fixed credit limits. Such accounts are called high
risk or high balance accounts. The front office may deny additional charge
purchase privileges to such accounts.
• This situation may be resolved by requesting the guest to make a partial
payment or requesting the credit card company to authorize additional
credit.
Front office accounting cycle - creation :
Accounting cycle is a step-by-step process of recording , classification and
summarization of economic transactions of a businness . It generates useful
financial information in the form in financial statements including income
statement, balance sheet , cash flow statement of changes in equity .
The time period principle requires that a business should prepare its financial
statements on periodic basic. Therefore accounting cycle is followed once during
each accounting period . Accounting cycle start from the recording of individual
transactions and end on the preparation of financial statements and closing
entries .
Major steps in Accounting Cycle
1.Analyzing and recording transactions via journal entries
2.Posting journal entries to ladger accounts
3.Preparing unadjusted trial balance
4.Preparing adjusting entries at the end of period
5.Preparing adjusted trial balance
6.Preparing financial statements
7.Closing temporary accounts via closing entries
8.Preparing post- closing trial balance
Front office Accounting Creation :
• The task of accurately and completely recording all transactions that affect
guest ledger accounts is the responsibility of the front office staff.
• The front office may also be responsible for recording transactions affecting
non-guest accounts (although usually the back office accounting division is
responsible for settling these accounts).
• Guest folios are created during the reservations process or at the time of
registration.
• In an automated system, guest information is automatically transferred
from an electronic reservation record or captured at registration and
entered onto an electronic folio.
• Electronic folios are automatically cross-referenced with other property
management system records.
• Automated systems can track an unlimited number of postings in each
account.
• At check-in, reservations data are verified and combined with room rate
information and the guest’s room number to finalize an in-house electronic
folio.
• Electronic folios reduce the possibility of transactional account entry errors,
as information need be handled only once.
Maintenance and settlement:
FRONT OFFICE ACCOUNTING SYSTEM FORMULA
Transaction postings in the front office conform to a basic accounting formula,
which Previous
Balance + Debits – Credits = Net Outstanding Balances
INTERNAL CONTROL IN THE FRONT OFFICE
Internal control in the front office involves:
▪ Tracking transaction documentation
▪ Verifying account entries and balances
▪ Identifying vulnerabilities in the accounting system
Auditing is a process of verifying front office accounting records for accuracy.
Certain records are maintained to have a control in front office cash:
▪ FRONT OFFICE CASH SHEET – The front office is responsible for a variety of cash
transactions affecting both guest and non-guest accounts. The front office cashiers
have to complete a front office cash sheet that lists each receipt or disbursement
of cash.
▪ CASH BANK – A cash bank is the amount of cash assigned to a cashier so that
he/she can handle the various transactions that occur during a particular work
shift. Cashiers should sign for their bank at the beginning of their shift and only
the person who signs should have access to it.
NET CASH RECEIPTS = Amount of Cash, Checks, Vouchers etc in the Cashier’s
 Drawer – [Amount of Initial Cash Bank + Paid Outs]
OVERAGES – When the total of cash and checks in a cash drawer is greater than
the initial cash bank + net cash receipts
SHORTAGES – When the total of cash and checks in a cash drawer is less than the
initial cash bank + net cash receipts.
DUE BACK – A due back occurs when a cashier pays out more than he/she
receives i.e. there is not enough cash in the cash drawer to restore the initial cash
bank. This may happen when a cashier accepts many checks, or encashes large
amount of foreign exchange offered by a guest
during shifts. These checks and bills are deposited with other receipts and
consequently the front office deposit may be greater than the cashier’s net cash
receipts, with the excess due back to the front office cashier’s bank.
▪ AUDIT CONTROL – Internal auditors should make unannounced visits to the
front office cashier’s desk for auditing accounting records as well as conducting
spot checks of the cash bank of the cashier on duty. A report should be completed
for management and ownership review.
SETTLEMENT OF ACCOUNTS
The collection of payment for outstanding account balances is called account
settlement which involves bringing the account balance to zero. An account can
be brought to zero balance as a result of a cash payment in full or a transfer to an
approved direct billing or credit card account. All guest accounts must be settled
at the time of check out.
Night auditing: Auditing is a process of conducting financial inspection of
the organization, Where the night auditor reviews all financial activities of the
hotel that has taken place in one day.
Night auditing is actually the audit process of taking inventory of the day’s work.
In other words, it is the activity of checking and confirming that whatever
transaction has been done during the day is correct and complete. Any mistakes
made during the day are corrected and balanced. The audit is done during night
and hence it is called as ‘Night Auditing’.
The auditing process for the day is generally conducted at the end of the day
during the following night, hence the name ‘Night Audit’. It can be performed by
the conventional method of using papers, receipts, vouchers, coupons, and files.
But performing audit using modern PMS systems is easy, fast, and efficient.
Duties and responsibilities of night auditor :
• Posts room charges and taxes to guest accounts.
• Processes guest charges voucher and credit card vouchers.
• Post charges to the guest accounts that have not been posted or were
incurred on the night audit shift.
• Transfer charges and deposits to master accounts.
• Checks to see that all charges are assigned to the appropriate departments.
• To verify that all transactions performed at the front desk are supported by
documentary evidence and signatures as necessary and that they have
 been correctly posted and allocated in to PMS system.
• To Verify that all charges posted from the POS Software, SPA software had
reached the correct guest folios and also not missing.
• Prints up and files reservations for the next business day.
• Verifies all account postings and balances.
• Verifies that room rates are correct and posts those rates to guest accounts.
• Monitors the current status of coupon, discount, and other promotional
programs.
• Is able to function as a front desk agent especially in terms of check-in and
check-out procedures.
• Tracks room revenues, occupancy percentages, and other front office
statistics.
• Prepares a summary of cash, check, and credit card activities.
• Summarizes results of operations for management.
• Check figures, postings, and documents for accuracy. Record, store, access,
and/or analyze computerized financial information.
• Prepare of End of day procedure.
• Follow the End of Day / Night Audit Checklist (Must Read !).
• Must have complete knowledge of emergency procedures.
• Balance the day’s charges, making corrections as necessary.
• Performs wake-up calls.
• Run end of day process in property management software (PMS).
• Understand principles of auditing, balancing, and closing out accounts.
• Knows how to operate PMS, typewriters, and other front office
equipment's.
• Respond to guest needs, special requests and complaints and alert the
appropriate manager as needed
• Perform nightly balancing of in-room video and long-distance telephone
services
• Understand and knows how to perform check-in and check-out procedures.
Night audit process and who is it :
The night audit, by definition, is a daily review of guest account transactions
recorded at the frontdesk against revenue transactions. This accounting practice
guarantees that all departments of the hotel are working in sync. It also ensures
reliability and thoroughness of front office accounting. Since the front office audit
also includes active non-guest accounts.
A successful night audit process in a hotel balances guest and non-guest accounts.
It also maintains a record of account statements, helps to appropriately monitor
account credit and delivers timely reports to the management. Regular night
audits increase the likelihood of correct account settlement.
Process of nighht audit :-
1. Transfer sheet wise total of all guest ledger transcripts in to the recapitulate
sheet. Total each column of the recapitulation sheet.
2. Check all paid and endorsed bills of the day separate out paid bills and
endorsed bills.
 3. Separate endorsed bills into the once payable in foreign currency and other
payable in Indian currency.
4. Prepare city ledger transfer with the endorsed bills. Totals of city ledger
transfer must tally with the total of the transfer credit in the recapitulation
sheet.
5. Prepare master food and beverage sales summary from the sales summary
received from different food and beverage sales outlets.
6. Tally room sale prepared by the receptionist in the night receptionist with
the room count and house count of the recapitulation sheet.
7. Tally room count and house count prepared by the receptionist with the
room count and house count of the recapitulation sheet.
8. Check all non food and beverage sales summaries from their sales points
with the help of supporting vouchers credit sales must tally with the total
credit sale indicated for the respective sales point in the recapitulation
sheet.
9. Compare duplicate copies of the restaurant vouchers with the restaurant
sales summaries to check that entries in cash and credit columns are in
order.
10.Total credit sale of mater food and beverage sales summary should tally wit
the total of the food sales in the recapitulation sheet.
11.Check all cash receipts with the FOC & MC cash receipt and their
corresponding entries in the FOC & MC cash books.
12.Check all paid out vouchers and allowance vouchers. Prepare summary of
paid out’s and allowances. Total of the paid out and allowances must tally
with their respective total in the recapitulation sheet.
13.Prepare cross sales summary.
14.Prepare cash turn over statement. Total of cash turned in and impressed
should be equal to the amount of cash in the cash book.
15.Prepare trial balance and ensure that it tallies.
UNIT III
Computer applications in front office-PMS, Different
modules of PMS, Different PMS, Methods of measuring
hotel performance-occupancy ratios, ADR, ARR, REVPAR
Computer applications in front office-PMS :
Computers are used for different purposes in hotels.
• The first use is at the from desk, where computers are equipped with an
intricate software called the property management system (PMS) to do all
check-ins, guest accounting, check-outs, etc. In a restaurant, lounge, or bar
of a hotel,
• The second type of computer system, called a point of sale (POS) system, is
used. This system collaborates with a PMS to generate bills for meals and
drinks consumed by guests, but it can also be used as a cash register.
• The third use of the computer is in the sales office, which has a booking
terminal.
 • A PMS is a computer-based management system. In the hospitality industry,
it is a computerized system used to manage guest bookings, online
reservations, points of sale,telephone, and other amenities.
• A hotel PMS may interface with central reservation systems (CRS) and
revenue or yield management systems, front office, back office, and POS
systems. There are many types of PMS-it is up to a hotel to choose the one
that best fits its needs.
There are different modules of PMS to manage individual departments of a hotel,
such as front office module, housekeeping module, restaurant management
system, and back office module.
These modules are supplied by a large number of vendors, who modify PMS
solutions. meet the requirements of the hotel.
Different modules of PMS:
The PMS application for the front office has different modules for the efficient
functioning of the entire department. Some of the common modules used in the
front office PMS are reservations module, front desk module, rooms module,
cashier module, night audit module, set up module, report generation module,
and back office module.
1. Reservations Module
The reservations module is used to create and manage guest reservations, both
for individuals as
well as groups. The reservations module includes the following features:
• It can provide room status records when the date of arrival, date of
departure, and the
• type of guest room are entered in the system.
• It can colour code the room status by using different colours for, for
example, sold out days and days on which particular room types are sold
out.
• It can check the reservation status of a guest quickly as it can search by
guest name, company name, group ID, confirmation number, or arrival and
departure dates.
• It can display room availability status (of up to 14 days at a time) by simply
selecting
• date.
• It can attach guest messages to relevant reservations, to be delivered to the
guest upon arrival
• It can automatically calculate rates based on the room type, the rate code,
arrival and departure dates, and the number of adults and children.
• It can create group blocks and rooming lists for standard groups, tour series,
and allotments.
• It can create special group rates.
• It can use the rooming list feature for rapid reservation pick-up.
• It can pre-assign rooms to guests when making a reservation or at any time
using a graphical tape chart.
• It can define a 'share with' reservation in group bookings.
 • It can automatically transmit confirmation of a reservation through e-mail
or fax
• It can enter 'remarks', which are visible upon reservation retrieval. It can
reserve and track the availability of service items such as rollaway beds,
cribs, and refrigerators.
• It can post an advance deposit on a room.
2. Front Desk Module
The front desk module manages the registration of guests. The features/ functions
are included in the front desk module are as follows:
• It accesses guest information easily and quickly for viewing, modification, or
check-in procedures.
• It displays a graphical room layout with the room status information, which
exact location of rooms.
• It tracks the entire guest activity for the length of their stay.
• It prints registration cards.
• It attaches individual, group, company, or travel agent information to each
guest folio.
• It automatically transfers guest accounts to the city ledger when the guest
checks out.
• It creates an incidental folio.
• It updates the system in case of a guest room change.
3. Rooms Module
The rooms module allows the staff to manage the hotel's rooms and floor plans.
The following are some of the functions performed by this module:
• It displays the entire layout of a hotel, showing a single floor/wing at a time.
One can easily go to another floor/wing by using the scroll buttons, and
enlarge or reduce the size of floor plans by using the zoom buttons.
• It facilitates change in the display of the floor plan to show housekeeping,
front desk, or specific room status.
• It provides latest room status information to both housekeeping and front
office departments.
• It schedules the maintenance work for rooms.
• It automatically adjusts room inventory
• It schedules linen change in long-term stayovers.
• It tracks discrepancies in the room status.
4. Cashier Module
The cashier module is used to manage guest folios, raise bills, and perform check-
out procedures the following are some of the functions that can be performed
with the cashier module:
• It adds incidental folios and move charges between folios with one click.
• It locates any account by entering the room number or name.
• It manages all aspects of the guest folio, including debits, credits,
adjustments, transfers, and voids.
• It allows the viewing or printing of folio details and summary information.
• It consolidates all transactions and produces an accurate bill quickly,
enabling a speedy check-out.
 • It allows the attachment of unlimited folios to each guest account. • It
carries out the transfer of charges from folio to folio, from one room to
another, in amounts or by percentage.
5. Night Audit Module
The night audit module is used to balance the day's activity and complete the
hotel's accounting functions for the day. The following are some of the
features/functions of the night audit modules:
• It performs routine tasks of posting room charges, changing non-
guaranteed room reservations to no-shows, and changing the status of
guaranteed no-shows with one to occupied.
• It takes an automatic backup of data to optical disk. It possesses the ability
to rebuild room availability afresh in case there is a system failure.
• It possesses direct access to the reports module.
• It allows the auditor to view a scrolled display of various processing steps.
• It automatically posts service charges such as garage fees and crib fees.
• It automatically posts finance and recurring charges,
• It automatically changes the room status to out of order if a room is
scheduled for maintenance work.
• It automatically sets the housekeeping status of occupied rooms to 'dirty".
• It facilitates batch printing of registration cards.
• It processes no-shows with deposit payments.
• It automatically prints customized reports.
6. Set-up Module
The set-up module is used to define system settings. These settings allow for
customization. The following are some of the key features/functions of this
module:
• It specifies mandatory fields for required information and add custom
information and forms.
• It customizes according to the market, source and rate codes, and can also
define text for field selections .
• It generates and customizes colour codes.
• It allows the employees to access their function areas in the system using
unique user IDs and passwords.
• It specifies rate codes, room rates, and rate availability along with the
restriction of rate availability by date range, days of the week, or minimum
stay.
• It creates and maintains profiles of individuals, groups, companies, agents
and travel
• It defines the phone extension for each room, including multiple phone
extensions for a singel room
• It displays all message prompts and screen text in the local language.It
creates a list of all room features available throughout the hotel and
generates the display of attachments to specific room types and rooms.
• It customizes the reservations calendar with user-defined text for holidays,
special events,and reminders.
7. Reporting Module
The reporting module has various reporting formats, which allow the
management to retrieve operating or financial information at any point of time.
With this module, the management can quickly access information such as the
availability of rooms on a particular day, the number of guests arriving on a
specific day, listing of guests' folio balances, and outstanding balance reports. The
access to reports can be customized through the use of filters.
8. Back Office Module
The back office module provides an integrated system for managing the hotel's
financial and statistical information. It simplifies accounting processes such as
posting of accounts payable, transfer of accounts receivables, compilation of the
payroll, budget preparation, and the production of the hotel's profit-and-loss
statement and balance sheet. The financial information entered on a terminal in
back office updates all accounting records. The back office module is also linked
with the night audit module, which helps in streamlining the accounting process.
Different form of PMS:
DIFFERENT PROPERTY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
There are several companies that provide the PMS software to hotels, with their
own unique features to suit the different requirements of various hotels. Some of
the companies providing PMS software are Micros, Amadeus, IDS Fortune, and
Shaw Man.
AMADEUS
Amadeus property management system can be integrated with Front Office, sales
and marketing,and financial management functions. It allows the user to move
faster in all core aspects of guest xperience management.
• FRONT OFFICE MODULE: This module offers full availability, reservation,
billing,and yield functionalities, which in turn generate useful performance
statistics. It provides
• data on performance indicators such as sales, accounts, source, and
segment activity,which is monitored to analyze business efficiency and used
to generate management reports.
• SALES AND MARKETING MODULE: This module aids the sales and
marketing rofessions to target potential guests and effectively manage
customer relationships.
• CONFERENCE AND BANQUETING MODULE: Event planning is a feature that
• helps generate revenue for hotels. The key features of the conference
management ystem include real time conference/ meeting room availability
and equipment anagement.
• FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT: It is designed for liquidity planning and control
along with comprehensive accounting, financial reporting and analysis.
FIDELIO
Fidelio hotel management software is a completely integrated system package.
Fidelio headquarter is in Munich, Germany. This EMS maximizes the efficiency of
the hotel. It is a highly flexible system. Its uniform and user friendly programme
means that the hotel employees can learn this system quickly. Fidelio has pulled
down menus which help and assist the user a every step and only short term
training to staff is required.
Fidelio promotes smooth functioning of all the departments.
• It reduces paper work and helps in saving money on extra stationery.
• It eliminates communication gap between departments.
• It helps in providing quality service to the guest thereby, up-keeping the
hotel’s goodwill.
• It is a highly flexible programme and has facilities like screen painter, report
generator, user definable report menus and night audit etc.
• It has the ability to create extensive guest history.
• It has extensive modules for various hotel management operations like
reservation module, front desk module, cashier module, night audit
module, material management system etc.
One disadvantage of Fidelio may be that it is very expensive and any under
utilization will be expensive. Its maintenance is also costly compared to other
systems. Another disadvantage may that during night audit terminals are shut
down, thus check-ins and check-outs during the period cannot be taken during the
period.
INTELLECT DATA SYSTEM (IDS)
This software was established in the year 1987 with its headquarters in Bangalore,
with operations running in almost 18 countries across the world.
• It offers software solution for the need of hospitality industry
• through a range of fortune products.
• it is one of the top five CRS vendors in the world.
• It has concurrent alliance with IBM and Microsoft that operate in India with
local support infrastructure in all its major markets such as India, Egypt and
Singapore.
Methods of measuring hotel performance-occupancy
ratios :
Occupancy ratios:
Occupancy ratios measure the success of the front office in selling the hotel’s
primary product (i.e. guestrooms). Below are some common ratios used in the
front office department:
• Occupancy percentage = (number of rooms occupied) / (total number of
rooms available for sale)
• Multiple occupancy percentage = (number of rooms occupied by more than
one guest) / (total number of rooms occupied)
• Average guests per rooms sold = (total number of guests) / (total number of
rooms sold)
• Average daily rate = (total rooms revenue) / (total number of rooms sold)
• Average rate per guest = (total rooms revenue) / (total number of guests)
ADR & ARR, REVPAR :
ADR & ARR :- ADR (Average Daily Rate) or ARR (Average Room Rate) is a measure
of the average rate paid for the rooms sold, calculated by dividing total room
revenue by rooms sold.
Some hotels calculate ARR or ADR by also including the complimentary rooms this
is called as Hotel Average Rate. By Taking the HARR the management can find out
the actual effect of complimentary stays on the average room rate.
The formula for ARR or ADR calculation:
Average Room Rate (ARR or ADR) = Total Room Revenue / Total Rooms Sold
{OR}
Average Room Rate (ARR or ADR) = Total Room Revenue / Total Occupied Rooms
Example 1:
Total Room Revenue for 01st Jan 2017 = 25000.00
Total Room Sold for 01st Jan 2017 = 250
ARR or ADR for 01st Jan 2017 = 25000.00 / 250
= 100
Example 2:
Total Room Revenue for 31st Dec 2016 = 95985.58
Total Room Sold for 31st Dec 2016 = 277
ARR or ADR for 31st Dec 2016 = 95985.58 / 277
= 346.52
Example 3 (Monthly ARR/ADR):
Total Room Revenue for the Month of October = 2,250,485.58
Total Room Sold for the Month of October = 5822
ARR or ADR for October = 2,250,485.58 / 5822
= 386.55
UNIT IV
Yield management and forecasting, Measuring yield in
the hotel industry, Yield management in hotel industry,
Elements of yield management; Forecasting- challenges,
Benefits of forecasting, measuring yield.
Yield management and forecasting :
The concept of yield management originated in the airline industry. Most
travellers know that passengers on the same flight often pay different fares.
Super-saver discounts, three-day advance-purchase plans, stay-over-Saturday-
night packages, and so forth have become the norm for airline pricing. What is not
as widely known is the potential application of yield management to other service
industries. Yield management has proven successful in the lodging car rental,
cruise line, railroad, and touring industries – basically, in situations where
reservations are taken for a perishable commodity. The key to successful
implementation appears to be an ability to monitor reservations and to develop
reliable forecasts.
Yield management is based on supply and demand. Prices tend to rise when
demand exceeds supply; prices tend to fall when supply exceeds demand. Pricing
is the key to profitability. To increase revenue, the hospitality industry is
attempting to develop new forecasting techniques that will enable it to respond to
changes in supply and demand with optimal room rates. The hospitality industry’s
focus is shifting from high – volume bookings to high – profit bookings. By
increasing bookings on low – demand days and by selling rooms at higher prices
on high – demand days, the industry improves its profitability. In general, room
rates should be higher when demand exceeds supply. They should be lower (in
order to increase occupancy) when supply exceeds demand.In the hospitality
industry, yield management – sometimes called revenue management – is a set
demand – forecasting techniques used to determine whether prices should be
raised or lowered and whether a reservation request should be accepted or
rejected in order to maximize revenue. Hospitality industry managers have
successfully applied such demand – forecasting strategies to room reservation
systems, management information system, room and package pricing, rooms and
revenue management, seasonal rate determination, pre-theatre dinner specials,
and special, group, tour operator, and travel agent rates.
Benefits or Importance of Yield Management
1. Improved forecasting
2. Improved seasonal pricing
3. Identification of new market segments
4. Identification of market segment demands
5. Enhanced coordination between the front office and sales divisions
6. Determination of discounting activity
7. Improved development of short-term and long-term business plans
8. Establishment of a value based rate structure.
9. Savings in labour costs and other operating expenses
10.Planned responses to guest inquiries or requests regarding reservations.
FORECASTING
Prediction of future business as per reservation data
- Special arrangements for VIP, Groups
- Effective staff allocation
- Optimum inventory for departmental stationaries
- Sufficient time for maintenance and replacements
Tools for forecasting
- Thorough product knowledge
- Profile of the market segment
- Special events in the city
- Percentage of no-shows, cancellations
- New competitors in the vicinity of the hotel
- Wash out factor (last minute cancellation made by the travel agents)
Measuring yield in the hotel industry :
The Yield Statistic is the Ratio of the Actual Revenue (Generated by the Number of
Rooms Sold) to Potential Revenue (THE Amount of Money that would be received
from the Sales of Rooms in the Hotel at a Rack Rate)
Formula 1: Potential Average Single Rate:
♦Potential Average Single Rate = (Single Room Revenues at Rack Rate) / (Number
of Rooms Sold as Single)
Formula 2: Potential Average Double Rate:
♦Potential Average Double Rate = (Double Room Revenue at Rack Rate) /
(Number of Rooms Sold as Double)
Formula 3: Multiple Occupancy Percentage:
♦Multiple Occupancy Percentage = (Number of Rooms Occupied by more than 1
Person) / (Total Number of Rooms Sold)
Formula 4: Rate Spread:
♦Rate Spread = (Potential Average Double Rate) – (Potential Average Single Rate)
Formula 5: Potential Average Rate:
♦Potential Average Rate = (Multiple Occupancy Percentage * Rate Spread) +
(Potential Average Single Rate)
Formula 6: Room Rate Achievement Factor:
♦Room Rate Achievement Factor = (Actual Average Rate) / (Potential Average
Rate)
Formula 7: Yield Statistic:
1. Yield Statistic = (Actual Rooms Revenue) / (Potential Rooms Revenue)
2. Yield Statistic = ((Rooms Nights Sold) / (Rooms Nights Available)) * ((Actual
Average Room Rate) / (Potential Average Rate))
3. Yield Statistic = Occupancy Percentage * Achievement Factor
Formula 8: Identical Yields Occupancy:
♦Identical Yields Occupancy = (Current Occupancy Percentage) * (Current Rate /
Proposed Rate)
Formula 9: Equivalent Occupancy:
1. Equivalent Occupancy = (Current Occupancy Percentage) * ((Rack Rate –
 Marginal Cost) / (Rack Rate * ((1 – Discount Percentage)) – Marginal Cost)
2. Equivalent Occupancy = (Current Occupancy Percentage) * ((Contribution
Margin) / (New Contribution Margin))
Yield management in hotel industry :
Yield management is one of the most important pricing strategies for hotels, but
there’s still a lot of confusion about it. Many people use the term interchangeably
with revenue management, which isn’t the same thing.
Yield management in the hotel industry is a dynamic pricing strategy for
maximizing revenue from a fixed, time-limited inventory, such as hotel rooms.
It’s based on understanding and predicting consumer behavior to influence future
hotel guests and generate maximum revenue per available room (RevPAR).
In simpler terms, yield management in hotels refers to selling the right room to
the right customer at the right time and at the right price or rate.
Elements of yield management:
What Are the Elements of Yield Management?
The key elements of hotel yield management include:
1. Group bookings
2. Transient or FIT (Free Independent Traveler) rooms
3. Food and beverage outlets
4. Local activities and events
Group room sales can bring a lot of revenue to a hotel. To get the most out of
them, your front office should collect data on group booking trends, lead time,
and pace to forecast demand.
Transient or FIT rooms bring a higher revenue than group room bookings, as
travelers typically book them closer to the arrival date. However, when demand is
low, it can be wise to offer discounts.
Food and beverage outlets in a hotel can also impact room revenue. For instance,
a group looking to book both rooms and catering services can bring in more
revenue than one needing catering only with no room bookings.
Activities and events in or near your hotel (e.g., festivals, concerts, sporting
events, etc.) can boost hotel revenue yield as well. Your front office should stay
up-to-date with any and all events in the area to optimize the room rates
according to the demand.
Forecasting- challenges of yield management :
There are 3 Forecasting Challenges and Solutions
1. Future Sales are Difficult to Predict
Demand planners and buyers need to maintain correct stock levels. To do so, they
need to predict future demand for every SKU, every location, and for every day
shoppers may buy. The ripple effect of a good forecast is significant as it is a
building block for so much else. For example, in order to have the right reorder
points for each SKU, buyers need accurate demand forecasts. This helps drive not
just how much but also WHEN items should be replenished.
Simply looking at historical data for demand planning leads to inaccurate results
because consumer behavior fluctuates. What is popular today may not stay
popular tomorrow. Over 12 months, demand can vary wildly for some products
and remain consistent for others.
As a result, demand forecasts can end up being too high or too low. If the
inventory is too low, you risk missing sales opportunities and running out of
inventory. If it’s too high, your costs will be higher as a result.
Solution
Buyers need to leverage purchasing solutions that assist with stock replenishment
and demand forecasting. Otherwise, inventory decisions are based on mutable
data which could result in stockouts, missed sales, and higher costs.
2. Rigid Supply Chain Dependencies Cause Disruptions
A global pandemic, a war in Europe, and other economic factors have created
worldwide supply shortages. As a result, vendors are shipping late or are sending
incomplete orders. This challenge compounds throughout the supply chain.
Wholesale and retail buyers are forced to ship what was received and wait for full
orders to arrive and rush to fulfill them.
Excess inventory increases your costs and negatively impacts customer service
levels.
Solution
While there isn’t an immediate solution to the global supply chain problem, there
are ways buyers can create greater flexibility. For instance, an advanced inventory
management system, like HIMPACT®, offers Advanced Shipping Notices (ASN) for
its users. In the last year, many current HIMPACT® users reached out asking if
HIMPACT® could add support for ASN. So we did!
ASN helps keep track of incoming shipments so buyers can manage inventory
levels more effectively. ASN notifies buyers if any SKUs will be missing days before
a PO arrives. This enables buyers to pivot and source the missing SKUs from other
vendors instead.
Now is an especially good time to lean on your suppliers to provide ASN support,
especially if they are not shipping what you are ordering. Perhaps as a form of
compensation, the least they can do is devote some IT resources to giving you a
heads up via ASN.
3. Outdated Purchasing Solutions
Buyers play a vital role in the success of a business. They should be armed with
accurate data and technology that helps eliminate the potential for user errors in
purchasing. However, many purchasing teams never receive an updated system.
The Herlitz Inventory Management team has been asking this question for years:
“Why is the purchasing team the last to get a new solution?”
The purchasing department controls inventory, which is the most important asset
of any wholesale or retailer operation. Yet so many teams are stuck using clunky,
antiquated systems or in-house solutions run on spreadsheets.
The problem with older technology or in-house options is they use outdated or
incomplete data to create forecasts. If backward-looking, faulty data is being used,
the demand forecasts will be inaccurate. This results in even more missed sales
opportunities, a greater potential for stockouts, and missed service goals.
Solution
Instead of relying on inferior methods, buyers need to harness the power of
inventory replenishment and DC replenishment systems. Advanced replenishment
software takes many important factors into account when creating replenishment
orders.
This provides insight into the most important vendor constraints and possibilities.
It helps improve customer service while lowering inventory levels. It also enables
buyers to gain greater insights than they could get from other tools alone.
Benefits of forecasting :
As many businesses are experiencing some downtime, it is the perfect
opportunity to work on the things that have been neglected: Things that there is
never enough time for. By taking this gift of time, businesses can emerge from this
period of uncertainty even stronger than before.
Having a sound forecasting process provides benefits across an organization. In
addition to the primary objective of fulfilling customer needs on-time in a cost-
effective manner, there are numerous other benefits:
Provides a Roadmap for Financial Planning
Forecasts define the expected sales goals, inventory levels and profitability of a
business. When trends deviate from the roadmap, actions can be taken to get
back on track to achieving company goals. Strategic decisions can be made based
on what is working and not working. Forecasts help businesses anticipate change,
reduce uncertainty and identify the best ways to achieve their goals.
Encourages Collaboration between All Departments
The forecasting process requires all departments to work together. Production
must provide information on capacity. Distribution provides workforce training
and scheduling. Promotions and marketplace guidance are functions of the
Marketing and Sales departments. Forecasting encourages all departments to get
on the same page, understand their role and execute toward common goals. Since
forecasts are data-driven, there are fewer decisions made on gut feelings.
Highlights Growth Opportunities and their Potential
When an item or category is trending up from the original projection, a forecast
allows a business to recognize this very quickly. Demand can be re-projected,
ensuring that adjustments, such as inventory or pricing, can be made to maximize
profitability.
Lowers Liabilities and Markdowns
Highlights Growth Opportunities and their Potential
When an item or category is trending up from the original projection, a forecast
allows a business to recognize this very quickly. Demand can be re-projected,
ensuring that adjustments, such as inventory or pricing, can be made to maximize
profitability.
Lowers Liabilities and Markdowns
With a forecasting process, items that are not selling up to their original forecasts
can be addressed early and adjustments can be made based on the sales trend.
Production can be canceled or redirected, pricing can be adjusted to increase
demand, or marketing promotions can be increased. Taking action early ensures
that the most profit possible can be generated.
Increases Turn and Cash Flow
Inventory needs are mapped out with a forecasting process. Businesses are able
to save money because they can project the inventory they will need and when
they will need it, thus not having to hold excess inventory. This will give businesses
better cash flow, often enabling them to be able to afford buying more of the
items that are selling above projections.
Guides Scheduling for the Rest of the Company
Forecasts enable businesses to anticipate staffing and production needs.
Production schedules can be adjusted based on shifting priorities and sales trends.
Temporary staffing can be hired, if needed.
Provides Insights for New Product Development and Planning
Forecasts enable businesses to see changes in consumer demands and help
answer why the marketplace is changing. With well-defined data, a business can
determine the whitespace in a market and begin development of products to fill
that space. Using historical data, a business can forecast potential for new
products and increase their success rates.
Increases Knowledge of Market
Because a well-defined hierarchy brings clarity and well-planned forecasts provide
a roadmap, companies can see changes to the marketplace quickly. Valuable
insights can be gained, giving companies an edge over the competition.

UNIT V
Safety and security in hotel- security staff and system;
Role of front office in safety and security; Handling
unusual events and emergency situations bomb,
Robbery, Drunken guest etc; first aid.
Safety and security in hotel- security staff and system :
9 Types of Safety and Security
1. Lost and found:
This is a term used in hotel parlance to refer to any item which is left by the guest
or temporarily misplaced by the guest but traced later by the hotel staff. Such
articles to be handed over to the housekeeping department which maintained a
special locker for this purpose.
If the item belongs to the guest who has already checked-out, then a letter has to
be sent to the forwarding address left by the guest while checkout or which is
there in the registration card. If no reply is received by the hotel within a certain
time limit, that may be auctioned to the hotel employees as per the hotel rules.
If the lost belongings are found in the public areas and the guest is still residing in
the hotel then housekeeping department keeps those items with them till any
complaint is made at the front office or in the lobby. In this case, a customer is
required to give a description of the article which is lost before that item is shown
to the guest.
2. Fire in the hotel:
As soon as the fire is detected and intimated to the front desk, the first thing to do
is to inform the telephone department. In most hotels, the telephone department
plays a pivotal role in alarming the hotel. In a smaller hotel which has the
telephone, the department is merged with the front office, there the first job is to
call the fire department of that city for the help.
The front office should alert all guest and inform them to use the staircase and not
the elevator. The telephone exchange should always be manned during a fire to
communicate from one point to another. If the front office staff have to get
actively involved in the procedure then they should search each room thoroughly,
especially under the bed or in closets or bathrooms to ensure that no guest is left
behind.
The members of the fire response team in the hotely must guide the guest
through the fire exit map and help in extinguishing the fire by the use of
appropriate fire extinguishers (Foam for electrical fires and oil fires, water for the
general fires and so on.)
3. Death In Hotel:
The front office/Housekeeping should inform the General Manager, the security
officer and call for the hotel doctor. No alarm is raised and none of the other guest
staying at the hotel to be informed about this incidence. The General Manager
may decide to call the police. The guest room to be sealed until police arrive and
all formalities are over. People known to the deceased guest is to be contacted
through the addresses entered in the registration card.
4. Accidents in the Hotel Premises:
The house doctor should be called immediately on the phone and informed the
nature of the accident and condition of the guest or staff. The doctor's instructions
must be followed immediately. the bleeding must be stopped by swabbing
wounds with cotton wool and applying antiseptic or any lotion.
If a fracture is suspected the guest is not moved till the doctor arrives. Burns are
to be treated with creams meant for the purpose. Water is never poured over the
burns as this will surely lead to the blisters. The hotel should train security staff for
this purpose.
5. Vandalism:
The front office staff must call the hotel security and order the main door to be
locked. If the thing gets out of the hand police must be called. Any damage to
property by the resident guest the front office cashier is instructed to raise a
charge for the value of the of damages to property, a responsible guest will never
argue but if it is the subject to be referred to the general manager.
6. Drunken guest:
It is prudent to never argue with a drunken guest. He/She must be politely led
away from the public areas either into an office or in his room and if he is
behaving unruly the security staff may be called.
7. Theft in the hotel premises:
The hotel often adopts certain precautions to avoid thefts these are:
• Self-locking room doors.
• Safety deposit boxes for guest valuables
 • Watching guests with light baggage who could become potential skippers.
• Watching a walk-in who can be a thief.
• Avoiding giving room numbers to visitors or guest names to telephone
callers.
• Strictly controlling the master key.
• Posting security personals on the floor.
• Keeping all entrances, corridors and staircases well illuminated.
• Reporting immediately any suspicious characters.
8. Bomb Threats:
With the increase in terrorism in the country and world, the bomb threats are not
so uncommon these days. This may be a genuine threat with explosives planted
somewhere in the hotel or it may be a hoax. Whichever the case may be such
threats are always taken seriously and the proper action taken.
Most bomb threats are made on the phone are attended by either the telephone
operator or the receptionist of the hotel and the following steps to be followed:
• Signal the colleague to also listen in the call and try to find out the location
through the exchange.
• Listen to the caller carefully and make it prolong and get all the information
carefully- a place where planted, time of explosion and strength of
explosives.
• f possible this call may be taped and note the back noise and try to catch
information from accent and police to be informed.
• Immediately after disconnection, the G M and security officer has to be
informed.
• If the location is identified the department head should be also informed
• People from that suspected area has to be evacuated from that particular
location.
• After “all clear” signal from the police, the normal process of the hotel can
be continued.
9. Safe Deposit:
Though the hotel is not responsible for the guest valuables, the rule to this effect
is written in the guest registration card and also notified in the guest room, but a
hotel offers a free safe deposit facility for his valuables. These days most of the
hotels have installed an electronic safe deposit box in each guest room and this
safety box can be operated by using a combination number as per the guest
choice.
Hotels have a bank type of lockers installed at the front office cash. A locker is
allotted to the guest that can be opened by using two keys .the master key is with
the front office cashier and another key is issued to the guest. A contract is also
signed in between the guest and the hotel.
Whenever a guest wants to open that locker it has to be entered into the locker
operating register. Signatures are always verified with the specimen and the head
cashier inserts his key then a guest inserts his own key, and only then a lock can be
opened.
Role of front office in safety and security:
Front Desk employees of a hotel perform different duties like receptionist,
gatekeeper, communication expert, telephone handler, parking attendant, bell
boys etc. Front office department works as a point of first interaction of guests,
vendors, visitors etc. Front office staff works as eye & ears of the hotel. Front
office employees can reduce the possibility of emergency situation by keeping
their eye open to spot potential troublemakers, identify bad behaviour & other
suspicious activities of the guest. Front office plays a very important role in the
safety & security of the guest, employees & hotel property by having a good
communication & coordination with hotel security department.
Registration: Registration is a legal formality which is done at Hotel reception
during the guest arrival to make sure the guest identity & other details of the
guest.
Key Control: A guest room is the main product of the hotel. Front office
department ensures the security of guest rooms and guest by maintaining a strict
control over room keys. Nowadays Hotels are using electronic keys system for
accessing the hotel rooms. Electronic Locking system is an investment in guest
safety & security.
Front office department follow different security measures to control the guest
room keys such as :
• Front Office Department issues a fresh plastic, metallic key to each new
registered guest at the time of check-in.
• This department discourage guests to carry room keys with them while
going outside of the hotel during their stay.
• Front office request guest to deposit the room keys at the reception while
departure from the hotel.
Safe Deposit/In-Room Safe: Hotels were used to provide safe deposit boxes at
the front desk.
Now, Hotels are in the practice to provide in-room safe for keeping the guest
belongings safe.
Handling unusual events and emergency situations
bomb :
Bomb Threat Emergency Situation:
In case of any call received regarding the bomb threat, the hotel should tie-up
with the local police authority and follow their instructions. The person who
receives the call should take complete details of the situation and should even try
to note down the voice and accent of the person calling regarding a bomb threat.
Immediately the hotel should inform the anti-bomb squad and should defuse the
bomb after locating the place where it is planted.
Signal the colleague to also listen in the call and try to find out the location
through the exchange. Listen to the caller carefully and make it prolong and get all
the information carefully like the place where planted, time of explosion and
strength of explosives.
If possible this call may be taped and note the back noise and try to catch
information from accent and police to be informed. Immediately after
disconnection, the G M and security officer has to be informed. If the location is
identified the department head should be also informed People from that
suspected area have to be evacuated from that particular location. After “all
clear” signal from the police, the normal process of the hotel can be continued.
Robbery, Drunken guest etc; first aid:
Theft or robbery Emergency Situation:
The front desk is having cash with them so there is also the possibility of theft.
Also, there are belongings of in house guest. To discourage theft, the front office
should inform the guest to deposit their valuables in the safety deposit locker.
Handling Drunken Guest:
A drunken guest may disturb another guest. In order to avoid this, the drunken
guest should be escorted to an isolated area like a back office. Hotel staff should
calmly handle the situation by following the SOP for Handling drunken guests.
SOP for Handling drunken guests
• Do your best to deal with each situation without putting yourself at risk.
• Act politely.
• Always stay calm.
• Don’t argue with the intoxicated guest.
• Don’t embarrass the guest, especially in front of other people.
• Deal with the situation in a calm, friendly way.
• Speak to the person directly, and firmly explain that what they are doing is
unacceptable.
• Listen and empathize with your guest.
• Acknowledge your guest’s anger or frustration, but also remind them that
you are responsible for their safety and don’t want to see them get hurt.
• Invite the problem guest to an area away from other guests, where you can
talk.
• Talk softly and lead him away from the public area.
• Point out that if they were sober they would agree that what they are doing
is a bad idea.
• If the drunk guest is behaving rudely then the last option should be to call
the security officer but try and handle the situation very calmly.
• The duty manager or the immediate supervisor should take the drunken
guest away from the reception/front desk area.
• Make the guest realize that this is not the right way to talk and then acting
very calmly and talking very politely with him the supervisor can escort him
to his room
• The manager can also indulge the guest in some other thoughts and just
keep the guest calm and as soon as possible send him back to his room.
• If the guest has come to a restaurant or bar and if you decide to ask this
person to leave, remember that you are still responsible for their safety (call
a cab, get someone to drive them home, or if the situation gets out of
control – call the security officer or police).
FIRST AID :
The initial assistance or treatment given to a casualty for any injury or sudden
illness before the arrival of an ambulance, doctor, or other qualified person is
called first aid’.
The notion of ‘first’ aid itself signifies that the casualty is likely to be in need of
‘secondary aid’.
Principles of First Aid
• There are certain important principles involved in first aid.
• These are listed as follows.
• The first aid provider must:
• Act calmly and logically;
• Be in control—-both of himself/herself and the problem;
• Be gentle but firm, and speak to the casualty kindly but purposefully.
• Build up trust by talking to the casualty throughout the examination and
treatment.
• Explain the casualty what he/she is going to do.
• Never leave the casualty alone but continue to talk to him/her until the
ambulance or doctor arrives.
• Continuously reassure the casualty.
• Never separate a child from its parent or guardian.
 • Send the casualty to a hospital or doctor by the quickest means of
transport.
• Always inform the police about the serious accidents,
• Inform the relatives of the casualty.
First Aid Box
• A first-aid box containing medical supplies for emergency use is usually kept
in the housekeeping department.
• A minimum variety of certain types of supplies should be ensured at all
times.
• A 17 ½ inch x 10 x 6 ½ inch dirt-proof box is ideal.
• The first-aid box must at least contain the following items:
• A first-aid book
• Antiseptic cream-useful for cuts and bruises.
• Savlon or Dettol antiseptic solution- 2 bottles
• Calamine lotion – a medicated liquid containing zinc carbonate, this has a
soothing effect on painful sunburn. It can also relieve itching caused by
minor insect bites and stings.
• Antacid tablets—give relief from mild indigestion and heartburn, a burning
sensation caused by stomach acid irritating the gullet.
• Anti-diarrhea tablets—these are used to relieve diarrhea by slowing down
bowel movements.
• Paracetamol—used for relieving pain and lowering a high temperature.
• Aspirin—used for relieving pain and lowering a high temperature. Its use
should be restricted, however, as it may irritate the stomach lining.
• Pain Relief spray—gives instant relief in back pain, joint pain, muscular pain,
sprains & sports injuries.
• Chloromycetin eye ointment—2 tubes-This can be used in case of bacterial
infections of the eye.
• Soframycin skin ointment-2 tubes. This is used in bacterial infections of the
skin and in burns too.
• Travel sickness tablets—these can be taken before a journey or as directed
on the label.
• Oil of cloves—for an aching tooth, this is used to provide temporary relief.
• Clinical Thermometer—can be used either orally or under the arm. It should
be cleaned with antiseptic after each use, even for the same patient.
• Sterilized dressing (No.18)—12 packets; for use on fingers
• Sterilized dressing (No. 24) —12 packets; for use on hands and feet.
• Large sterilized dressing —-12 packets; for use on other parts.
• Sterilized cotton wool —-6 packets; can be used to pad a dressing or to
clean an injury with soap and hot water.
• Crepe bandage—6 packets; may be needed to bandage a sprained or
strained joint such as wrist or knee.
• Adhesive plaster (Large)—can be used on minor wounds or to secure a
dressing.
• Adhesive dressing strip—for small cuts and wounds.
• Roller bandages—various sizes, 18 packets, can be used to secure dressings,
to apply pressure to control bleeding, and to give support to sprains or
strains.
• Eye-pad—for placing on the eye in case of an eye injury.
• Tweezers—to remove splinters from the skin.
• Dressing Scissors—to use when cutting away dressing or bandages.
• Safety pins—1 packet of 10; to be used for fixing bandages or slings in
place.
• Pad and pencil for writing—1 each.
Paper 6 : Tourism Resources of India
UNIT I
Cultural heritage of India: Ancient Monuments and
Buildings: Taj Mahal, Khajuraho,Konak, Ajanta, Ellora,
Elephanta Caves, museums of India, Heritage sites
(UNESCO Sities)
1.Cultural heritage of India: Ancient Monuments and
Buildings: Taj Mahal, Khajuraho,Konak, Ajanta, Ellora,
Elephanta Caves, museums of India:
Taj Mahal in Agra : One of the seven wonders of the world, Taj Mahal is located
on the banks of River Yamuna in Agra. It was built by the Mughal Emperor Shah
Jahan as a memorial for his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal. It also houses the tomb of
Shah Jahan himself. Constructed entirely out of white marble in the 17th century,
Taj Mahal is one of the most beautiful monuments in the world. Every year visitors
numbering more than the entire population of Agra pass through the magnificent
gates to catch a glimpse of this breathtaking monument!
A UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Taj Mahal stands for the Crown of Palaces in
the Persian language. The tomb is laid out in a rectangular shape and can be
approached through a massive gateway which has an arch and alcoves on either
side of it. There are water channels and fountains in the entrance which makes
the monument even more spectacular. The reflection of this majestic spectacle in
the Yamuna is almost poetic in its perfection!
Covering an area of approximately 42 Acres, the construction of the Taj Mahal
began in 1631 and it took 17 years before it was completed in 1648! It was
constructed using white marble obtained from Makrana in Rajasthan.
Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh : Khajuraho, a UNESCO World Heritage Site located
in Madhya Pradesh, is known around the world for its stunning temples adorned
by erotic and sensuous carvings. A small town located in the Bundelkhand region,
Khajuraho is a brilliant example of Indian architecture and its culture back in the
medieval period. The architecture of these Hindu and Jain temples depict the
erotic forms of love, the carvings on the walls display passion in the most
sensuous yet aesthetic ways. Built between 950 to 1050 AD the sheer
confrontational nature of these carvings shows a stark paradox with the
conventional Indian ideals about eroticism, leaving everybody spellbound.
Art in this small town is engrained in all of its structures and are a classic example
of the finesse of India's cultural and artistic heritage. The best part about
Khajuraho is that although scores of plunderers tried to destroy the whole
complex, they could never succeed, even though they managed to reduce the
number of temples and caves to 25 from a staggering 85 at the time it was
created.
Ajanta and Ellora Caves in Maharashtra : Ajanta and Ellora caves, considered to
be one of the finest examples of ancient rock-cut caves, are located near
Aurangabad in Maharashtra, India. Ajanta and Ellora caves complex is adorned
with beautiful sculptures, paintings, and frescoes and include Buddhist
monasteries, Hindu and Jain temples. The Ajanta caves are 29 in number and were
built between the 2nd century BC and 6th century AD, whereas the Ellora Caves
are more spread out and 34 in number and dates to the period between 6th and
11th Century AD.
Ajanta and Ellora caves are designated as UNESCO World Heritage Sites and are
quite popular among travelers worldwide. Ajanta Caves, located around 99km
north of Aurangabad, are mostly Buddhist sites and were used as a retreat by
Buddhist Monks. Ellora is just 15 km west of Aurangabad and has a better mix of
Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist sites. These hand-carved caves were built and
sponsored by the Indian rulers of those periods and almost buried by thick forests.
One of the most famous places in the entire Ajanta and Ellora Caves is the Kailash
Temple, which is also the single most massive monolithic structure globally. These
rock-cut caves containing carvings are some of the best examples of ancient Indian
architecture and sculpture.
Elephanta Caves in Island of Gharapuri : The Elephanta Caves are located in
Western India on Elephanta Island (otherwise known as the Island of Gharapuri),
which features two hillocks separated by a narrow valley. The small island is
dotted with numerous ancient archaeological remains that are the sole
testimonies to its rich cultural past. These archaeological remains reveal evidence
of occupation from as early as the 2nd century BC. The rock-cut Elephanta Caves
were constructed about the mid-5th to 6th centuries AD. The most important
among the caves is the great Cave 1, which measures 39 metres from the front
entrance to the back. In plan, this cave in the western hill closely resembles
Dumar Lena cave at Ellora, in India. The main body of the cave, excluding the
porticos on the three open sides and the back aisle, is 27 metres square and is
supported by rows of six columns each.
The 7-metre-high masterpiece “Sadashiva” dominates the entrance to Cave 1. The
sculpture represents three aspects of Shiva: the Creator, the Preserver, and the
Destroyer, identified, respectively, with Aghora or Bhairava (left half),
Taptapurusha or Mahadeva (central full face), and Vamadeva or Uma (right half).
Representations of Nataraja, Yogishvara, Andhakasuravadha, Ardhanarishwara,
Kalyanasundaramurti, Gangadharamurti, and Ravanaanugrahamurti are also
noteworthy for their forms, dimensions, themes, representations, content,
alignment and execution.
The layout of the caves, including the pillar components, the placement and
division of the caves into different parts, and the provision of a sanctum or
Garbhagriha of sarvatobhadra plan, are important developments in rock-cut
architecture. The Elephanta Caves emerged from a long artistic tradition, but
demonstrate refreshing innovation. The combination of aesthetic beauty and
sculptural art, replete with respondent Rasas, reached an apogee at the Elephanta
Caves. Hindu spiritualistic beliefs and symbology are finely utilized in the overall
planning of the caves.
Museums of India :
1.Indian Museum, Kolkata :Established by the Asiatic Society in 1814, Indian
Museum in Kolkata is the largest and oldest Museum in India. Indian Museum
showcases some rare collections of Armours, Antiques, Ornaments, Skeletons,
Paintings and even the Egyptian Mummies. The displays in Indian Museum are
divided into Six different Sections and like Archeology, Botany, Art, Zoology and so
on. These six Sections comprise a total of 35 Galleries.
The Archeology Section of the Museum is a fascinating one which displays the rare
Egyptians Mummies. For History and Art Lovers, Indian Museum is the best place
to visit. Don’t forget to visit the Coin Gallery, Palaeo – Anthropology Gallery,
Mughal paintings Gallery and Mask Gallery of Indian Museum during your visit.
2.National Museum, Delhi : The National Museum of India was established in
1949 and showcases an impressive collection of Artifacts, Armors, Manuscripts
and so on. National Museum is one of the largest and Most Famous Museums in
India, where you can know about the ancient Harrapan and Indus Valley
Civilization. The Museum is home to around 200,000 works of Art both of Foreign
and Indian Origin.
One interesting fact about National Museum is that it will let you know about the
lifestyle, cultures, and traditions of Tribal Communities all around India.
3.Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai : Located near to Gateway of India, Prince of
Wales Museum is one of the Best Places to visit in Mumbai. The Museum is
divided into 3 sections, namely the Art, Archaeology and The Natural History
Section. The Building of the Museum is Unique in itself and constructed in the
Indo-Saracenic Style of Architecture. It showcases the artifacts from the Indus
Valley Civilization and Relics from the ancient times of the Mauryas, Guptas,
Rashtrakuta, and Chalukyas.
Now Renamed as Chhatrapati Shivaji Vastu Sangrahalaya, The Prince of Wales
Museum is a complete Blend to witness the History of India.
4.National Rail Museum, Delhi : National Rail Museum is the largest Rail Museum
in India and exhibits an impressive collection of above 100 Genuine Size Displays
of the Indian railways. Some of the main collections of the National Rail Museum
are Working Models, Signaling Tools, Antique Furniture and Historical Photographs
of Indian Railways. Situated in Chanakyapuri Area of Capital of India, this museum
also has a Toy Train that tenders daily rides on the Site.
Apart from the Great collection of locomotive carriages and Steam Engines, the
museum also features some special carriages like the Maharaja of Mysore’s Rolling
Salon and former Viceregal Dining Car. For those who want to dig deep into the
history of Indian Railways, the Rail Museum, among the most Famous Museums in
India is the best place.
5.Calico Museum of Textiles, Ahmedabad : One of the most admired and colorful
Museums in India, The Calico Museum of Textiles is dedicated to the vast
collection of Textiles from Pre-Historic Era. From the Gorgeous Indian fabrics to
Mughal times Textiles, you will surely be fascinated by the Elegant Work of
Displayed Art at Calico Museum. The other interesting Creativities of the Calico
Museum are the Bronze Textiles and the Pichwais.
6.Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram : One of the oldest museums in the state
of Kerala, Napier Museum got its name from Lord Napier, who once was the
Governor of Madras. The museum is home to an interesting collection of ancient
artifacts such as Musical Instruments, Kathakali Puppets Models, Idols of Gods
and Goddesses and Kerala Chariots.
7.Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad : Situated on the Banks of Musi River in
Hyderabad, this Museum displays a collection of Metallic Artifacts, Clocks, Textiles,
Paintings and Carvings from different Countries like America, China, Egypt,
Europe, Burma, and Nepal. Some of the displays in the Salar Jung Museum also
received International Fame such as a marvelous collection of European Clocks, a
Treatise on Mathematics, the Veiled Rebecca – a statue of Marble acquired from
Rome in 1876 and the statue of Margareta and Mephistopheles.
Indian Parliament also acknowledged this Museum as an Institution of National
Importance, Salar Jung Museum is one of the most famous Museums in India.
8.One of the Best places to visit in Chennai, the Government Museum is
Particularly rich in Numismatic and Archaeological Collections. The Museum is the
second oldest Museum of India and has the largest assortment of Roman
Antiquities outside Europe. The Main Galleries of the Museum are anthropological
exhibits, wood carvings, archaeological finds, zoological specimens, and the Ravi
Varma Painting. The National Art Gallery and the Colossal Museum Theater are
also impressive.
9.Shankar’s International Dolls Museum, Delhi : Located in the Capital City of
India, Shankar’s International Dolls Museum has the largest collections of Dolls
from different parts of the World. The Museum is divided into two sections that
exhibit more than 160 Glass Cases. One section of the Museum consists of Dolls
gathered from UK, USA, New Zealand and Commonwealth of Independent States.
The other Section displays the Dolls gathered from India, Middle East Africa, and
Asian Countries.
In addition, the visitors can also watch the various collections of Dolls
representing Classical Indian Dances and Traditions and the pairs of Bride and
Groom. The International Doll Museum is a true Delight to Children’s and to every
Person who is still a Child at Heart.
10.Baywatch Wax Museum, Kanyakumari : The Baywatch Wax Museum in
Kanyakumari is one of its Kind Museum in India which shows utmost Creativity.
The Museum Exhibits almost all important figures of Indian and World History in
Wax Form. All these Wax figures look so much Realistic the museum is known as
an Indian Version of Madam Tussauds Museum in London. You can find Wax
figures of Famous personalities like Mahatma Gandhi, Mother Teresa, Amitabh
Bachchan, Shahrukh Khan, Sachin Tendulkar etc.
The Above list of Museums comprises some of the most Famous Museums in
India that you should visit during your next Trip to these Places. Do Share and Like
this article on Social Media and let your Friends know about all these Popular
Museums in India.
Heritage sites (UNESCO Sities)
Top 10 UNESCO World Heritage Sites
There are a total of 1,092 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the world, including
209 natural sites and 845 which have cultural and historical significance – all
recognised as being internationally important and deserving special protection.
Choosing our top 10 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, therefore, was understandably
quite a challenge. However, those that appear on our final list are worthy of the
accolade, and conveniently all the destinations are easily accessible and can be
found on the itineraries of many worldwide holidays.
So what and where can you find the best sites? Here is our list of top 10 UNESCO
World Heritage Sites.
1. Nubian Monuments, Egypt
Not only are the majestic rock-cut Temples of Ramses II and his queen Nefertari a
truly wonderful sight at Abu Simbel, but the fact that this iconic monument with
its four towering statues were relocated to avoid the rising waters of the Nile
makes them all the more breath-taking. Likewise, the Sanctuary of Isis at Philae, a
temple dedicated to the ancient Egyptian goddess, was moved to its current
location as part of an incredible UNESCO-led project in the 1960s. Collectively
named the Nubian Monuments, this top 10 World Heritage Site is a must-see on a
holiday to Egypt.
2. Kathmandu Valley, Nepal
If planning a holiday to Nepal, don’t miss the chance to explore the Kathmandu
Valley, a worthy entry in our list of top 10 UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The area,
located in the foothills of the Himalayas, is recognised as the home of two
Buddhist stupas, two Hindu temples and three secular sites, all culturally and
religiously significant. A highlight of a visit to Nepal is an excursion to see the
famous 14th-Century Boudhanath Stupa, one of the largest and holiest Buddhist
sites in the world. Dominating the skyline, the stupa’s eyes appear to watch your
every move.
3. Cape Floral Region, South Africa
Cape Town’s Table Mountain National Park, Groot Winterhoek Wilderness Area,
and De Hoop Nature Reserve are just three of the 13 protected areas in South
Africa that make up the Cape Floral Region, one of the world’s greatest centres of
terrestrial biodiversity. Recognised as a World Heritage Site in 2004 and making
our list of top 10 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the area is a plant hotspot, home
to 20% of Africa’s flora despite representing less than 0.5% of the continent’s size.
With two-thirds of the estimated 6,000 plant species in the region listed as
endemic, and a further 1,736 identified as threatened, a holiday to South Africa
will be a once-in-a-lifetime experience.
4. Machu Picchu, Peru
The iconic Machu Picchu stands 2,430 metres above sea level on the eastern
slopes of the Andes and is a not-to-be-missed destination if considering a holiday
to Peru. The most significant legacy of the Inca civilisation, there is still much
debate as to the reason Machu Picchu was built, then later mysteriously
abandoned. However, it is agreed that the mesmerising religious, ceremonial,
agricultural and astronomical sanctuary, comprised of around 200 structures, is a
sight to behold. Unleash your imagination as you walk through its gates, temples
and houses, and simply marvel at the Lost City of the Incas.
5. Great Barrier Reef, Australia
No holiday Down Under or tour of Australia would be complete without a trip to
the Great Barrier Reef. And the natural World Heritage Site is indeed great,
containing the world’s largest collection of coral reefs, over 1,500 species of fish
and around 240 species of birds, as well as a diversity of crustaceans, anemones
and marine worms. Snorkelling at the stunning Michaelmas Cay National Park,
easily accessible from Cairns on the mainland, there’s the opportunity to get up
close to parrot fish, giant clams and even sea turtles. For landlubbers, glass-
bottom boats mean you don’t miss out.
6. Bruges, Belgium
A little closer to home, the picturesque city of Bruges also makes it on to our list of
top 10 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, and it’s easy to see why. Marvellous
medieval buildings, romantic squares and charming canals fill this chocolate-box
destination, a highlight of any holiday to Belgium. Bruges’ historic centre is also
associated with outstanding Gothic architecture and world-famous Flemish art by
the likes of Jan van Eyck – his classic paintings still hang on the walls at the nearby
Groeningemuseum. Another must-see attraction is the Basilica of the Holy Blood,
home to a venerated relic of Christ.
7. Yellowstone National Park, USA
You’ll undeniably take a walk on the wild side at Yellowstone National Park, while
on holiday in the USA. The country’s first and finest nature reserve is an awe-
inspiring blend of natural beauty and rugged wilderness, and home to grizzly
bears, bison and elk. Yellowstone additionally has the world’s largest
concentration of geysers – more than 300, or two-thirds of all those on the planet.
The most famous, Old Faithful, is also the most reliable, frequently erupting to the
delight of watching visitors. Look out too for the park’s tallest waterfall, Lower
Falls, nearly twice the size of the falls at Niagara.
8. The Great Wall, China
When researching tours to China, you’ll undoubtedly find that the Great Wall
appears on most itineraries. Rightly so. The UNESCO World Heritage Site snakes
almost 12,500 miles along the country’s forested ridges and is a formidable
protective barrier, one of the world’s largest military structures – and the only
man-made monument visible from space. Built from the 3rd Century BC to the
17th Century AD, the main body consists of walls, watch towers, horse tracks,
fortresses and passes, and is still considered to be a national symbol for
safeguarding the security of China and its people.
9. Petra, Jordan
Petra is not only a UNESCO World Heritage Site, this archaeological site in Jordan’s
southwestern desert has now deservedly become one of the new Seven Wonders
of the World. Often called the rose-red city, referring to the striking red sandstone
surrounding Petra’s half-built, half-carved rock setting, visitors can’t help but be
astounded by the sheer enormity of the place. Especially resplendent is the
Treasury, a 40-metre high façade thought to be constructed in the 1st Century BC,
which appears like a mirage through a slit in a narrow gorge. That memorable
moment alone is a good reason to find out more about holidays to Jordan.
10. Taj Mahal, India
We simply couldn’t leave the Taj Mahal off our list of top 10 UNESCO World
Heritage Sites. The white marble mausoleum is universally admired and
understandably appears on many a traveller’s wish list. Fortunately, the symbolic
masterpiece – a 17th-Century memorial built in Agra to honour the favourite wife
of a Mughal emperor – is on the itinerary of most escorted holidays to India, so
it’s easy to appreciate the exquisite workmanship for yourself. Early morning visits
are the most magical and the best time to avoid the heat and crowds. Perhaps
you’ll snap a people-free photo too.
UNIT II
Culture Tourism Resources: Performing arts of India:
Dance, Music and Theater, Living Heritage, Handicraft,
Fair and Festivals, Ethnic Tourism- meaning, Difference
between Culture and Ethnic Tourism.
Culture Tourism Resources: Cultural tourism satisfies cultural and
intellectual curiosity and involves visits to ancient monuments, places of historical
or religious importance, etc.
Performing arts of India: The traditional forms of Art developed for the
magnificence of temple and palace, reaching their peak about India around 2nd
C.E. forwards and under the dominant Gupta Empire. Through the ages,
competitor kings and nawabs competed with each other to attract the most
famous artists and performers to their courts. The Natya Shastra, written through
the 2nd century has laid the formation of music, dance and drama. The traditional
music custom in India has constantly been a form of meditation, awareness and
worship. The musical sounds of music can suggest the deepest emotions and
moods of the audience, expert and non-connoisseurs equally.
Dance: Indian Dance dates back to the earliest Indus Valley Civilization. It is
traced on carved stones which the earliest Indian civilization gave importance to
diverse forms of Dance. Dance when combined with song and storytelling, dance
metamorphosed into theatre. The different dance form of India offers scintillating
experiences to the viewers. Along with the major dance forms like Bharatnatyam,
Mohiniyattam, Koodiyattam, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, and Odissi, some other local
and tribal versions of dances are also practiced in India. Kathakali gained much
eminence from the universal community. Chakyar Kootthu, a dance practiced in
Northern Kerala is accepted by the United Nations. The Kathak style started in
northern India and stressed on musical footwork. Manipuri of Manipur uses
elegant turning and winning in its dances. The Natya Shastra, the initial Indian text
on the subject, speaks of ekaharya (solo dance) and the anekaharya (dance as
performed by more than one person) which was written between 200 BC - AD 200
by Bharatamuni.
Music: Evolution of Indian Music goes back to the Vedas. Two types of classical
music, Carnatic and Hindustani have been commenced following the 5th century
and had been influenced by Bhakti traditions. Other varieties of Indian Music are
the folk, popular and pop. Indian filmy music and Punjabi pop (Bhangra) are
considered as world-class melodic genres. The Muslims aggressors influenced the
Hindustani instruments, styles and schools of performance.
Drama/Theatre :
• The origins of Indian drama can be traced back to the Vedas, according to
indigenous tradition and modern research.
• The Ramayana mentions female drama troupes, while Kautilya's Arthshastra
mentions musicians, dancers, and dramatic performances.
• Drama is a performing art that has been practised since the dawn of time.
• Since ancient times, mythological stories of war between the gods,
goddesses, and devils have been told.
• Bharata penned Natyashastra and the plays Asura Parajaya and Amrit
Manthan.
• Natyashastra is one of the most important texts in the history of drama and
other performing arts.
• The next epoch is that of the great Bhasa, who wrote plays based on the
stories of Udayana, the Ramayana, and the Mahabharata, his masterpiece
being Swapana Vasabdatta.
• Patanjali's Mahabhasya, written in the second century B.C., refers to several
aspects of drama, including the actors, music, stage, and rasa in the
 performances known as Kamsavadha and Balibandha.
• In the context of drama, two types emerged: classic drama, which featured
intricate themes and subtle nuances of dramatic traits, and folk theatre. It
was impromptu and on the spur of the moment.
• Local dialect was used in folk theatre, and as a result, many different types
of folk theatres developed in different provinces.
• Acting with music and dance accompaniment was a common practice.
• In various provinces, various forms of folk theatre were given various
names, such as:
1. Bengal - Jatra, Kirtania Natak
2. Bihar - Bideshia
3. Rajasthan - Raas, Jhumar, Dhola Maru
4. Uttar Pradesh - Raas, Nautanki, Svaang, Bhaand
5. Gujarat - Bhawaii
6. Maharashtra - Larite, Tamasha
7. Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka - Kathakali, Yakshagana
• Some props used in folk theatre included dhol, kartal, manjira, and khanjira
instruments.
• Although the mediaeval period was rich in music and dance, theatre did not
receive much attention.
• Wajid Ali Shah, a great patron of the arts, was also a major supporter of
drama. He encouraged and supported artists to participate in theatre.
• The arrival of the British altered the character of the society. An Englishman
founded a theatre in Calcutta in the eighteenth century.
• Horasim Lebedev, a Russian, founded a Bengali theatre, which marked the
beginning of modern Indian theatre in India.
• Shakespeare's English drama, in particular, influenced Indian drama.
Living Heritage:
A customary presenation of india cluture relates it mainly to a study of arts within
the tradition bound parameters of styles ,chronology or school . In consequence
the creativity inherent in the culture and the throb of life as its central metaphor
tend to get into background. The living culture is essentially this creativity , this
throb . It manifests itself in myriad patterns - all related to a tradition that
lives on .
Handicraft: Handicrafts are all the items made by a man's or woman's hands.
Indian handicrafts encapsulate the essence of Indian culture, beauty, and richness
of Indian heritage. Many Indian states have distinct handicrafts that demonstrate
creative ability and expertise. Artists employ their talent to make a variety of
items, both ornamental and practical. These crafts are one-of-a-kind since they
are entirely handcrafted without the aid of any machinery.
• Hastkala, hastshilp, dastkari, and karigari are typical Indian terminology for
handicrafts.
• They all indicate workmanship, but they also refer to products
manufactured with craftsmanship, i.e., specialized hand skills that are also
beautiful.
• The aesthetic element of such products is an integral aspect of their worth,
implying that the object of usefulness has a value that extends beyond its
utility and is also attractive to the sight.
• A handcrafted product is rarely purely ornamental, and whether it is
unadorned or heavily embellished, its real purpose is served only when it is
both functional and beautiful.
Fair and Festivals:
In a land of cultural and geographical diversities one gets to enjoy and experience
wide varieties of cultures, fairs and festivals and India is the epitome of such
experiences. A country where after every hundred kilometer you are embraced by
a new cultural identity one gets to enjoy diverse backgrounds, beliefs and
heritage. These fairs and festivals are part of the intrinsic cultural fabric of our
society as well as a continuation of our heritage. It is in this spirit that we bring to
you some of the vibrant, fascinating and most beautiful fairs and festivals of India
that are organized and enthusiastically celebrated across the country.
1. Modhera Dance Festival, Gujarat : This dance festival of India, celebrated in the
beautiful backdrop of the Modhera Sun Temple is an effort on part of the Tourism
Department of Gujarat to bring back to life the ways of our medieval past. Today,
this cultural festival held in January every year gets together the finest classical
dancing talent of the country to celebrate the art and the place.
2. Tarnetar Mela, Gujarat : One of the most fascinating tribal fairs of India,
Tarnetar Mela is a tribal fair held every year in the village of Tarnetar in Gujarat.
This festival is fascinating for the simple reason that it is one of the largest
“marriage marts” or swayamvars in India where tribal men come to the fair
dressed eloquently carrying the most elaborately and beautifully embroidered
umbrellas in the world. The woman folk choose their prospective husband based
on the umbrella they find the most beautiful. Besides this is a cultural event with
folk music and dance performances for general entertainment.
3. Konark Dance Festival, Odisha : The India’s biggest dance festival, Konark
Dance Festival is the epitome of our Classical dancing heritage which represents
itself in the most awe-inspiring of settings. The festival is held in the backdrop of
the UNESCO World Heritage Site – the Sun Temple. The festival organized in the
month of February is one of the biggest cultural festivals in the country as it
witnesses the coming together of country’s best dance artists to celebrate the
storied past of the temple and its traditions.
4. Jaisalmer Desert Festival, Rajasthan : The desert festival held in the month of
February in the Red Sandstone city of Jaisalmer is a fascinating celebration of
Rajasthan’s desert life for three days. It is a festival that brings to life the folk
culture, the music, the clothes and the traditions of the nomadic life of the Indian
desert. One can immerse themselves in three days of pure magic with folktales,
music and dance performances. The camel, the most important animal in the
desert, is one of the main attractions of the festival.
5. Goa Carnival, Goa : Well the name Goa is synonymous with fun, beautiful
beaches, laid back vacations and amazing beach shacks and continuing that
tradition is the awesome Goa Carnival. This carnival of India is celebrated state
wide with the help of the state government. It is part of the Portuguese heritage
of Goa which sees people come out on the street to enjoy the fascinating parades
full of creative floats, to dance and party all night. The carnival travels the whole
state. This cultural event is held in the month of March just before the beginning
of Lent.
6. Nehru Trophy Boat Race, Kerala : An event which is part of Kerala’s cultural
identity, the Nehru Trophy Boat Race is among best cultural an eventin India.
Celebrated every year on the second Saturday of the month of August, the boat
race in Kerala is a famous festival celebrated in the backwater town of Allapuzha
in the Punnamada Lake. The festival sees beautifully crafted boats of different
shapes and sizes compete for prize money with the main attraction being the
snake boat race, the winner of which receives the coveted Nehru Trophy.
7. Pushkar Mela, Rajasthan : Arguably the biggest fair in the state of Rajasthan
and one of the biggest livestock fairs in the world, Pushkar Mela is a fascinating
coming together of the nomadic culture and the most beautiful town of
Rajasthan. It is primarily a place where the buying and selling of camels and
livestock takes place but in recent times with its increasing popularity among
foreign tourists competitions like ‘matka phodh’, ‘bridal games’ and ‘longest
moustache’ have become popular events. The Pushkar Mela is the perfect
opportunity for travelers to discover the nomadic lifestyle of Rajasthan.
8. Hornbill Festival, Nagaland : The Hornbill Festival is a unique folk festival
celebrated in the North-eastern state of Nagaland. A region with rich tribal
heritage and traditions, the Hornbill Festival is an effort on part of the Nagaland
tourism department to bring to the world the culture and beauty of Nagaland.
The festival celebrated every year from 1st to 7th December, is an amazing
exhibition of Naga way of life attracting thousands of tourists to its doors.
9. Mamallapuram Dance Festival : A place of great historical relevance,
Mamallapuram is a beautiful coastal town known for being the hometown of the
Pallavas in the medieval times. The beautiful beach town has some of the most
breathtaking rock sculptures in India and it is against this background that the
Mamallapuram Dance Festival takes place every year during December-January
for three days. Classic dancers from different schools of dancing unite to put on a
scintillating display of their talent for three consecutive days. It’s a festival with a
huge foreign appeal due to its cultural appeal and Mamallapuram being a beach
town.
10. Puri Rath Yatra, Odisha : One of the biggest religious events of the year in the
country, the Puri Rath Yatra is a spectacle of the grandest scale. The Rath Yatra
sees a coming together of over a million devotees every year near the famed
Jagganath Temple of Puri. The yatra sees three huge temples shaped chariots
being pulled to the Gundicha Temple and after nine days back to the Jagganath
Temple. The yatra is held in the month of June or July and is supposed to be one
of the holiest events in Hinduism.
Ethnic Tourism - meaning :
Ethnic tourism is "travel motivated by search for the first hand, authentic and
sometimes intimate contact with people whose ethnic and /or cultural
background is different from the tourists". Ethnic tourists are driven by the desire
to see something different where curiosity is the ultimate factor. The travelers
choose to experience first hand the practices of another culture, and may involve
performances, presentations and attractions portraying or presented by
indigenous communities. In a broader perspective, it includes cultural, heritage,
anthropological, tribal, village and similar forms of tourism. Ethnic tourism, if
properly planned and managed, can be promoted as sustainable form of tourism
and can be utilized as a tool for the preservation and conservation of culture and
heritage as well as poverty alleviation. India, rich with its cultural diversity, grand
heritage and inimitable history, is a world famous cultural tourism destination. The
focal point of India's attractiveness as a destination is it's diverse ethnicity.
Difference between Culture and Ethnic Tourism :
Cultural Tourism refers to trips or visits with the purpose of seeing or learning
about traditions and custom of the host countries or way of life of other nations
or destination in the form of cuisine, music, dance, fairs, festivals, rituals, as well
as lifestyles of communities etc. in museums and art galleries, traditional artistic
performances and local fairs and festivals and other cultural tourism attractions.
The places of cultural importance are Khajuraho festival, Konark festival and Goa
Carnival Festival and others.
Ethnic Tourism The act of travelling to area inhabited by indigenous people for the
purpose of observing the culture and lifestyles of truly exotic people. The
destination activities include visits to native homes staying and participating in
traditional ceremonies and dances, and witnessing in religious rituals. In India to
observe indigenous people tourists visit to the isolated hill tribes of Assam.

UNIT III
Pilgrimage Tourism: meaning and nature, Popular
Religious Centres: Hindu- Char Dham, jyotriling,
Mathura,Vrindavana,Varanasi, Buddhist- Lumbini,
Bodhgaya,sarnath,sanchi, Jain- Kashi, Girnar, Mt Abu,
Sikh- Amritsar, Patna, Nanded, Muslim: Jama Masjid,
Ajmer Sharif, Fatehpur Sikri, Christian-Churches of Goa
and Kerala.
Pilgrimage Tourism: meaning and nature :
• A pilgrimage is a journey or search of moral or spiritual significance.
• Many religions attach spiritual importance to particular places. The holy
land act as a focal point for the pilgrims.
• Such sites may be commemorated with shrines or temples that devotees
are encouraged to visit for their own spiritual and mental benefit.
• Being one of the most ancient civilizations of the world,India has been in
contact with almost all the major religions of the world.
Popular Religious Centres:
1.Hindu- Char Dham
Uttarakhand, also known as Devbhoomi or the Land of Gods, is home to
numerous temples and welcomes devotees all year round. Among the countless
religious sites and circuits that devotees visit in Uttarakhand, one of the most
prominent is the Char Dham Yatra. This Yatra or pilgrimage is a tour of four holy
sites - Yamunotri, Gangotri, Kedarnath and Badrinath – nestled high up in the
Himalayas. In Hindi, 'char' means four and 'dham' refers to religious destinations.
The high-altitude shrines remain shut for around six months every year, opening
in summers (April or May) and closing with the onset of winter (October or
November). It is believed that one should complete the Char Dham Yatra in a
clockwise direction. Hence, the pilgrimage starts from Yamunotri, proceeds
towards Gangotri, onto Kedarnath, and finally ends at Badrinath. The journey can
be completed by road or by air (helicopter services are available). Some devotees
even do a Do Dham Yatra or a pilgrimage to two shrines - Kedarnath and
Badrinath.
The Yamunotri temple, lodged in a narrow gorge close to the source of River
Yamuna (the second-most sacred Indian river after River Ganga) in Uttarkashi
district, is dedicated to Goddess Yamuna. The district of Uttarkashi is also home to
Gangotri dedicated to Goddess Ganga, the most sacred of all Indian rivers.
Located in the Rudraprayag district lies Kedarnath, dedicated to Lord Shiva.
Badrinath, home to the sacred Badrinarayan Temple, is dedicated to Lord Vishnu.
The Char Dham Yatra is as divine as it is arduous but fulfills the soul!
Jyotirlinga :
All about 12 Jyotirlinga Temples in India
1.Omkareshwar in Khandwa, Madhya Pradesh
Fourth in line, Omkareshwar temple in Khandwa is one of the most revered places
in India dedicated to Lord Shiva. Set on an island named Mandhata or Shivapuri by
the Narmada River, the shape of the lingam here looks like ‘Om’. The place
features two main Shiva Temples, one is Omkareshwar and the other is
Amareshwar.
2.Somnath Temple, Gujarat
Located in Veraval, Somnath Temple is considered one of the most famous and
revered Shiva shrines in the world as it is believed to be the first among the twelve
jyotirlinga. There are a number of legends and stories associated with the temple
and one among them is the story of Moon (Som) God. It is said that once moon
lost it shine and lustre because of a curse. To get rid of the curse, he bathed here
and got the lustre back. Since then, it’s called Somnath, meaning the ‘lord of the
moon’.
3.Mallikarjuna in Srisailam, Andhra Pradesh
The second in line is Sri Bhramaramba Mallikarjuna Temple in Srisailam, Andhra
Pradesh. The jyotirlinga here is named after Mallikarjuna Swamy. Legend has it
that Shiva and Parvati came here to meet their angry elder son Kartikeya because
his younger brother Ganesha was getting married before him. The mammoth fort
like temple features Mallikarjuna Swamy and Bharmaramba Devi as its main
deities.
4.Mahakaleswar in Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh
A temple dedicated to Lord Shiva, Mahakaleshwar in Ujjain is third in line. Set on
the banks of Rudra Sagar lake, the lingam here is consider to be Swayambhu and it
derives its powers from Shakti within. The temple features more than a hundred
little shrines within the temple complex and remains crowded on most of the
days.
5.Rameshwaram Jyotirlinga, Tamil Nadu
It’s located in the southernmost of all the 12 Jyotirlingas, in the island of
Rameshwaram, Tamil Nadu. Popularly known for its architecture, Rameshwaram
Jyotirlinga is closely associated with Lord Ram’s victorious return from Sri Lanka.
As per legends, while Lord Ram was on his way to Sri Lanka, he took a halt at
Rameshwaram and was drinking water on the seashore. Just then, there was a
celestial edict, which stated “You are drinking water without worshipping me”.
Hearing this, Lord Ram made a linga of sand, worshipped it and sought blessings
to defeat Ravana. Lord Shiva gave him his blessings and then turned into a
Jyotirlinga, which is now known as Rameshwaram Jyotirlinga.
6.Kedarnath in Rudraprayag, Uttarakhand
Next Jyotirlinga temple in India is Kedarnath in Rudraprayag, Uttarakhand. This is
one of the main Shiva temples and is considered quite revered. Devotees from
across the country visit here to pray to the lord which is definitely a difficult
journey. It is also a prime Chardham Yatra destination and remains close for six
months due to extreme weather conditions.
7.Bhimashankar in Maharashtra
Bhimashankar in Maharashtra is around 100 km from Pune, situated on the hills of
Sahyadri Range. The temple here enjoys gorgeous location and is a trekker’s
paradise. This is also the place from where one of largest tributaries of Krishna
River originates, called the Bhima River. Here you can also see Buddha style
carvings of Amba-Ambika in the surroundings.
8.Vishwanath in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
Situate on the banks of the holy river Ganga, Vishwanath Temple is one of the
twelve Jyotirlingas, which is considered the holiest. Vishveshvara, meaning Ruler
of The Universe, the temple finds its mention in ancient Hindu scriptures. People
from all over the world come here for darshan of Mahadev (another name of Lord
Shiva).
9.Trimbakeshwar in Nashik, Maharashtra
Located on the banks of river Godavari, Trimbakeshwar or Tryambakeshwar in
Nashik is one of the ancient Hindu temples dedicated to Lord Shiva. Nashik is also
one of the four cities where holy Kumbha takes place every 12 years. There is also
a Kusavarta, a holy kunda (sacred pond) inside the temple whose source of water
is the Godavari River, which is also famous for being the longest river in peninsular
India.
10.Ghrishneshwar Jyotirlinga, Aurangabad
This is located 20 km from Daulatabad, near Aurangabad in Maharashtra.
Ghrishneshwar Jyotirlinga is also popular because of its location, as it is near the
famous tourist hotspot, i.e., Ajanta and Ellora caves. Legend has it that there once
lived a very religious woman, named kusuma, who was a firm believer of Lord
Shiva. She used to immerse Shiva’s lingam in a tank daily as part of her daily
prayer. However, her husband’s second wife got jealous of her devotion and
respect in the society. And in a fit of rage, she killed Kusuma’s son. Kusuma was
heartbroken and depressed, yet she continued worshipped Lord Shiva. It is
believed that when she immersed the lingan into the tank, i.e., after her son’s
death, he became alive miraculously again. It is also believed that Shiva appeared
before Kusuma and the villages at that time. And on Kusuma’s request, Shiva
manifested Himself at that very site, in the form of Ghrishneshwar Jyotirlinga.
11.Vaidyanath or Baijnath in Deogarh, Jharkhand
Now this is one disputed jyotirlinga temples in India considering there are three
destinations in the country whose natives claim that the jyotirlinga is there. These
are Vaidyanath in Deogarh, Jharkhand, Baijnath in Himachal Pradesh and Parli
Vaijnath in Maharashtra. Also known as Baba Dham, devotees from all over come
here to pour jal over Shivalinga here during the Hindu moth of savan every year.
12.Nageshvara in Dwarka, Gujarat
Around 18 km from Dwarka in Gujarat, is the Nageshwar temple dedicated to Lord
Shiva. This temple also finds its mention in Shiva Purana and is one of the twelve
Jyotirlingas. It is mentioned in the text that Shiva in Nageshwar form (meaning
body full of serpants) once defeated a demon called Daruka and his army to
rescue one of his ardent devotees named Supriya. Since then, it is called the
Nageshwar Temple.
Mathura : While visiting during a festival is preferable to experience the city’s
genuine magic, it’s also a great place to visit from October to March. Apart from
religious sites, there are markets to explore and the Yamuna River to enjoy. Some
of the top locations to visit in Mathura are listed here.
1. Sri Krishna Janmabhoomi Temple
The temple is considered the holiest spot in Mathura since it is thought to be the
birthplace of Lord Shri Krishna. A marble monument of Lord Krishna and little
temples dedicated to various Gods and Goddesses are other attractions. If you
want to see the place at its best, go during significant holidays like Diwali or Holi.
The birth of Bhagwan kicks off the festivities at midnight.
2. Dwarkadhish Temple
Secondly, Dwarkadhish Temple is the most important temple in Dwarkadhish. The
temple, which belongs to Lord Krishna, is a must-see for its beauty and
architecture. The entryway is designed in Rajasthani style, with an open courtyard
in the center, elegantly carved pillars, and a gorgeous painted ceiling.
The temple is also popular for its spectacular monsoon swing festival, which
occurs at the commencement of the monsoon season. Keep in mind that if you
visit during the Janmashtami festival, the temple will be at its most beautiful, but
it may be a little busy.
3. Gita Mandir
This main site, also known as the Birla Mandir, is popular due to its gorgeous
structures and legacy. The 18 chapters of the Bhagavad Gita etched and depicted
on the temple’s pillars are the main attractions.
Although it is located on the outskirts of Mathura, the red sandstone monument
boasts many beautiful carvings and is one of the city’s most frequented tourist
attractions. Lord Krishna, Narayana, Rama, Goddess Lakshmi, and Sita can all be
found here.
4. Vishram Ghat
Vishram Ghat, a bathing and worshipping area on the banks of the Yamuna, is the
most important of the 25 ghats Mathura has to offer. As it is claimed that Lord
Krishna rested here after killing Kansa.
It is set with marble stone and has a big stone arch. It is flanked by exquisite
temples that provide a breathtaking perspective. Thousands of tiny oil lamps
floating down the river during the evening aarti is a sight to behold.
5. Kusum Sarovar
Radha used to come here to collect flowers and see Lord Krishna. Aside from its
religious significance, this reservoir is a famous tourist destination in Mathura.
Kusum Sarovar is 450 feet long and 60 feet deep, making it an ideal swimming
spot.
Tourists can enjoy a complete retreat in the gorgeous surroundings and calm
ambiance and don’t forget to bring your camera because the views are
breathtaking.
6. Govardhan Hill
On the other hand, it is Govardhan Hill. Govardhan Hill, near Vrindavan, is a
famous destination for worshippers and tourists alike. You will find this hill in
Hindu scriptures. And, it is a belief that Lord Krishna uses it to destroy Indra, the
deity of rain and thunder.
Apart from its spiritual significance, the 80-foot-tall sandstone peak provides
breathtaking views of nature. Don’t forget to have a look around because there
are some artworks on show.
7. Mathura Museum
The Mathura Museum built in 1874, is also popular as the Government Museum.
It has many sculptures, pottery, paintings, antiquities, coins (gold, silver, and
copper), and other items from Mathura and the surrounding territories.
The museum’s building made of red sandstone is magnificent. And, it’s a great
place to visit if you like art. Throughout the year, it is bustling with students and
tourists alike.
8. Kans Qila
Kans Qila, or Kans Fort, is another prominent attraction in Mathura. It has its
location on the banks of the Yamuna River and its name is on the basis of Lord
Krishna’s maternal uncle. Apart from its religious significance, the fort is a regal
structure with Hindu and Muslim architectural influences.
9. Tilak Dwar
This market, also famous as Holy Gate, is a must-see for everyone who takes
interest in learning about local life in Mathura. This vast market is bright and
bustling with activity.
You can peruse a variety of shops and gain a taste of the city’s culture by looking
at the art, jewelry, and ethnic things on sale. This market also has several religious
shops selling idols of various gods and goddesses and paintings by local artists.
10. Elephant Conservation and Care Centre
In 2010, Wildlife SOS teamed up with the Uttar Pradesh Forest Department to
open a rehabilitation center for badly abused captive elephants. Every elephant
here has a backstory of struggle. Yet, you can see them spend their days joyfully –
eating, wandering around, and, most importantly, splashing around in the water
during bath time.
Vrindavana :
1.Banke Bihari Mandir
Shri Banke Bihari Mandir is a Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Krishna in the holy
city of Vrindavan in the Mathura district. One of the most revered shrines in the
country, this temple is among the 7 temples of Thakur of Vrindavan which also
include Sri Radhavallabh Ji, Shri Govind Dev Ji and four others. As you come in the
presence of the Banke Bihari Temple, you are confronted with the stunning
Rajasthani- style edifice of the temple, which is adorned with arched windows and
meticulous stonework. The image of Lord Krishna in the temple appears in the
form of a child and is seen standing in the Tribhanga position. One interesting fact
about the Banke Bihari temple is that there are no bells or conchs in the premises,
as the Lord does not like the sound of these instruments. Divine invocations are
performed by peaceful chants of 'Radha Naam'.
The word 'Banke' means bent in three places, while the word 'Bihari' means
supreme enjoyer. The idol in Banke Bihari Temple was originally worshipped
under the name of Kunj- Bihari which means enjoyer of lakes. The sewa of the
Bihariji is unique in its own way. It is performed in three parts every day ie
Shringar, Rajbhog and Shayan. While Shringar (which includes bath, dressing and
adornment with jewellery like crown and necklaces) and Rajbhog (feast) are
offered in the forenoon, Shayan Sewa (Shayan means sleep) is offered in the
evening. One of the holiest places when it comes to the worship of Lord Krishna,
the Banke Bihari Temple is thronged by devotees all through the year.
2.Prem Mandir
Imbued with elegance and grandeur, the Prem Mandir is a massive temple that
was shaped by Jagadguru Shri Kripaluji Maharaj in the year 2001. Known as
"Temple of God's love", this grand religious place is dedicated to Radha Krishna as
well as Sita Ram. Located in Vrindavan, the holy city in the district of Mathura in
Uttar Pradesh, the temple is enveloped with piousness and serenity. This newly
constructed temple is the most beautiful in the entire Brij area and is crowded
with devotees during the time of the Aarti.
Made out of white marble and adorned with very intricate carvings, this temple is
also famous for its architectural beauty. Statues of Shri Krishna and his admirers,
portraying essential occasions surrounding the Lord's life, cover the main temple.
Various scenes from Krishna's life, like raising the Govardhan Mountain, have been
depicted on the periphery of the Prem Mandir. The lighting of the temple further
glorifies its spectacular look, especially during the night. The colored water twists
and twirls to the tunes of the kirtans of Radha Krishna being played nearby and
are an audio-visual delight.
3.ISKCON Vrindavan
Also known as Sri Sri Krishna Balaram Mandir, ISKCON Vrindavan is a dream
fulfilled of Swami Prabhupada (the founder-acharya of ISKCON), who wished to
build a temple for the brothers - Krishna and Balaram - in the same holy city
where they played together several centuries ago. People visiting the divine
temple are spellbound by the Aarti and Bhagavad Geeta classes held here every
day.
4.Radha Raman Temple
Located about 2 kilometers from the Vrindavan Railway Station is one of the most
revered early modern Hindu temples in Vrindavan, the Radha Raman Temple. It is
dedicated to Lord Krishna, who is considered to be Radha Raman, meaning one
who gives pleasure to Radha. The temple is known to have the original Shaligram
deity of Krishna alongside Radharani, which is the self-manifested deity from
Shaligram Shila and has a mystical smile on his face. The Radha Raman temple
complex also has the samadhi of Gopal Bhatta, located right next to the
appearance place of Radha Raman.
Radha Raman Temple is said to be one of the most significant among the 7
temples of Thakur of Vrindavan. It holds importance especially among the
followers of Gaudiya Vaishnavism. The temple was beautifully crafted when it was
established in 1542 but was renovated later in 1826 by Shah Behari Lallji. Another
interesting fact about this temple is that even though it is dedicated to and named
after Radha, there is no deity of Radha Rani in the temple. There is only a crown
kept next to Krishna to signify her presence.
5.Katyayani Peeth
The Katyayani Peeth in Vrindavan, also known as Uma Shakti Peeth is one of the
51 Shakti Peethas. The idol of Sati is worshipped here in the form of Uma. It is
believed that when Lord Vishnu used his Sudarshan Chakra to cut Maa Sati’s body
to relieve Lord Shiva from the sorrow of losing his wife, the ringlets of her hair fell
in this place.
Katyayani Peetha has five different forms of worship - Goddess Uma (Shakti), Lord
Shiva (Shiva), Lord Lakshmi Narayan (Vaishnava), Lord Surya (Saurya), and Lord
Ganesha (Ganpataya). Jagatdhatri Devi is also worshipped here.
Varanasi :
1.Shri KASHI VISHWANATH TEMPLE
Also known as the Golden Temple, it is dedicated to Lord shiva, the presiding deity
of the city. Varanasi is Said to be the point at which the first jyotirlinga, the fiery
pillar of light by which shiva manifested has supremacy over others gods, broke
through the Earth’s crust and flared towards the heavens. More than the Gaths
and even the Ganga, the Shivalinga installed in the temple remains the devotional
focus of Varanasi.
2.MAA ANNAPURNA TEMPLE
Near the Kashi Vishwanath temple, there is a nice temple of Devi Annapurna ,
believed as the “Godess of Fooding”.
3.SANKATHA TEMPLE
Near the Sindhia Ghat , there is a important temple of “Godess of Remedy” Devi
Sankatha. Inside its premises there is a huge statue of a Lion. Also there is nine
temples of nine planets nearby to this temple.
4.KALBHAIRAV TEMPLE
It is the ancient temple of Varanasi near the Head Post Office, VishesharGanj. God
KalBhairav is believed as “Kotwal Of Varanasi” , without his permission no one can
stay in Kashi.
5.MRITUNJAY MAHADEV TEMPLE
On the route of Daranagar to Kalbhairav temple this temple of Lord Shiva is
situated . Just besides this temple there is a Well of much religious importance ,
whose water is said to be mixture of several underground streams and good for
eliminating several diseases.
6.NEW VISHWANATH TEMPLE
Situated in the premises of Banaras Hindu University, a modern place of worship
planned by Pandit Malviya and built by the Birlas. Open to all, irrespective of caste
or creed.
7.TULSI MANAS TEMPLE
Constructed by family of Varanasi, this modern temple is dedicated to Lord Rama.
It is situated at the place Where Tulisdas, the great medieval seer, lived and wrote
the epic “Shri Ramcharitmanas”, which narrates the life of Lord Rama, the hero of
the Ramayana. Verses from Tulidas’s epic are inscribed on the walls. It is just
nearby to Durga Temple.
8.SANKATMOCHAN TEMPLE
Besides the Assi river stream, on the way of Durga Temple to Banaras Hindu
Temple this well known temple of Lord Hanuman is situated. Lord Hanuman is
also known as “Sankatmochan” the god who protects from the troubles. This
temple is founded by Goswami Tulsidas. This temple is also known as “Monkey”
temple, as lot of monkeys are there inside the premises.
9.DURGA TEMPLE
Commonly called the ‘Monkey temple’, it was built in the 18th century. Although it
is one of the best-known temple. There is nice stonework done of the temple , it is
the nice example of NAGRA Shilp. Godess DURGA is believed as the symbol of
Strength and Power which govern the entire world. There is a pond adjacent to
the temple called “Durgakund”.
10.BHARAT MATA TEMPLE
This Temple was inaugurated by Mahatma Gandhi in 1936 and houses one perfect
relief maps of India carved out of marble.The Temple was gifted by the nationalists
Babu Shiv Prasad Gupta (Barat Ratana ) and shri Durga Prasad Khatri, leading
numismatists and antiquarians.
Buddhist- Lumbini : As per the Buddhist tradition, Lumbini is the
birthplace of Siddhartha Gautama, who is also known as Buddha. This place is
located in the Terai region of Southern Nepal and is very close to the Indian
Nepalese border. Irrespective of their religion, people from all walks of life are
always fascinated by the beauty of this place. It is easy to reach Lumbini due to
Gautam Buddha Airport at Bhairahawa. Apart from the airports, there is an
ongoing construction work going on for building hotels across Lumbini to promote
the beauty and uniqueness of this place. According to many Buddhist sources,
Buddha’s mother Maya was travelling from Kapilavastu to her parent’s home. But,
suddenly, she went into labour at Lumbini. It has been speculated that Maya gave
birth with no pain while standing between twin Sala trees. The most astonishing
fact about this theory was that the baby could speak immediately after it was
born. The child said that this was his final rebirth, and then, the baby took seven
steps to the four cardinal points and a lotus flower sprang forth with each step.
The divinities washed both Maya and her child. This started a religious ceremony
in which people bathe the baby Buddha when they celebrate Buddha’s birth. As
cited by many Buddhist sources, Maya died seven days after giving birth to the
Buddha. Later on, Mahaprajapati took over the role of becoming Siddhartha’s
foster mother. Later on, Buddha left his luxurious life after watching the pain and
suffering faced by the poor. Later on, Buddha found enlightenment. Buddhism is
now one of the most followed religions in the world.
Bodhgaya : Bodh Gaya is a Buddhist pilgrimage site in Gaya District of Bihar.
Famous for the Mahabodhi Temple, It was here under the Bodhi tree that
Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment.
It is now one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites, and a lot of foreign countries,
including Japan and China, have helped the Indian government in building
facilities for the Buddhist pilgrims. The place is bustling with pilgrims all through
the year from India and abroad who come to pay their homage in monasteries,
temples and remnants of Bodhi Tree.
Located near the river Neranjana, Bodh Gaya was earlier known as Uruwela. It
was also known as Sambodhi, Vajrasana or Mahabodhi until the 18th century CE.
It is one of the four important Buddhist sites that include: Kushinagar, Lumbini and
Sarnath.
Sarnath : Sarnath is situated at a distance of 8 km from Varanasi easily
accessible by any conveyance. There are several monuments at Sarnath which are
divided into two groups. Under Group 'A' Chaukhandi Stupa and under Group 'B
all other .monuments at the sites i.e. Stupas, monasteries, temples, etc.
Chaukhandi Stupa is a lofty brick structure crowned with an octagonal tower. The
octagonal tower is a Mughal monument built by Goverdhan, the son of Raja
Todarmal in A.D. 1588 to commemorate the visit of Humayun to this place. The
second group which contains remains of several stupas, monasteries and Ashokan
column are built in brick and stone and datable from the 3rd century B.C. to 12th
century A.D., forms the major and important segment of the site. The Ashokan
column Dharamrajika stupa, Dhameka stupa, the remains of the temple and a
series of monasteries and votive stupas are the most important remains of the
site.
Sanchi : Buddhism shares the goal of overcoming the suffering and attainment
of Nirvana, the ultimate state of soteriological release. Why not experience the
sterling teaching of Gautam Buddha at the great Sanchi Stupa, the monument
reflecting gem of Buddhist art and architecture?
Sanchi Stupa is one of the oldest stone structures in India built during the
Mauryan period. The sculptures, monuments and lush gardens of Sanchi Stupa
have been designated as the World Heritage site by UNESCO.
Sanchi, a small village is located at the foothill very close to the capital city of
Madhya Pradesh, Bhopal. The place attracts wanderers from across the world with
its ancient Stupas, monasteries and prosperous Buddhist culture. The Great Stupa
at Sanchi is one of the best-preserved Stupas with its ornamental gateways
attracting thousands of pilgrims and travellers. Following is a complete guide of
Sanchi Stupa that will uncover interesting facts about the place.
Jain- Kashi : Moodabidri, a small town located in the Dakshina Kannada
district of Karnataka, is a place of great significance to the Jain community in India.
The town is known as the "Kashi of Jains" due to its rich cultural heritage,
historical significance, and numerous Jain temples and monuments. In this travel
article, we will delve deep into the history of Moodabidri and explore the reasons
behind its nickname.Moodabidri is situated at a distance of around 35 kilometers
from Mangalore, the nearest major city. The town is easily accessible via road and
rail, with regular bus and train services connecting it to other major cities in
Karnataka. The nearest airport is the Mangalore International Airport, which is
located around 45 kilometers away.
Girnar : Standing tall at 3672 feet, Girnar is an ancient hill in Junagadh. This
centuries old hill is covered with 866 Hindu and Jain temples that are spread over
the summits. One will have to climb 9999 steps to reach the final summit. Trek to
Girnar Hill starts from Girnar Taleti.
Places that one will come across on a trek to Girnar Hill are Domdar Kund, near
the Damodar and Baldvji temples. Historians say that 15th-century poet Narsinh
Mehta used to bath in the Domdar Kund and composed many of its beautiful
hymns here. As one walks through the rocky paths to visit other summits,
travellers will across many temples of different sects of Hinduism. In this series of
temples, one will come across Bhavnath Temple where one can see 'naked sadhus'
that come to celebrate Shivratri. After 4000 steps up, 800 steps before the first
summit, one will reach a plateau with a Jain temple complex. Mostly Jain temples
here are dating back to 12th century and are the place where 22nd Tirthankar of
Jain religion, died after 700 years of ascetic meditation. After walking 2000 steps,
one will start noticing the panoramic view of the Girnar hill. Then the stone trail
continues 1000 steps down and 1000 steps back up, to reach the other summits.
The last temple on the Girnar Hill is the temples to Kalika, where one can see
Aghora sadhus covered from head to toe with the funeral ashes.
An early morning walk to the Girnar Hill is a blissful experience that stays with
tourist's memory throughout life. Hindu and Jain devotees often visit these
temples as they are sacred. People who are looking for a little adventure and fun
can visit for the breath-taking view of the scenery and the architecture of the
temples in addition to the challenging climb.
Mt Abu : The only hill station of Rajasthan, Mount Abu is located in the Aravali
range. The most important attraction, however, are undoubtedly the Dilwara
temples, which is one of the most stunning pieces of architecture in the country.
Travellers can enjoy calm and relaxed boating in Nakki Lake, and a view of the
sunset from the vista points. The restaurants and eateries around the lake are
great places to eat local food and chill. The highest peak of the Aravali Range -
Guru Shikhar also lies in Mt. Abu. Mount Abu Forest Sanctuary with an abundance
of flora and fauna is also a highlight.
The exceptionally intricate architecture of the Dilwara temples are of course the
main attraction here, and you can easily spend hours wondering how these
temples were built over 2 centuries, almost 1000 years back. The temples were
specifically made so that they are plain from the outside to avoid the attraction of
plunderers, and have withstood the test of time extremely well.
Sikh- Amritsar : The Golden Temple Amritsar India (Sri Harimandir Sahib
Amritsar) is not only a central religious place of the Sikhs, but also a symbol of
human brotherhood and equality. Everybody, irrespective of cast, creed or race
can seek spiritual solace and religious fulfilment without any hindrance. It also
represents the distinct identity, glory and heritage of the Sikhs.
As advised by Sri Guru Amar Dass Ji (3rd Sikh Guru), Sri Guru Ram Dass Ji (4th Sikh
Guru) started the digging of Amrit Sarovar (Holy Tank) of Sri Harmandir Sahib in
1577 A.D., which was later on brick-lined by Sri Guru Arjan Dev Ji (5th Sikh Guru)
on December 15, 1588 and He also started the construction of Sri Harmandir
Sahib. Sri Guru Granth Sahib (scripture of the Sikhs), after its compilation, was first
installed at Sri Harmandir Sahib on August 16, 1604 A.D. A devout Sikh, Baba
Budha Ji was appointed its first Head Priest.The Golden Temple Amritsar India (Sri
Harmandir Sahib Amritsar) has a unique Sikh architecture. Built at a level lower
than the surrounding land level, The Gurudwara teaches the lesson of
egalitarianism and humility.
Patna : Patna the capital of Bihar ranks amongst the fastest developng cities of
India. The capital city has a rich cultural and historical heritage dating back to 600
B.C. Patna is at an altitude of 53m above sea level and is situated on the southern
banks of river Ganga. Once known as Pataliputra or Patalipattan it was a famous
center of learning. Today it is the principal administrative, industrial and
educational centre of Bihar. It is the second most populous city in Eastern
India.Patna is a sacred city for Hindus, Jains, Buddist and Muslims alike. Every year,
thousands of Hindu, Jain and Buddist pilgrims flock Patna for pilgrimage. The city
is home to famous Gurudwaras, Mosques and Temples. Glimpses of the Afgan
architecture and British architecture can be seen by visiting famous monuments of
those era. Various archaeologically and historically important sites like the ruins of
Asokan Pataliputra at the Kumhrar and Agam Kuan and relics of Mauryan art at
Didarganj Yakshi gives areflection of the bygone era of the Mauryan empire. Apart
from these Patna is also flooded with modern shopping malls, libraries, boating
clubs and cinema houses. Patna is dotted with numerous hangout destinations.
Nanded : Nanded is one of the historical places in the Marathwada region of
Maharashtra State. It is situated on the north bank of the Godavari river. It is
famous for Sikh Gurudwaras. Nanded is a town of great antiquity. It is said that
during the Puranic days, Pandavas traveled through the Nanded district. Nandas
ruled over Nanded through generations.
The mention of Nanded is found in the Lilacharitra, a treatise written by
Mahimbhatta. It gives the description of the idol of Narasimha in the town.
Nanded was formerly known as “Nanditat” which is confirmed by the copper plate
found at Vasim. Nanded District and the adjoining areas.
Muslim Jama Masjid : Towering over Old Delhi, the magnificent façade
of Jama Masjid stands as the reminder of Mughal architecture. Commissioned by
the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, the Masjid-i Jah?n-Num? (meaning Mosque
commanding view of the world) was his final architectural opus. On the other
hand, the popular name, Jama Masjid is derived from the word 'Jummah',
referring to the congregational prayer observed by Muslims on Fridays. Built from
red sandstone and white marble, the edifice dominates the skyline of the busy
Chawri Bazar in central Delhi and is considered the largest mosque in India. Each
year, on Eid, thousands of reverent Muslims throng the mosque to offer special
Eid Namaz in the morning. The mosque is jointly maintained by the Delhi Wakf
Board and the Jama Masjid committee under the directives from the Shahi
Imam.Following the death of his wife, Mughal emperor Shah Jahan decided to
shift his capital from Agra to Delhi and founded the walled city of
Shahajahanabad. It remained the capital of the Mughals succeeding him and
evolved to what we now know as Old Delhi. The Jama Masjid was commissioned
to be the central mosque of the new city. Built by more than 5000 artisans under
the supervision of Wazir Saadullah Khan, the mosque designed by architect Ustad
Khalil, took 6 years to be completed. The mosque was inaugurated by Sayed Abdul
Ghafoor Shah BukhariI, a mullah from Bukhara (now Uzbekistan), on 23 July 1656,
on the invitation from Shah Jahan, whom he bequeathed the title Shahi Imam and
appointed to the high office of Imamat-e-Uzma. The cost to build the mosque
came to a whopping 1 million rupees at the time.The mosque houses several relics
of Islamic religious significance like an age old transcript of the Quran printed on
deer skin, the footmarks, sandals, and a red beard-hair of the Holy Prophet
Mohammad.
Ajmer Sharif : Ajmer Sharif Dargah, also known as Ajmer Dargah, is the
tomb of Moinuddin Chishti is one of the holiest places of worship in India not only
for the Muslims but followers of every faith. Being the final resting place of the
Khwaja Moin-ud-din Chisti, it has had an enormous contribution in spreading the
ethical and spiritual values of Islam amongst masses.
Khwaja Moin-ud-din Chisti was a great Sufi Saint and dedicated his entire life to
the upliftment of the poor and downtrodden. The shrine is visited by millions of
people every year, as it is considered very sacred by people of all religions. Ajmer
Sharif was built by the Mughal Emperor Humayun, hence justifying the rich
Mughal Architecture. The Dargah has various constituents like tombs, courtyards
and Daalaans. The major among these structures are- Nizam Gate, Buland
Darwaza, Jama Masjid, Aulia Masjid, Dargah Shrine, Mehfilkhana and about a
dozen of other prominent establishments.
One can spot two huge cauldrons in the inner courtyard of the shrine. These
containers have a capacity of 2240 kg and 4480 kg and are used during special
occasions to cook sweet delicacies like Kheer.
Fatehpur Sikri : Fatehpur Sikri is located in Agra District in the State of Uttar
Pradesh in northern India. It was constructed southeast of an artificial lake, on the
slopping levels of the outcrops of the Vindhyan hill ranges. Known as the “city of
victory”, it was made capital by the Mughal emperor Akbar (r. 1556-1605 CE) and
constructed between 1571 and 1573. Fatehpur Sikri was the first planned city of
the Mughals to be marked by magnificent administrative, residential, and religious
buildings comprised of palaces, public buildings, mosques, and living areas for the
court, the army, the servants of the king and an entire city. Upon moving the
capital to Lahore in 1585, Fatehpur Sikri remained as an area for temporary visits
by the Mughal emperors.
The inscribed property covers 60.735 ha, with a buffer zone of 475.542 ha. The
city, which is bounded on three sides by a wall 6 km long fortified by towers and
pierced by nine gates, includes a number of impressive edifices of secular and
religious nature that exhibit a fusion of prolific and versatile Indo-Islamic styles.
The city was originally rectangular in plan, with a grid pattern of roads and by-
lanes which cut at right angles, and featured an efficient drainage and water
management system. The well-defined administrative block, royal palaces, and
Jama Masjid are located in the centre of the city. The buildings are constructed in
red sandstone with little use of marble. Diwan-i-Am (Hall of Public Audience) is
encircled by a series of porticos broken up at the west by the insertion of the
emperor’s seat in the form of a small raised chamber separated by perforated
stone screens and provided with pitched stone roof. This chamber communicates
directly with the imperial palace complex clustered along a vast court. At the
north side of it stands a building popularly known as Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private
Audience), also known as the ‘Jewel House’. Other monuments of exceptional
quality are Panch Mahal, an extraordinary, entirely columnar five-storey structure
disposed asymmetrically on the pattern of a Persian badgir, or wind-catcher
tower; the pavilion of Turkish Sultana; Anup Talao (Peerless Pool); Diwan-Khana-i-
Khas and Khwabgah (Sleeping Chamber); palace of Jodha Bai, the largest building
of the residential complex, which has richly carved interior pillars, balconies,
perforated stone windows, and an azure-blue ribbed roof on the north and south
sides; Birbal’s House; and the Caravan Sarai, Haram Sara, baths, water works,
stables and Hiran tower. Architecturally, the buildings are a beautiful
amalgamation of indigenous and Persian styles.
Amongst the religious monuments at Fatehpur Sikri, Jama Masjid is the earliest
building constructed on the summit of the ridge, completed in 1571-72. This
mosque incorporates the tomb of Saikh Salim Chisti, an extraordinary masterpiece
of sculpted decoration completed in 1580-81 and further embellished under the
reign of Jahangir in 1606. To the south of the court is an imposing structure,
Buland Darwaza (Lofty Gate), with a height of 40 m, completed in 1575 to
commemorate the victory of Gujarat in 1572. It is by far the greatest monumental
structure of emperor Akbar’s entire reign and also one of the most perfect
architectural achievements in India.
Christian-Churches of Goa and Kerala :
Churches in Goa
1.Bom Jesus Basilica : Being a UNESCO heritage site, this church is world
renowned to still host the mortal remains of St. Francis Xavier. The interesting
thing about the saint’s mortal remains is that it is extremely well preserved. Even
today, thousands of visitors throng the church to witness this miracle. A Jesuit
church amongst churches in Goa, this structure is considered to be amongst the
finest representations of Baroque architecture. The church is located in Old Goa.
The exact location is Near Gandhi Circle, Old Goa Rd, Velha Goa. There are no
rules to taking photographs. If you want to take a walking tour, many resorts in
Goa arrange a visit to this church. Many walking tour companies offer
comprehensive walking tours of this church including many other sightseeing
attractions in Goa.
2.Se Cathedral : This church is one of the largest in India whilst being amongst the
famous churches in Goa too. Being one of the oldest in the country, the Se
Cathedral was built to celebrate the victory of the Portuguese ruler Afonso de
Albuquerque for capturing a Goan city in 1510. Given that the day when the
enemies were vanquished was also the feast of St Catherine, this church was built
commemorating her.
Displaying a Portuguese-Manueline architectural style, the church has Tuscan
exteriors and Corinthian interiors. Inside the church, there is a large bell called the
Golden Bell – which is the largest in the state.
3.Church of St Francis of Assisi : This church is amongst the revered Roman
Catholic churches. Known for its Barque and Corinthian architecture, the church’s
interiors are finely inlaid with ornaments. On the tabernacle reside two statues –
one of the Christ and the other of St. Francis of Assisi. Inside the church, the
gilded interiors are beautifully decorated. There are numerous paintings depicting
the life of St. Francis of Assisi. The carved woodwork and frescos are also
exquisitely done.
This is the only church in Goa with museum containing artifacts, sculptures, and
paintings. This is one amongst churches in Goa that has items which are a
testimony to a rich and thriving culture that thrived in this land several centuries
ago.
4.Church of Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception : This is one of the oldest
and most famous churches in Goa. The 17th century structure is in the heart of
Panjim – the capital of Goa. The church has a simple and elegant exterior. The
interiors are tidy and well-maintained. There are two altars within – one dedicated
to Our Lady of Rosary and the other to St. Peter. The Xavier’s Chapel is within the
church and is an added attraction. Thousands of devotees visit this church on the
day of the feast. This church is of religious and historical significance. It is a
landmark structure in the capital city. Visiting this place is one of the best thing to
do in Goa.
5.Church of St. Cajetan : Considered to be amongst the most beautiful churches in
Goa, the Church of St. Cajetan resembles the St. Peter’s Church in Rome. Built
with laterite blocks, the church has influences of Corinthian style of architecture.
The tower is rectangular and the interiors are divided into different sections.
Each section has several aisles and flanking them are massive pillars. The wooden
pulpit is decorated beautifully and the main altar is dedicated to the Holy Mother.
There are numerous pictographic and sculptural depictions of the holy family.
Some elements of the interior architecture are crafted in the Baroque style. All of
this culminates into a visually stunning church.
6.Chapel of St. Catherine : This is essentially a Christian ecclesiastical church and
the first one of its kind to be built in Goa. Although small, the church is very
elegant; this church was built by the Portuguese governor in 1510. Built in
commemoration of St. Catherine, the church underwent subsequent modification
before being finally rebuilt in 1952. The chapel is simplistic in its interior design.
Rectangular window panes are an omnipresent characteristic of the interiors.
The church’s history dates back to the year when the Portuguese started to rule
Goa. There is an inscription on a stone slab in the church premises which essays
this fact. This church is definitely historically significant given that it existed during
those glorious years of conquest and reclamation.
Churches in Kerala
1. Santa Cruz Basilica, Kochi : One of the most famous churches in Kerala and one
among the 8 Basilicas, Santa Cruz Basilica is a beautiful church located in Fort
Kochi. Known for spectacular Indo-European and Gothic architecture, historical
paintings, murals and frescos, this church is more than 500 years old and was built
during the arrival of Portugese in 1500 CE. The church had been revamped several
times and the present structure was sanctified in 1905. If you want to visit the
ancient churches in Kerala, then this should be in your itinerary.
2. St. Francis Church, Kochi : St. Francis Church, is one of the top most tourist
attractions of Kochi, dating back to 1503. Vasco da Gama was buried here in 1524
and 14 years later, his holy remains were relocated to Lisbon, Portugal. The
timber-framed roof covered with tiles, white façade, frescos and stained glasses
throw a dash of amusement on each visitor, making it one of the most significant
churches in Kochi. In the middle of the lawn, there stands a cenotaph, built in the
loving memories of Kerala people who laid down their lives in First World War.
3. Nadamel Marth Mariam Church, Kochi : Nadamel Marth Mariam Church is a
notable tourist attraction near Kochi. Located at the outskirt area, the Nadamel
church was patronised by Cochin Royal Family and is one of the significant names
in the list of Jacobite churches in Kerala. One of the most common traditions was
whenever a new successor in the Royal family of Kochi, he would make an offering
known as sharkara thattu veypu at the church and meet all the bishops and
leaders in person.
4. St. George Church, Ernakulam : St. Gregorios of Parumala established this
church in 1905 in Ernakulam district of Kerala. This is one of the popular names on
the list of churches in Kochi. Possessing divine Girdle of Mother Mary and sacred
remnants of Manjanikkara Bava, along with Thronose- the main alter, shrines like
Pulicamaly, Pangarappilly and several chapels such as Mar Gregorious chapel at
Oozhakode and St. John the Baptist at Memugam; this church attracts admirers
and devotees from all over India.
5. Lourdes Forane Church, Trivandrum : As one of the famous churches in
Trivandrum, Lourdes Forane is bestowed with overwhelming serenity and
elegance. The interior wood work, framed alter, arches and paintings reflect the
glories of the past and enhance the charming quotient of the church. People come
here to seek blessings and spend their quality time in peace and serenity. The
beautiful building of this church will mesmerise you, giving you all the reasons to
revisit!
6. Arthunkal Church, Alappuzha : Situated 22 kms north of Alappuzha, the St
Andrews Basilica, also referred as Arthunkal Church is one of the famous sights in
Kerala. Built by Portugese missionaries in 16th century, this church boasts of the
biggest Shrine of St Sebastian in the world, hence locally known as St. Sebastian
Church. Crowned as a basilica in 2010, this Arthunkal church attracts numerous
Christians and non-Christian devotees throughout the year, particularly during
Arthunkal feast, organised annually in mid-January.
UNIT IV
Natural Tourism and Tourist Circuits: wildlife,
Sanctuaries and National Parks,Deserts, Tourist resource
potential in mountain with special reference to
Himalaya:Forests, Hill station, Lakes, Rivers, Golden
Triangle- Delhi, Agra, Jaipur, Southern Triangle-
Mahabalipuram, Kanchipuram, Maduri, Green Triangle-
Guwahati,Shiliong and Kaziranga.
Wildlife : Wildlife tourism is not a recent activity that had won popularity
among adventure loving tourists. Those with a strong penchant for wild life and its
natural habitat had answered the irresistible call of the wild down the ages. In the
past, the gun took precedence over camera and men went on foot, elephant and
horse backs in search of big games.
The perils were astronomical. Sometimes these daring adventure trips resulted in
death of the hunter. If luck stays on his side, he returned with his trophy, the
carcass of a lion or a tiger shot by him and carried by his faithful followers. The
world watched with startled silence the courage and hunting prowess displayed by
him with pride and an air of triumph.Wild life tourism is a great way to be as close
to nature as possible amid an amazing mix of flora and fauna. It is a niche tourism
whose popularity is immense. It is an eco-friendly venture having huge economic
potential. The tourist is exposed to the animal world in the background of nature.
He learns about the animal group behavior, their social structure, communication
patterns, social code of discipline, and their mode of interaction and
interpretation of the same. A keen observation of animals reacting in a specific
way to a given environment draws loads of fun and thrill.
Wild life tourism has a long history behind its evolution. It all started off following
the trail of big game. Hunting wild life was the chief motive driven by commercial
schemes as well as making a specific settlement free from the attacks of wild lions
and tigers and herds of rhinos and elephants who had become a potential menace
to the cultivated crops.
The coats, fur, tusks and horns fetched handsome prices, and as an added bonus
the hunter makes a name for himself winning the well wishes of the natives
rescued from the assault of wild life. Sometimes the tracking involved hundreds of
kilometers on foot or horseback before the hunter confronted the animal stalking
behind a bush waiting for the kill.
Even today wild life sightings involve covering large areas before you meet a herd
or pride. It is packed with nail biting suspense and sometimes danger lurks when
you stumble upon a pride of lion feeding on a zebra carcass under the shade of an
African baobab tree. How would you feel to have a charging isolated bull elephant
in front of you in the African savannas? How would you react viewing a growling
ten foot tall grizzly bear in an attempt to protect its cub in the Yellowstone Park in
the US -Canadian border?
It is all daring adventure and you feel the worth of every dime spent. However, the
camera has replaced the gun. No one hunts today. The wild life conservation laws
are operative to see the animals and their natural habitats do not get threatened.
The travel is done over long distances in land rovers, balloons, steamers and
aircrafts.
There are expert guides to feed you on every minute detail on wild life and the
jungle. They are an authority on the subject of wild life having years of practical
field experience. In fact, they have an ear to nature and can sniff odors, hear
sounds and see the trails with telescoping precision, which you fail to realize. They
do carry guns in case required against an attack.
Wild life tourism has expert guides tour package arrangements crafted by tour
operators. Your itinerary is lodge based and sometimes camp based. You start off
in a safari enjoying the landscapes, thick growth of forests and tall grass land on
your way watching herds of gnus and zebra crossing over streams filled with
hungry crocks, pods of basking hippos, herds of wild buffalos grazing and the
elephants on a group feeding spree. If luck stays on your side, you watch the
thrilling spectacle of a bolting cheetah bring down a Thomson’s gazelle or a pride
of lions hanging on to a cape buffalo.
It is all thrill and suspense before you reach your lodge or camp where good food,
drink and hospitality are waiting to entertain you. As an added bonus, you may
relish the legend of a local man-eating lion that had once turned the region into a
slaughterhouse! Wild life tourism is an ever expanding billion-dollar industry.
Africa with her immense wealth of wild life and forest cover has been traditionally
a big inspiration in wild life tourism with world famous national parks like
Masaimara, Ngorongoro crater and Kruger National Park drawing tourists in
flocks . Other notable wild life tourism destinations are Australia, Canada, US,
South America, India, Malaysia and Nepal.
Wild life tourism is basically a form of ecotourism where ecological balance is
retained. The tourist enjoys his trip within the safety of the tour vehicle. An
efficient tour guide accompanies you and your group. Everything happens with
thrill and adventure without any harm done to wild life and its natural
habitat.India had been famous for its dense forests and a huge wild life population
constituting fierce carnivores, wild herbivores and a variety of land, arboreal and
aquatic reptiles, acrobatic primates and a host of colorful birds. The forests came
alive with their growls, grunts, hisses and chirps. It was a favorite past time for
Maharajahs and Zamindars to go on a hunting spree. This was wild adventure and
a mark of courage. The maharajas of Princely states scattered across the Indian
subcontinent like Rajasthan, Mysore, Nepal, Gwalior and Assam went out into the
wilds with an army of followers with much fan fare. There were beaters who
herded the wild animal round the corner so that the maharaja can accomplish his
hunt at his leisure from the ‘howdah’ , the regal seat mounted on elephant back
or the ‘ machan, which is a makeshift sitting arrangement perched high up on the
tree . The hunter had a vantage point for getting a perfect view to a kill.
These legendary wild life safaris are primarily driven by a fierce chauvinism; an
intense esteem of one’s own physical ability and male courage. The expedition
sometimes lasted for months. The queen and the women folk waited for the king
to return from his hunting trip with pomp and grandiose.
The result of the trip generally culminated in an awe-inspiring display in the royal
palace with the muzzles of elephants, wild gaurs, sambars, tigers and leopards,
the victims of the Rajah’s gunshot. The focus was more on hunting rather than
observing wild life behavior in their habitat. Arrangement for the stock of food,
water, tents and management of a huge group had to be planned as it is done
today. Since restriction on hunting did not exist, the touring team gathered food
by hunting down sambar, deer and fowl. The expeditions were basically filled with
thrill and kill.
These legendary wild life safaris are primarily driven by a fierce chauvinism; an
intense esteem of one’s own physical ability and male courage. The expedition
sometimes lasted for months. The queen and the women folk waited for the king
to return from his hunting trip with pomp and grandiose.
Sanctuaries and National Parks: National parks are areas that aim
to protect the natural environment. They are also involved in public recreation
and enjoyment activities. In a national park, the landscapes and its flora and fauna
are present in their natural state.
India is rich in biodiversity. It comprises about 7.6% mammals, 6.2% reptiles,
12.6% birds, and 6.0% flowering plant species under the Indomalayan ecozone.
Many eco-regions of our country like Shola forests exhibit high rates of endemism.
The forests cover over the ranges from the tropical rainforest, the Western Ghats,
and Northeast India to the coniferous forests in the Himalayan region.
The significant terrestrial ecosystem coming along the Indomalayan ecozone
consists of temperate, polar, wet, dry regions for different kind of species to live.
The species include elephant, tiger, cobra, crocodile, apes, sambar deer, spotted
deer, rhinoceros, goats, lions along with different types of flora and faunas.
Indian wildlife has around 99 world-recognized national parks in different parts of
the country. All these national parks and the wildlife reserves have been
recognized by the IUCN or the International Union for the Conservation of Nature
under the second category of protected areas.
List of National Parks in India
National parks provide a haven for wildlife away from civilization. India has
currently over 100 national parks distributed across the country, stretching across
various biomes.
The Hailey National Park is the first national park in India. It is one of the finest
examples of ecological conservation. The other national parks in India include:
1. Bandipur National Park in Karnataka
2. Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya Pradesh
3. Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka
4. Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala
5. Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand
6. Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka
 7. Dudhwa National Park in Uttar Pradesh
8. Gir National Park and Sasan Gir Sanctuary in Gujarat
9. Hemis National Park in Jammu & Kashmir
10.Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh
11.Kaziranga National Park in Assam
12.Keoladeo Ghana National Park in Bharatpur, Rajasthan
13.Manas National Park in Assam
14.Nagarhole National Park in Karnataka
15.Panna National Park in Madhya Pradesh
16.Periyar National Park in Kerala.
17.Pench National Park in Madhya Pradesh
18.Ranthambore National Park in Rajasthan
19.Sariska National Park in Rajasthan
20.Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve in Maharashtra
21.The Great Himalayan National Park in Himachal Pradesh
All these national parks are an abode to a large number of wild animals because
of the optimum environmental conditions with proper upbringing and breeding
facilities.
Sanctuaries are naturally occurring areas that are meant to protect the
endangered species from hunting, poaching and predation. Here the animals are
not bred for commercial purposes. It provides a safe, healthy and secured refuge
to all the wild animals.
List of Wildlife Sanctuaries in India
Following is the list of sanctuaries found in India:
1. Dichigam Wildlife Sanctuary
2. Sunderbans Wildlife Sanctuary
3. Manas Wildlife Sanctuary
4. Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary
5. Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary
6. Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary
7. Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary
8. Annamalai Wildlife Sanctuary
9. Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary
10.Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary
Initially, many of the National Parks were wildlife sanctuaries. After the adoption
of conservative measures by the Indian Government, there was a 30% rise in the
number of tigers in the year 2015. These wildlife sanctuaries and national parks
are the most visited areas in India that offer an unmatchable wilderness in various
regions.
The wildlife lovers and tourists can find more opportunities for sightseeing, safari
tour, bird watching, angling, fishing, river crossing, camping, and tiger tours at
distinct tiger reserves in India.
To make a better and rewarding wildlife experience to the tourists, these
destinations are made much more extensive by the Wildlife Authority of India,
thus making them as better-known tourist spots having major attractions. There is
also a provision of various kinds of accommodations such as resorts, hotels,
lodges coming in close vicinity.
Deserts: Most people know deserts to be large sandy, and hot without much
vegetation area. While this is true, deserts are places that receive little
precipitation (forms in which water falls from the atmosphere to earth).
Therefore, sites like the Antarctic and Greenland qualify as deserts. Hot or cold,
we would all like to visit the deserts, right? Let's read on to learn about the
world's ten best deserts.
1. Sahara Desert : The Sahara Desert, or the Great Desert, is the largest hot desert
in the world. However, it is the third largest desert in the world, smaller than
Antarctica and the northern Arctic deserts. It is located in Africa and is the largest
desert on the continent. It occupies most of North Africa, stretching from the Red
Sea in the East, the Mediterranean in the North, and the Atlantic Ocean in the
West. It is also found in several African countries: Egypt, Algeria, Chad, Libya, Mali,
Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Tunisia, and Sudan. Many activities can be enjoyed in
the Sahara, such as quad biking, stargazing, sand surfing, camping, and even
trekking. Camel rides, too, are part of the deal. There are also places to visit,
ancient temples such as the temple of Amun and Shali Fortress, among others.
The best time to visit the Sahara Desert is during the Christmas or Easter breaks.
2. Arabian Desert : The Arabian Desert is located in western Asia and occupies
almost the entire Arabian Peninsula which is the largest Peninsula in the world.
The Arabian Desert is the fifth-largest desert in the world and the largest in Asia. It
stretches across Yemen, Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, and
Oman. It is advisable to visit the Arabian Desert between November and February
when the weather is coolest. Some activities include camel safaris, desert
camping, hiking in the desert, dune bashing, Arabian safaris, and hot air balloon
rides. There is deadly quicksand in the Arabian, so be cautious when visiting.
3. Antarctic Desert : As explained above, Antarctica is a cold desert and the
world's largest desert. It is considered a desert because it only receives annual
precipitation of about 50 mm. It is also a continent, the fifth-largest continent.
Antarctica is the coldest desert and the coldest place on earth. It is made up of
thick sheets of ice accumulated for thousands of years. Although Antarctica is
cold, there is summer, and this is the best time to visit the desert. Summer lies
between November and March when the earth is tilted towards the sun, and it is
always sunny. Interestingly, some activities include skiing, climbing Antarctica’s
mountains, kayaking, crossing the drake passage, visiting science research
stations, and spotting seals and penguins
4. Atacama Desert : The Atacama Desert is a desert plateau in South America. It is
found in Chile, Argentina, Bolivia, and Peru. It is the driest nonpolar desert. It is
also the world’s largest source of sodium nitrate, and the oldest artificially
mummified human remains are here. It is interesting to note that the soil in the
Atacama Desert is similar to that of Mars. It is ideal to visit the Atacama Desert
during Chile’s winter, from May to July. Some activities you should enjoy include
visiting Valle De Luna (Moon Valley), floating in the Laguna Baltinache, watching
flamingoes at the Laguna Chaxa, and visiting the Chacabuco Nitrate Village, taking
desert trips, going on hot air balloon rides, and enjoying Stargazing.
5. Namib Desert : Namib Desert is said to be the world's oldest desert, and some
parts of the desert rival the Atacama Desert as the driest place in the world.
Namib desert lies in Namibia, South Africa, and Angola. An interesting bit about
Namibia is that there are desert-adapted lions. The Damaraland elephants have
also adapted to the desert and can go for days without water. The black rhinos
also call Namib home. Tour programs take people on safari around Namib and
sightings of these animals. There are also old sand-filled towns and castles to be
visited. It is recommended to visit the Namib Desert between May to October.
6. Gobi Desert : The Gobi Desert spreads across China and Mongolia. It is,
however, not one major desert. It is a combination of 33 different deserts, each
with different features and landscapes. It is famous for its role in the Mongol
empire. Only 5% of the Gobi Desert is covered in sand. The rest is mountains with
a green valley, rivers, oases, sand dune lakes, historical sites, and lakes. The desert
also has fossils such as dinosaur eggs and is home to animals such as Bactrian
camels, Siberian Ibex, and Gobi brown bears. Plan a visit to the Gobi Desert from
August to October and enjoy activities such as camel trekking, searching for
fossils, watching beautiful sunrises and sunsets, visiting the Three Beauties
National Park, and climbing dunes.
7. Arctic Desert : The Arctic Desert is another cold desert because of the low
amount of precipitation it receives annually. It is the second largest desert in the
world. It covers a group of islands in Russia and Norway. Despite its freezing
weather, there are inhabitants in the Arctic, the famous Eskimos. Some animals
have adapted to these conditions, such as the arctic fox, arctic hare, narwhal,
polar bear, and walrus. There are a lot of activities that can be enjoyed in the
Arctic Desert. They include dog sledding, snowshoe walks, skiing, sports fishing,
mountaineering, and rafting. For the best time to enjoy the Artic Desert, plan your
trip between June and September.
8. Great Australian Desert : Right after the Sahara Desert, the fourth largest
desert in the world is the Great Australian desert. Located entirely in Australia, it is
a collection of 10 deserts and desert regions that are in Australia. Mining is one of
the significant activities to do in the GAD, along with agriculture and tourism. GAD
is rich in gold, lead, nickel, some precious gems, iron, aluminum, manganese, and
uranium ores. Hot though it may be for humans, the Great Australian Desert is
inhabited by some exotic animals. It includes wallabies, kangaroos, dingoes, and
wombats and is home to the world's largest feral camels. There are reptiles like
bearded dragons, thorny devils, and birds such as emus, parrots, and cockatoos.
Activities such as desert safaris, hiking, and visiting Uluru can be enjoyed best
between April and October.
9. Kalahari Desert : Covering Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa, it’s the second
biggest desert in Africa after the Sahara Desert. There is a variety of wildlife to be
seen in the Kalahari Desert, from springbok, oryx, wildebeest, kudu, cheetahs,
leopards, the famous black-maned lions, secretary birds, and giant eagle owls. The
best time to visit Kalahari is between November and April. During this period,
there is a large animal migration. There are national parks to tour during your
visit, or you can go canoeing and cruising in the orange river, hiking the dassie
trail, and mountain biking.
10. Mojave Desert : The Mojave Desert in North America spans the states of
California, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona. It is home to the Death Valley, the hottest
place in North America. Though it has harsh conditions, the Mojave has lovely
landscapes that have been used as an out-of-this-world backdrop to the fiction
series ‘Star Trek’ and ‘Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas.’ There are a variety of
species, such as ten different types of scorpions, tarantulas, desert tortoises, some
endemic plants, Joshua tree forests, and wildflower fields. It boasts the Valley of
Fire State Park, many towns, and museums. All of these make it a very famous
tourist attraction. Plan your trip between February and April and enjoy these
activities and others such as hiking Hole-in-the-Wall Rings Loop Trail, stargazing,
and hiking the mule mountains.
There are 23 deserts in the world, some are big while others are small, some hot,
and others cold deserts, each with unique features. Deserts are found worldwide,
and some of these deserts are growing in size. It is pleasing to realize that despite
the severity of the conditions in these places, activities can still be enjoyed.
Himalaya Forests : These forests are mainly found in the mountainous
region of the Himalayas. The decreasing in temperature and increasing in altitude
lead to varied types of vegetation depending upon the factors like slope of the
mountain and sunrays receiving side.
Areas with relatively low altitude up to 1000 meters, warm climate and good
amount of rainfall are characterized by dense vegetation cover. These areas look
like tropical forest. Sal and Bamboo are main species in these areas. Between the
elevation of 1000 to 2000 meters evergreen broad leave Oak and Chestnut are the
common speciesfound in these forests.
In eastern Himalayas the same elevation is occupied by sub tropical Pine forests.
Chir is common species found in this part. Moist temperate forest in Himalayas
are found between the elevation 1500 to 3500 meters which receives annual
rainfall in the range of 100 to 250 cm. Oak, laurel, chestnut, cedar, Silver, Fir,
spruce rhododendron and deodarare the main species found in this part of
Himalayas. They have been widely exploited for their timber.
Alpine forest found in Himalayas at the height of between 3000 to 3800 m with
large and extensive highland grassland and sparsely distributed pine, birch, sliver,
fir and rhododendron trees.
Himalaya Hill station : Spiritual center, Holiday home and trekkers'
paradise, Himalayan hill stations are a perfect combination of all these. It is a sure
retreat for those who need their soul soothed and their hearts warmed. Each of
the hill stations is unique and has a different story to tell. With its pure and fresh
air, rolling hills, turbulent rivers and glistening mountain peaks Himalayan hill
stations is a must visit for a nature lover.
Some of the main hill stations of the Himalayas are as follows:
Gulmarg and Sonamarg
The location of Gulmarg is 56 km from Srinagar and Sonamarg is 84 km from
Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir. The main attraction here is trekking and river
rafting. Gulmarg is one of India's premier hill stations. It is famous world wide for
its highest green golf course and ski resort in winter. The hill station offers some
breathtaking views like the ridges and forests that lead to the snow slopes of
Khilanmarg and the majestic Nanga Parbat peak over 100 km away. On the other
hand Sonamarg, which is about 84 km from Srinagar lies at the head of the Sindh
valley. It showcases a spectacular facet of the countryside. The place is totally
surrounded by mountains and pine forests. It also serves the base for the
Amarnath Yatra from the Baltal route. It is also famous for trekking to Thajiwas, a
small valley at the foot of the Sonamarg glacier.
Srinagar
Srinagar is the picturesque capital city of Jammu and Kashmir. It is known world
wide for its houseboats, canals, Mughal Gardens, the most popular being Shalimar
and Nishat. The city mainly looks like any other Indian city but it has a charm of its
own. Among the lakes Dal Lake is the most famous. The Dal Lake is divided in four
parts by causeways - Lokut Dal, Bod Dal, Gagribal Dal and Nagin. The lake is the
lifeline of Srinagar, with a variety of marine life such as fish, lotus, roots and
floating gardens, thriving on it. Among the other famous places to visit are
Shankaracharya Hill, Hazaratbal Mosque, Hari Parbat Fort, etc. Srinagar is
regarded as the crown of all hill stations in the Himalayan region.
Ladakh
Ladakh is considered to be the land of poetry. The vastness and sternness of this
region makes you understand the power of nature. It is located at an altitude of
2,500 to 4,500m. This place is famous for trekking, mountaineering, camping,
water rafting, and Buddhist monasteries. Ladakh straddles four main ranges the
Zanskar, Ladakh, great Himalayan, and the Karakoram. This is the highest
inhabited region in India and the River Indus with its tributaries, cut their way
through the ranges.
Shimla
The beauty of Shimla is really difficult to describe in words. It is one of God's gifted
lands, which is blessed with the nature's gift, one can imagine. The hill station is
known for its panoramic beauty. The green pastures surround the town and snow-
capped mountain peaks. It is located 90 km from Kalka, Himachal Pradesh. It is
situated at an altitude of 2, 159m. It is one of the most popular hill stations in
northern India. The main places of attractions here are the Mall, Christ church,
Kufri, Narkanda, etc.
Kullu
Earlier Kullu was known by the name of Kulanthpitha, meaning the end of the
habitable world. It is situated on the banks of river Beas and beyond the beautiful
valley of Kullu is the mighty Greater Himalayas. Some of the places to visit in Kullu
are the Kali Bari temple dedicated to goddess Shayamla, Raghunath temple, which
is dedicated to Lord Ram and is the seat of the valley's presiding deity and then
there is Bijli Mahadev temple. It is also famous for shopping, where in Akhara
Bazar you can pick up locally made woolens. Then there is Bhutti Weavers Colony.
Manali
Manali is famous for its proximity to the snowline. It is a popular honeymoon
destination. Majestic peaks on every side surround the valley. It has a flourishing
orchard industry and it is well known for trekking. Offering pictorial view of great
countryside ideal for adventure sport lovers.
Dharamsala
Dharamsala is 185 km from Shimla, Himachal Pradesh. It is known world wide for
its picturesque beauty. Dense pine trees and deodar forests surround it. It reflects
the mix culture of India and Tibet. The colorful temples and Gompas is the main
attraction of the place. Some of the places of interest are
Kangra Art Museum: this museum in Dharamsala showcases kangra valley
miniatures, pottery, sculptures and old carved doors.
War Memorial: this memorial in Dharamshala commemorates the sacrifice of
Himachali war heroes.
St John's Church: Nestled amidst a stretch of woods, this church in Mcleodganj is
dedicated to the memory of Lord Elgin who passed away in Dharamshala in 1863.
There are other places also to visit also.
Dalhousie
It is located 92 km from Dharamshala, Himachal Pradesh. This hill station spread
over five hills at the western edge of the Dhauladhar range, east of the river Ravi.
The town has a colonial touch in its buildings. The architecture of the place
reflects the colonial era. The slopes are covered with pine forest. The British
governor-general Lord Dalhousie established the colonial town of Dalhousie in
1854. It covers an area of 14 sq km, which is surrounded by alpine vegetation.
Main attractions of Dalhousie are
Bakrota Hills: It is the perfect place for the nature lovers. They are sure to enjoy
the beauty and serenity of this place.
A three-day walk from Dalhousie to Kalatop, Khajjiar and back to Dalhousie. Then
there is St. Francis' Church, St John's Church, Subhash Baoli, Satdhara, etc.
Nainital
Nainital is located 67 km from Almors, at an altitude of 1,938m in the hills of
Kumaon in Uttaranchal. It is a beautiful hill station surrounded by mountains on
three sides. Earlier this place was called Chakta or the City of 60 lakes since this
place had many lakes. Some of the places of attraction are Naina Peak: It is the
most famous picnic spot in Kumaon, it gives a panoramic view of Naini Tal and the
snow capped Himalayas. It's a 5.6 km journey from the town and one of the most
beautiful places for trekking. Then there is Raj Bhawan and Kilbury, etc. You can
also go to nearby places like Bhowali, Armgarh and Mukteshwar from Nainital.
Mussoorie
Mussoorie is located 34 km from Dehradun in the Garhwal hills in Uttaranchal. It is
situated at a height of 2,500 m. It is famous for its immense natural beauty and so
it is called the queen of hill stations. Its natural beauty is a visual treat for nature
lovers. The contemporary bungalows, beautiful gardens and malls, which are
located on the small hills, are the main reason for tourist attraction. Main tourist
attractions are Lal Tibba, Municipal Gardens, Kempty Falls, Gun Hill, etc. Nearby
attraction from Mussoorie are Dehradun, Rishikesh, Haridwar, Sahastra Dhara, etc.
Rishikesh
Rishikesh is located 43 km from Dehradun and 24 km from Haridwar. It is situated
in the lower Himalayan region. Rishikesh is the connecter or access point to
important pilgrim places of Kedarnath, Badrinath, Gangotri and Yamunotri and
these four places together forms Chardham. Main tourist attraction here is
Lakshman Jhula, Swarga Ashram, river rafting, Triveni Ghat and Gita Bhavan.
Gangtok
Gangtok, the capital of Sikkim is located at an altitude of 1, 870 m. It looks like a
fairytale land with its flowing rivers, snow capped hills, and lush rice terraces. The
population here is now around 50,000. The main places of attraction are Tsuk-La-
Khang monastery, Lal bazaar, Dul-Dul Chorten and Jhang Club Chortan, Institute of
Tibetology, etc. Among the nearby places there is Rumtek Monastery, Tashiding
Monastery, Pemayangtse Monastery,Yuksom, Mangan to name a few.
Darjeeling
Among the hill stations in the east Darjeeling is the dream destination. From the
time of the British period Darjeeling has been the most popular and major hill
station. It has been a very important hill station because of its close proximity with
three international borders. It is located 90 km from from Siliguri, in West Bengal.
It is located at an altitude of 2,200 m. The major attraction of Darjeeling is toy
train, tea garden and the malls.
Himalayas Lakes :
1. Pangong Tso, India/Tibet
Pangong Tso, often referred to as one of the most breathtaking lakes in the
Himalayas, is situated at an altitude of 4,350 meters (14,270 feet) above sea level.
This enchanting lake is approximately 134 kilometers (83 miles) long and extends
from India to Tibet, straddling the border between the two countries. The name
“Pangong Tso” means “high grassland lake” in English, aptly describing the
surrounding landscape of lush grasslands and towering mountain peaks.
One of the most striking features of Pangong Tso is its ever-changing colors, with
hues ranging from azure blue to light green, depending on the time of day and the
angle of the sun .The lake’s mesmerizing beauty has not gone unnoticed by
filmmakers either. Pangong Tso gained even more popularity after being featured
in the popular Bollywood movie “3 Idiots.” The film that tells the story of three
friends on a journey to find their lost companion. The movie’s climax was shot at
this scenic location, showcasing the stunning landscape and captivating colors of
the lake. The spot where the movie was filmed has since become a tourist
attraction, with visitors flocking to the area to recreate scenes from the film.
2. Yamdrok Lake, Tibet
Yamdrok Lake, another gem in the Himalayas, is located in Tibet at an altitude of
4,441 meters (14,570 feet) above sea level. This beautiful lake, one of the three
largest sacred lakes in Tibet, is approximately 72 kilometers (45 miles) long and
spreads over an area of 638 square kilometers (246 square miles). The name
“Yamdrok” means “turquoise” in the Tibetan language, a fitting description for the
lake’s brilliant turquoise waters.
The shape of Yamdrok Lake has been compared to a coiling scorpion or a coral
branch, with numerous bays and inlets adding to its unique appearance.
Surrounded by snow-capped mountains, the lake’s tranquil waters are home to a
variety of fish species. Although Yamdrok Lake is a freshwater lake with an
abundance of fish, Tibetans generally do not catch or eat them. They believe that
fish are incarnations of the god of water and that it is a sin to eat or attack them.
Yamdrok Lake holds great spiritual significance for the Tibetan people. According
to local beliefs, the lake is the transformation of a goddess and is considered to be
a guardian deity of Tibet. Each year, numerous pilgrims visit the lake to pay their
respects and seek blessings. The picturesque beauty and rich cultural significance
of Yamdrok Lake make it a must-visit destination for those traveling through the
Himalayan region.
3. Gokyo Lakes, Nepal
The Gokyo Lakes, a series of six spectacular lakes nestled high in the Himalayas,
are located in Nepal’s Sagarmatha National Park. These lakes hold the title of the
world’s highest freshwater lake system, situated at altitudes ranging from 4,700
meters (15,400 feet) to 5,000 meters (16,400 feet) above sea level. The pristine
turquoise waters of the Gokyo Lakes are fed by melting glaciers, making them an
integral part of the region’s natural beauty.
Each of the six lakes – Gokyo Cho (also known as Dudh Pokhari), Thonak Cho,
Gyazumpa Cho, Tanjung Cho, Ngojumba Cho, and Longponga Cho – has its own
distinct charm and allure. The main and most visited of the lakes, Gokyo Cho, lies
at the base of Gokyo Ri, a popular trekking destination that offers incredible
panoramic views of the surrounding Himalayan peaks, including Mount Everest.
The other lakes in the Gokyo Lakes system also offer stunning vistas and
opportunities for exploration, providing a haven for trekkers seeking solitude and
tranquility.The Gokyo Lakes hold significant religious importance for both Hindus
and Buddhists. During the auspicious month of August, the lakes attract numerous
pilgrims who come to take a dip in the sacred waters, believed to wash away sins
and purify the soul.
4. Gurudongmar Lake, India
Gurudongmar Lake, a majestic alpine lake situated in the northern part of the
Indian state of Sikkim, is perched at an altitude of 5,210 meters (17,100 feet)
above sea level. This remarkable lake, one of the highest in the world, covers an
area of approximately 290 acres (117 hectares) and is surrounded by the rugged
beauty of snow-capped mountains and barren landscapes.
Gurudongmar Lake is named after Guru Padmasambhava, an 8th-century
Buddhist master who is believed to have visited the area. According to local
legend, the guru blessed the lake to ensure that its water would never freeze
completely, providing a source of fresh water for the local communities even in
the harshest winter months. Indeed, a portion of the lake remains unfrozen
throughout the year, a testament to the power of faith and the remarkable nature
of this sacred body of water.
The lake holds great religious significance for Buddhists, Sikhs, and Hindus alike,
with each faith attributing its own set of beliefs and stories to the site. As a result,
Gurudongmar Lake attracts numerous pilgrims and visitors who come to pay their
respects and seek blessings.
5. Tilicho Lake, Nepal
Tilicho Lake, an awe-inspiring glacial lake nestled in the Annapurna range of the
Nepalese Himalayas, is situated at an impressive altitude of 4,920 meters (16,138
feet) above sea level. Recognized as one of the highest lakes in the world, Tilicho
Lake is approximately 4 kilometers (2.5 miles) long and 1.2 kilometers (0.75 miles)
wide, with its shimmering turquoise waters reflecting the surrounding snow-
capped peaks.
The lake can be reached via a challenging trek along the popular Annapurna
Circuit route, with a detour leading trekkers to the mesmerizing beauty of Tilicho
Lake. The trek to the lake is an adventure in itself, offering visitors a chance to
traverse rugged terrain, cross high-altitude passes, and experience the diverse
flora and fauna of the region. Those who make the journey are rewarded with
breathtaking views and a sense of accomplishment that comes from reaching one
of the world’s highest lakes.
Tilicho Lake holds significant cultural and religious importance in the area.
According to Hindu mythology, it is believed to be the ancient Kak Bhusundi Lake
mentioned in the epic Ramayana. The lake attracts pilgrims from various faiths
who come to take a dip in its sacred waters, seeking purification and blessings.
With its stunning beauty, challenging trek, and deep cultural significance, Tilicho
Lake is a must-visit destination for adventure seekers and spiritual travelers alike.
6. Gosaikunda Lake, Nepal
Located within the scenic Langtang National Park in Nepal, Gosaikunda Lake is an
alpine freshwater lake that sits at an elevation of 4,380 meters (14,370 feet) above
sea level. The lake covers an area of about 34 acres (13.8 hectares) and is
surrounded by a stunning landscape of snow-capped mountains and verdant
valleys. Gosaikunda Lake is a sought-after destination for both trekkers and
pilgrims.
The trek to Gosaikunda Lake offers a blend of adventure, natural beauty, and
cultural interactions. Starting from either Dhunche or Syabru Besi village, trekkers
will pass through dense forests, encounter traditional Tamang villages, and
navigate high-altitude passes. The trek provides ample opportunities to appreciate
the region’s diverse plant and animal life.
Hindu mythology plays a significant role in Gosaikunda Lake’s cultural importance.
According to legend, Lord Shiva created the lake by piercing a mountain with his
trident to access water after ingesting poison. The lake is considered sacred, and
during the annual Janai Purnima festival, typically held in August, thousands of
pilgrims visit Gosaikunda. They believe that bathing in the lake’s waters purifies
the soul and cleanses sins.
7. Tso Moriri, India
Tso Moriri, a serene high-altitude lake, is located in the Changthang Plateau of the
Indian region of Ladakh. The lake lies at an elevation of 4,522 meters (14,836 feet)
above sea level and stretches approximately 19 kilometers (12 miles) in length and
7 kilometers (4.3 miles) in width. Tso Moriri, with its crystal-clear waters, is
surrounded by barren hills and snow-capped peaks, creating a landscape that is
both peaceful and awe-inspiring.
Visitors can access Tso Moriri by road from Leh, the capital of Ladakh. The journey
offers an opportunity to witness the vast and rugged terrain of the region, as well
as encounter diverse wildlife such as marmots, blue sheep, and the rare and
endangered Tibetan antelope. The area around the lake is a protected wetland
reserve, known as the Tso Moriri Wetland Conservation Reserve, which plays a
vital role in preserving the unique ecosystem and the species that inhabit it.
Tso Moriri is not only a natural wonder but also a place of cultural significance.
The small village of Korzok, situated on the western shore of the lake, is home to
the ancient Korzok Monastery, an important center of Tibetan Buddhism. The
monastery, believed to be over 300 years old, hosts the annual Korzok Gustor
festival, attracting monks, locals, and visitors alike. Tso Moriri offers a unique
blend of natural beauty, wildlife, and cultural experiences, making it an
unforgettable destination for travelers exploring the Himalayas.
8. Phoksundo Lake, Nepal
Phoksundo Lake, a mesmerizing alpine freshwater lake, is situated in the Shey
Phoksundo National Park in the Dolpa district of western Nepal. Resting at an
altitude of 3,611 meters (11,849 feet) above sea level, the lake is celebrated for its
striking turquoise waters, which stand out against the rugged surrounding
landscape. Phoksundo Lake, the deepest lake in Nepal, spans approximately 5.9
kilometers (3.7 miles) in length, 1.8 kilometers (1.1 miles) in width, and reaches
depths of up to 145 meters (476 feet).
The Phoksundo Lake Trek is an excellent choice for travelers who wish to directly
experience the beauty of the lake without undertaking the more challenging
Lower Dolpo Trek. This moderately difficult trek starts from the town of Juphal
and typically takes around 10-12 days. Trekkers will journey through picturesque
landscapes, lush forests, and traditional villages, while enjoying the diverse flora
and fauna of the Shey Phoksundo National Park.
In addition to its natural beauty, Phoksundo Lake holds significant cultural
importance. On the shore of the lake, the 15th-century Thasung Choling
Monastery stands as an important spiritual site for followers of the Bon religion.
The area is further enriched by approximately 20 monasteries surrounding the
lake, emphasizing its deep cultural roots.
9. Chandra Taal, India
Chandra Taal, also known as the “Lake of the Moon,” is a captivating high-altitude
lake located in the Spiti Valley of Himachal Pradesh, India. Positioned at an
elevation of 4,300 meters (14,100 feet) above sea level, the crescent-shaped lake
is formed by the melting of glaciers and is accessible only during the summer
months, typically from May to October.
The serene and pristine surroundings of Chandra Taal attract adventure
enthusiasts and nature lovers alike. The Chandra Taal Trek, starting from the
Kunzum Pass or Batal, offers a chance for trekkers to explore the unique
landscapes of the region, including lush green meadows and barren mountains.
While trekking, one might also encounter diverse wildlife, such as marmots, snow
leopards, and the Himalayan blue sheep, which are native to this region.
Chandra Taal holds a special place in Hindu mythology, as it is believed to be the
location where Lord Indra’s chariot picked up the eldest Pandava brother,
Yudhishthira, in the Hindu epic Mahabharata. This mythological significance adds
to the allure of the lake, making it a popular destination for both trekkers and
pilgrims.
10. Manasarovar Lake, Tibet
Manasarovar Lake, situated in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China, is one of
the highest freshwater lakes in the world at an elevation of 4,590 meters (15,060
feet). Covering an area of approximately 320 square kilometers (123 square
miles), this vast lake offers stunning vistas of the surrounding snow-capped
mountains.
The lake holds immense religious significance for both Hindus and Buddhists.
According to Hindu mythology, Manasarovar Lake was created by Lord Brahma to
provide a suitable place for religious rituals. It is believed that a dip in the holy
waters of the lake can cleanse one’s sins and bring salvation. For Buddhists, the
lake is associated with the legendary Lake Anavatapta, where the Buddha is said
to have received the teachings of the Perfection of Wisdom.
Every year, thousands of pilgrims embark on the arduous journey to Manasarovar
Lake, often as part of the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra, which includes
circumambulating Mount Kailash. The journey to the lake can be challenging, but
the opportunity to witness the sacred site and experience its spiritual atmosphere
makes it a deeply rewarding experience for many.
Himalaya Rivers : The Himalayan mountain complex is the source of the
following three drainage systems which are joined are various tributaries to form
these river systems. These river systems are long and geographically cover a vast
area of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and a significant portion of China as well.
1. The Indus system
2. The Ganga system
3. The Brahmaputra system
1.The Indus River System
Indus river: The Indus rises in Tibet at an altitude of 5,180 metres near the
Mansarovar Lake. With a total length of 2,880 km, the Indus is one of the world’s
largest rivers.
• Jhelum river: The Jhelum river rises in Verinag at the foothills of Pir Panjal
and its drainage area in India is 28,490 square kilometres.
• Chenab river: The Chenab river is the largest of all the Indus tributaries and
is formed by two streams Chandra and Bhaga which rise in the snow-
covered Himachal Mountains near Kulu. Its drainage area in India is 26,755
square kilometres.
 • Ravi river: The Ravi river rises in Kulu hills, near Rohtang Pass, of Himachal
Pradesh and drains 5,957 square kilometres in India
• Beas river: The Beas river originates at a place called Beas Kund near
Rohtang Pass in the Himachal hills. In its early stages, its valley is called the
Kulu valley.
• Satluj river: The Satluj river originates from the Rakas Lake situated at an
altitude of 4,555 metres in Tibet. The Rakas Lake is connected with the
Mansarovar Lake by a stream. The Satluj enters India through Shipki La.
The Ganga River System
The Ganga river basin, with an area within India of 8,61,404 square kilometres, is
the largest in the country.
• Ganga river: The Ganga river rises in the Gangotri glacier in Uttarakhand. Its
two main headstreams Bhagirathi and Alaknanda – meet at Devaprayag,
from where onwards it is called the Ganga. Its total length is 2,510 km, and
it drains 9,51,600 sq. km.
• Yamuna river: The Yamuna is the most important tributary of the Ganga. It
rises at the Yamnotri glacier in Uttarakhand. From its source up to
Allahabad, where it meets the Ganga, Yamuna’s length is 1,376 km and it
drains an area of 3,59,000 square Kilometres.
• Ram Ganga river: The Ram Ganga river rises in the Kumaon Himalayas and
enters the Ganga Plains near Kalagarh. It joins the Ganga near Kannauj.
• Gandak river: The Gandak river rises near the Sino-Nepal border and joins
the Ganga at Sonpur. It drains an area of 9,540 square kilometres.
• Kosi river: The Kosi river has its sources in the Himalayan heights of Sikkim,
Nepal and Tibet. It drains 21,500 square kilometres in India and joins the
Ganga below Bhagalpur.
• Son river: The Son river is a right-bank tributary of the Ganga which, after
rising from the Amarkantak Plateau, joins the Ganga near Patna. It drains an
area of 71,900 square kilometres.
• Damodar river: The Damodar river which actually meets the Bhagirathi-
Hooghly in West Bengal, rises in the hills of the Chhotanagpur Plateau. It
drains an area of 22,000 square kilometres. Formerly referred to as the
‘Sorrow of Bengal’ on account of its floods,
• Chambal river: It rises near Mhow in the highlands of Jan a Pao Hills in MP.
and enters a gorge at chaurasia. It joins Yamuna in the Etawah district of
Uttar Pradesh.
• Ghaghra river: It originates near the Gurla Mandheta peak, South of
Mansarovar in Tibet.
• Kali river: it rises in high glaciers of the snow-covered region of trains – the
Himalayas If forms the boundary between Nepal and Kumaon. It is known
as Sarda after it reaches the plains near Tanakpur.
The Brahmaputra River System
The Brahmaputra river rises in a glacier, about 100 km southeast of the
Mansarovar lake in Tibet. Before entering India, it is called the Tsang-Po in Tibet.
Chinese maps show it as Yarlung Zangbo Jiang. It crosses the Assam Himalayas
under the name of Dihang. The total length of the Brahmaputra in India is 2,900
km, and it drains an area of 2,40,000 square kilometres in India.
Golden Triangle- Delhi : There is no better option than the Golden
Triangle Tour - Covering Delhi, Agra and Jaipur. Golden Triangle Tour is the most
popular tourist circuit in India. This incredible Golden Triangle Tour Itinerary
comprising the three famous cities of India-Delhi, Agra and Jaipur having
grandeur, glory & history.
Delhi - The political capital of India
Delhi, makes up one of the cornerstones of the golden triangle in the
country's north.
Finding its genesis in the great Indian epic the Mahabharata, as Indraprastha,
Capital of the Pandava princes, today the city has transformed itself into a new
incarnation. Reflecting the many colors and flavors of India's eclectic composition,
contemporary Delhi is one where you will be inspired, amazed, fascinated and
impressed at every corner. The India Gate, Red Fort, Jam Masjid, Chandni Chowk,
Kutub Minar, Jantar-Mantar, Laxmi Narayan Temple, Akshardham Temple, Bahai
Temple and many more are worth seeing in Delhi. The city is the perfect mix of
the old and the new. From the colonial pillars of Connaught Place to the lanes of
Chandni Chowk and the malls of South Extension, you will find discover a whole
range of experiences here. Delhi is also a paradise for shopping, eating and sight-
seeing.
Agra- City on the banks of Yamuna River
Agra is a medieval city on the banks of Yamuna River was founded by
Sultan Sikandar Lodi in 1956.
It achieved fame as the capital of the Mughal emperors from 1526 to 1658 and
remains a major tourist destination because of its many splendid Mughal-era
buildings, most notably the Taj Mahal, Agra Fort and Fatehpur Sikri, all three of
which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Every Tourist of the world must visit the
Taj Mahal at least once.
Jaipur - The picturesque capital of Rajasthan
Jaipur also known as the Pink city was founded in 1727 by Maharaja
Sawai Jai Sing II.
Jaipur was first planned city in India, beautifully laid out gardens and parks,
attractive monuments and marvelous heritage hotels, which were once the
residence of Maharajas, are worthy of admiration. Visit to Amber fort, City Palace,
Jantar-Mantar, Hawa Mahal, the ambling camels and cheerful people in multi-
hued costumes will make your trip to the pink city a memorable one.
Southern Triangle- Mahabalipuram, Kanchipuram,
Maduri :
Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram trip to discover the highlights of these
enchanting places.
UNESCO World heritage site Mahabalipuram is a treasure trove of intricately
carved temples and rock cut caves. The monolithic cave temples of the ancient
town situated on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal garner the major
appreciation.
Mahabalipuram was a renowned seaport of the Pallava Kingdom known as
Mamallapuram. Seven Pagodas is the other name of the town as it is said there
were seven temples built at this place out of which only one remains today.
Mahabalipuram was established by Pallava King Narasimhavarman I in the 7th
century. A combination of natural phenomena and the incredible work done by
mankind allures admiration. UNESCO recognized the Shore temple as a World
Heritage site in 1984.
Kanchipuram situated at a distance of 71 km from Chennai proffers an array of
astounding temples. Set on the banks of the Vegavathi River and more prominent
as the Golden City of Thousand Temples, Kanchipuram is also well known for its
silk sarees.
Maduri : The temple town of India, Madurai is one of the oldest cities of the
country. Culturally rich with ancient traditions, historical significance and natural
beauty, Madurai is the city that represents the spirit of Tamil Nadu. It is the place
of architectural wonders with each temple, each monument speaking a story. Not
only was a cultural capital, Madurai also the commercial capital of South India.
Located on the banks of River Vaigai, Madurai city has a history that dates back to
Sangam period of the pre Christian era. It was the capital city during reign of
Pandya Kings. There are many legends behind history of Madurai city. In the 6th
century, Pandya King Kulasekara built an entrancing temple and established a city
around the same temple. According to some legends, during this time, God Shiva
blessed the city and its people. It is believed that in his dream, nectar fell from
heaven, from the locks of Lord Shiva, which lead to the name Madhurapuri, which
later became Madurai.
According to another legend, Lord Indra had worshipped Lord Shiva under a
kadamba tree, which used to grow in abundance here in the forest. Hence, the
city of Madurai is also mentioned as Kadamba vanam, while in Sangam literature
it has been called as Silapathigaram. The recorded history of Madurai dates back
to 3rd century BC, when Megasthenes has visited this city. Later on, many came
from Greece and Rome to start trading with the Pandya Empire. This city saw
many reigns along with Pandya kingdom. Cholas, Tuglaks, Nayaks, Vijayanagar
Kingdom and then British ruled Madurai city. Each reign left a considerable
representations of history of their time in the forms of monuments and still
prevailing culture of this city.
The name Madurai is said to have come from Tamil word, Mathuram meaning
sweet. It is believed that this city of Madurai, which was earlier a forest named
Kadambavanam forest, witnessed many miracles performed by Lord Shiva, which
is why this city has prominent place in India’s history as well as in Hindu
mythology.
Historical city Madurai is most popularly known for the renowned Meenakshi
Amman Temple or Meenakshi Sundareswarar temple. Its intricate carvings,
brilliance architecture mesmerises every tourist. Popularly called Madurai
Meenakshi Temple, this temple receives millions of devotees from all over the
world every year. This temple has becomes synonymous to any Madurai trip. One
of the oldest temples in India, its incomparable architecture is the result of
contributions from various dynasties that ruled the city. Dedicated to one of the
incarnations of Lord Shiva, Lord Sundareswarar and his consort Goddess
Meenakshi, this temple is one of the most Hindu prominent temples. Its spiritual
and architectural beauty enthrals everyone.
Thirupparankundram Temple, Alagar Kovil, Vandiyur Mariamman Teppakulam,
Thirumalai Nayak Mahal, Rani Mangamma's Palace which has been converted into
Gandhi museum, Goripalayam Dargah, St. Mary’s Cathedral Church, Vaigai Dam,
Koodal Azhagar Temple, Nagamalai are a few other popular places to see in
Madurai.
At Holidays DNA, we offer Madurai tourism packages that cover a tour to all these
places as well as promise a memorable stay in the city. Our tour packages of
Madurai also ensure a relaxed and complete darshan at the Meenakshi temple
along with visit to other prominent places in and around Madurai.
Rightly called as Athens of the East, Madurai tourism is just about ancient temples
this city has many great examples of British and Islamic styles of architecture as
well. Various cathedrals, mosques and museum are also worth seeing. Equally
interesting are other aspects of Madurai. Mouth watering cuisine, amazing
shopping choices and a wide array of sightseeing places, make Madurai an ideal
holidaying destination. Chungidi cotton saris of Madurai, wooden toys, brassware
and handicrafts are worth buying when on a tour to Madurai. This city also boasts
of richness in classical as well as Modern Tamil literature.
Madurai is also known for many festivals. Float festival that attracts devotees from
all over the country is one of the most popular festivals here. Another popular
festival that is celebrated with fervour is Meenakshi Thirukalyanam, 10 day festival
which is organised in the month of April and May. Millions of devotees visit
Madurai to celebrate this festival.
When on a Madurai tour, you can also explore tourist destinations nearby. Hill
stations such as Kodaikanal and Munnar are located quite nearby, presenting
amazing travel opportunities. Periyar National Park, a dream destination for
nature enthusiasts is also located nearby.
Green Triangle- Guwahati,Shiliong and Kaziranga : Nature
with wildlife is a perfect combination for a perfect vacation! And giving you that
experience is our Guwahati, Shillong & Kaziranga national park tour. Starting from
a pilgrimage tour in Guwahati, this trip will take you to some of the most
enthralling places in North East India. In Guwahati, you will visit the few of the top
religious’ sites. Next stopover on this wonderful excursion is Shillong in Meghalaya
where you will be surrounded by the exquisite natural beauty. The journey from
Guwahati to Shillong is special in itself. En-route, you will stop at the largest
artificial lake in Meghalaya - Umiam to capture some exotic views of the
surrounding. After, Shillong, we have Cherrapunji - the second wettest land on the
planet, waiting to mark your presence. From there, Mawlynnong and Dawki are
two little-known treasure on this 5N/6D Guwahati, Shillong & Kaziranga tour
package. The key highlight of this entire expedition is the Kaziranga National Park.
The home to the endangered one-horn rhinos, Kaziranga is a World Heritage Site
in Assam. Not just for wildlife buffs, a wildlife safari at KNP is a unique experience
to relish for all sorts of travellers. At last, ensuring great comfort and indelible
vacation time on this voyage are our impeccable services of transportation,
accommodation and food. You can know more about this entire tour through our
5N/6D Guwahati Shillong Kaziranga itinerary.