GEOGRAPHY NOTES

BGCSE
Table of Contents
PHYSICAL WORLD..........................................................................................................2
WEATHER AND CLIMATE...........................................................................................23
UTILISATION AND MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCE...........................57
ENERGY-..........................................................................................................................77
ECONOMIC ACTIVTIES................................................................................................83
AGRICULTURE...............................................................................................................88
MINING..........................................................................................................................103
PROCESSING AND MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES...........................................108
POPULATION AND SETTLEMENT STUDIES..........................................................116
RESEARCH SKILLS......................................................................................................142
MAP READING..............................................................................................................155

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Section A

PHYSICAL WORLD
The structure of the earth

The earth is made up of three main layers

 The crust
 The mantle
 The core

Crust- lithosphere Mantle-mesosphere Core-baryshpere

Thickness Its thickness varies It is 2900km thick Outer -2175km
from place to place thick

Temperature Cool Over 2000ْᵒc About 5500ºC

Mineral content Continents- granite Iron, magnesium and Iron and nickel
(SIAL) silica collectively called
Oceans - basalt NiFe
rocks (SIMA)
Position Outer most layer Middle layer Inner most
State Solid rocks Semi-liquid (molten) Inner core - solid
this is due to
pressure exerted on

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 it by the other #
layers

Outer core - liquid

THE CRUST
 Makes up continents and oceans floors
 It consists of two parts that is granite (SIAL) and basalt rocks (SIMA)

CONTINENTAL (Sial) OCEANIC (Sima)

Thickness 35 to 70 km on average 6 to 10km on average
Age of rocks Very old rocks of over 1500 Very young rocks of under
after death 200 million years
Weight of rocks Lighter with an average 2.6 Heavier- average of 3.0
Nature of rocks Light in colour Dark in colour
Numerous types Few types
Granite Basalt

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

It was proposed by Alfred Wegner in 1912. He believed that about 300 million
years ago, all existing continents were one super continent called PANGEA. It
later broke into 2 hemispheres, that is, the northern and the southern hemisphere.
The northern hemisphere was called LAURASIA and the southern was called
GONDWANALAND.

EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT THE THEORY

 Different coastlines on the opposite sides of continents fit like a jig-

saw puzzle when put together e.g. eastern coast of North America and
western coast Europe
 Similar rock types and structure are found in Brazil and West Africa
 Rocks of the same age are found along the western coast of Africa and
Eastern coast of Southern America
 Remains of dead plants and animals of the same type and age are
found along the eastern coast of America and west coast of Africa.

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PLATE TECTONIC THEORY

It was formulated in the 1960s by a number of scientists who studied earthquakes

and volcanic activities.

The theory is based on the premise that the earth’s crust consist of a series of
plates (continental and oceanic plates). The theory is about the movement of
plates and it tried to explain the continental drift theory. It suggests that the
continents and the ocean floors are constantly in motion such that they move
towards each other (converge/collide) by forces of compression or away from
each other (diverge) by forces of tension. These plates are moved by convection
currents produced by the heat in the mantle

The continental plates (SIMA) carry continents while oceanic plates (SIAL) carry
oceans. According to the theory there are 10 plates. These are:

The diversion and collision of plates results in the formulation of some features
such as:

 Zones of subduction
 Trench
 Mid-oceanic ridges
 Fold mountains
 Volcanic mountains chains etc

There are three types of margins found during plate movement

 Constructive
 Destructive
 Conservative/transform/passive

FOLDING

It refers to the bending of rocks due to plate movement (compression).

Plate movement will result in rock layers having an up folded part called an
anticline and the down folded part called syncline.

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 The sides of a fold are called limbs.

TYPES OF FOLDS

1. Simple fold – formed when there is compression (almost of equal

strength) from both sides.
2. Asymmetrical fold – it forms when there is more pressure exerted one
limb. The pressure results in one limb becoming steeper than the other
due to the continued compression.
3. Overfold – more compression continues, resulting in one limb being
pushed over the other
4. Overthrust/thrust fault – there is more and more pressure resulting in
the rock cracking or developing a crack and one of the limbs is pushed
totally over the other one.

FORMATION OF FOLD MOUNTAINS

There are 2 ways in which Fold Mountains can be formed.

1. Continental and oceanic plate collision/convergence

 Oceanic and continental plates collide due to compressional force

 Oceanic plate sinks (because it is denser) and continental overrides
( this happens at the subduction zone)
 A trench/ geosyncline develops between the 2 plate
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  Sediments are eroded from the continental plate and fill in the
trench layer after layer
 More sediments accumulate in the trench (as there is continued
erosion)
 Sediments are compressed and become compacted together to form
sedimentary rocks
 Continued compressional force the rocks to be uplifted, crumpled,
squeezed and stand up to form Fold Mountains.

2. Continental and continental collision (e.g Eurasian plate and African

plate converging to give Atlas Mountains)

 2 continental plates collide due to compressional force

 Neither of the plates sink as they are of the same density
 Due to forces of collision, trench/geosyncline develops
 Sediments accumulates in the trench and due to the weight of the
sediments the continental floor subsides downwards
 The width of the trench decreases as there is continuous compression
causing the sediments to increase
 Sediments are compressed and become compacted together to form
horizontal sedimentary rocks
 Continued compressional force the rocks to be uplifted, crumpled,
squeezed and stand up to form Fold Mountains.

Examples of Fold Mountains

Old Young
Cape ranges (South Africa) Atlas (N. Africa)
Appalachians (N.America) Alps (Europe)
Urals Rockies (America)
Welsh (U.K) Himalayas (Asia) (collision of Indo-
Australian and Eurasian plate)

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF FOLD MOUNTAINS

 They have steep slopes

 They are of great vertical heights
 They have several peaks
 They have valleys
 They have parallel ranges
 They have lakes
 They are ice capped
 They have saddles
 They are usually forested

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OLD AND YOUNG FOLD MOUNTAINS

Old Young/old
They are low They are very high
They have a broad peak They have a sharp/narrow peak
They have a gentle slope They have steep slopes
Have shallow valleys Form deep narrow valleys
They are sparsely forested They are densely forested
Ice capped top

POSITIVE IMPACT OF FOLD MOUNTAINS ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES

FEATURE HUMAN ACTIVITIES

Scenic beauty Tourism
Presence of mineral (in case of Mining
volcanic eruption)
Dense forests Lumbering
Rangelands Pastoral farming
Presence of lakes Arable and pastoral farming
Wind ward slope influencing relief Agriculture
rainfall
Presence of peaks Satellite installation for communication
purposes

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 OTHER IMPACTS OF FOLD MOUNTAINS

Positive
 They act as wind breakers
 They can used for defence
Negative
 Influences cold temperatures because of their heights
 Their steep sides result in thin soils
 They are climatic barriers as they influence less rain in the lee-ward side
 They are barriers to construction of communication links e.g. roads

DISTRIBUTION OF FOLD MOUNTAINS

They are found where:

 Plates converge
 In destructive plate margins

FAULTING
Fracturing of earth crust due to compressional, tensional and lateral forces
Types of faults

1. Normal fault – it occurs when tensional forces acts on a rock resulting in

one part of the rock displaced up and the other one thrown down. It may
result in the formation of a rift valley. An escarpment may be formed.
An escarpment is a steep slope formed on the raised block of a normal
fault.
2. Reverse fault – it occurs when compressional forces acts on a rock
causing one block to be pushed up over the other block. It may result in
block mountains/horsts.
3. Tear fault – it occurs when tensional force acts on the crust resulting in
horizontal displacement of the crust.

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 4. Thrust fault – it occurs when intense compressional forces act on a rock
resulting in the rock cracking.

FORMATION OF RIFT VALLEYS

There are two theories that attempted to explain the formation of rift valleys. One relies
on the tensional forces and the other one on the compressional forces

Compressional Tensional
4 lines The earth crust experiences 4 lines The earth crust experiences
movement due to compressional movement due to tensional
4 lines Two parallel faults will develop 4 lines Two parallel faults will develop
4 lines The block on either side of 4 lines The block in between
faults is pushed up/raises sinks/subsides
4 lines A low lying depression called a 4 lines It forms a depression like
rift valley is formed. The raised blocks feature called a rift valley. The raised
forms block mountains blocks forms block mountains

CASE STUDY: THE GREAT RIFT VALLEY OF AFRICA/ EAST

AFRICAN RIFT VALLEY

It is the largest rift valleys found around the world.

FEATURES OF THE GREAT RIFT VALLEY OF AFRICA

 It has parallel faults

 It has steep slopes
 It is 7200km long with 5600km in Africa
 It is between 30-100km wide
 It has 2 main branches
 It has several lakes .g Lake Malawi, Tanganyika, Turkana, Nyasa, Albert,
Rudolf
 It has volcanic mountains
 It has river e.g White and blue Nile
 It has deep valleys
 It has block mountains

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 IMPACTS OF RIFT VALLEYS ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES

FEATURES HUMAN ACTIVITIES

Great scenic beauty major tourist attraction
Contain lakes and rivers great sources of water for irrigation
Often have rich volcanic soils good for arable farming
Have dense forests good for lumbering
Volcanic activities influence mining
They influence relief rainfall good for farming

NEGATIVE IMPACT

FEATURES HUMAN ACTIVITIES

Steep slopes Influences soil erosion
Its relief Is a barrier to construction of
infrastructure

VULCANICITY

It is a process through which magma, ashes and gases are forced out to the surface
of the earth. The magma can appear as flowing lava, volcanic bombs, fragments
of rocks ash and dust.
Magma can reach the surface through a
o Vent (hole)
o Fissure (crack)

When magma emerges at the surface it loses its gases and it is called lava.

HOW VOLCANOES ARE FORMED

- There is plate movement, either divergence or convergence (this leads to
zones of instability)
- The crust develops faults or cracks
- Pressure is released and magma from the mantle will rise through the fault
- This results in eruptions accompanied by ashes,cinders,broken rocks
( eruptions can be very explosive if magma has too much gas)
- On reaching the earth surface, the magma loses its gases and is called lava.

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 - The lava accumulates and features such as pipe, dykes, conelets are
formed.
- A cone shaped mound will be formed and thus a volcano.

EXAMPLES OF VOLCANOES IN AFRICA

- Mount Kilimanjaro – Tanzania

- Mount Kenya – Kenya
- Mount Cameroon – Cameroon
- Mount Drakensburg - South Africa
- Mount Nyiragongo – Democratic Republic of Congo

STAGES OF VOLCANOES

A volcano goes through 3 stages in its lifecycle:

1. Active- when a volcano is active and erupts frequently. There are about
700 active volcanoes around the world e.g Mount Etna, Mount St Helen in
the USA, mount Cameroon.
2. Dormant/ sleeping volcano-these are volcanoes that erupt less frequently
or after a long time. E.g Mount Rainier (USA)
3. Extinct/dead volcano- volcanoes which has not erupted in their known
history or those that longer erupts e.g Mount Kilimanjaro (Tanzania),
Snowdon (Wales)

DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES

This refers to areas where volcanoes are mostly found. These include the
following:

- Along plate boundaries

- At the pacific ring of fire
- Areas of weakness in the crust e.g where faulting occurs
- Along mid-oceanic ridges
- In volcanic islands e.g Madagascar
- Western coast of South America
- At the Great Rift Valley of Africa
- On the North East of Asia
- In the Caribbean Islands

INTRUSIVE AND EXTRUSIVE VOLCANIC FEATURES

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INTRUSIVE FEATURES
These are volcanic features which are formed within the crust. They are formed
when magma cools and solidifies in the crust before reaching the earth surface.
Examples are:

1. Batholith
They are formed when magma accumulates and cools before reaching the
surface of the earth. It normally forms the base of a mountain. Due to
erosion, the batholiths may be exposed to the surface e.g Nyika Batholoth
in Malawi

2. Laccolith
They form when magma solidifies along the crust forming a flat
based,round topped feature fed by a pipe e.g Elkoub Oup in Algeria

3. Lipolith
Magma solidifies along the crust forming a saucer-like depression e.g
Bushveld region in South Africa

4. Dyke

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 Magma finds its way and cuts across the crust and forms a wall-like
feature along line of weakness e.g Dolorite in Lesotho

5. Sill
Magma penetrates horizontally along the crust and solidifies to form a sill.
E.g Three Sisters in the Cape Province of South Africa

EXTRUSIVE FEATURES

These are volcanic features which are formed when the magma, ashes and gases
reaches the earth surface and loses its gases to become lava.

EXAMPLES OF EXTRUSIVE FEATURES

Volcanic mountains
Lava plateau
Caldera
Geysers
Hot springs etc

TYPES OF LAVA

BASIC/FLUID ACID/VISCOUS
o highly fluid o highly viscous
o dark coloured o light coloured
o low silica content o high silica content
o erupts frequently and less explosive o erupts less frequently and violently
o form gentle slopes o form steep slopes
o takes a longer time to cool and o cools and solidifies fast therefore
solidify therefore flows longer flows very short distances
distances
4 LINES 4 LINES

FEATURES OF VOLCANOES

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o Pipe- the channel through which lava rises
o Crater- a shallow depression found at the top of the volcano
o Vent- the opening/hole on the ground through which magma is release
o Conelets – the small parasitic cones that build when magma escapes on
the sides of the volcano
o Geysers – when super heated water underground shoots/erupts
explosively often forming a natural fountain e.g at the Yellowstone
National Park (USA)
o Caldera – this is an enlarged crater. Can be formed in two ways, through
- a violent eruption ( when magma erupts violently and the crater is blown
away resulting in a very wide depression)
- Subsidence- when the mountain becomes too tall and collapses forming a
wide depression at the top.
o Caldera/crater lake- forms when the crater or caldera is filled with water
and becomes a lake e.g Lake Basumtwi in Ghana (caldera), Ngorongoro in
Tanzania (crater)
o Plug – forms when magma hardens within a vent on an active volcano.
o Dome – forms when viscous lava erupts slows and solidifies to form a
roughly circular mound shape protrusion.
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 1. Lava cone- it is made up of lava. Its slope depends on whether the lava is
fluid or viscous. Fluid lava forms gentle sided slopes and vicious forms
steep sided slopes. E.g Nyamlagira near Lake Kivu in DRC (fluid lava)
and Hoggar mountains in Algeria (viscous)

2. Composite cone- it is formed of alternating layers of lava and ash. The

volcano begins each eruption with great violence forming a layer of ash.
As the eruption proceeds, the violence stops and lava pours forming a
layer on the top of the ash. It has a large crater which smaller develops.
Conelets may also form on the sides of the main cone E.g Mt Kilimanjaro

3. Ash and cinder – is formed when lava is blown to great heights when it is
violently ejected and it breaks into small fragments which fall back to
earth and build up to form a steep sided cone.

IMPACTS OF VOLCANOES ON HUMAN BEINGS

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 Positive/advantages

FEATURE HUMAN ACTIVITY

Fertile volcanic soils Arable production
Great scenic beauty encourages tourism e.g Mount
Kilimanjaro

Presence of minerals encourages mining

Give rise to important caldera and Domestic and industrial water supply
crater lakes
Give rise to important caldera and Fishing
crater lakes
Give rise to important caldera and Irrigation
crater lakes
Hot springs for medical purposes

Geysers For geo-thermal power

Thick forests for lumbering

Negative/disadvantages

o Danger/destruction of human life and property during eruptions

o Very cold because of great heights
o Some have steep slope hence have thin soils for agriculture to be carried
out
o Destroys the vegetation
o Causes environmental pollution in the form of dust and gases (carbon
monoxide)
o People can become ill because of breathing in ash and poisonous gases.
o Presence of lahar ( mudflow which is a mixture of ash and water) which
blocks roads and railway lines also making communication difficult

NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF VOLCANOES ON THE ENVIRONMENT

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  Causes pollution with volcanic gases and dust
 Triggers earthquakes
 Destroys the vegetation
 Causes Tsunamis/tidal waves which leads to floods which drowns and kills
people destroy people’s property
 Causes acidic and thin soil
FISSURE ERUPTION

 It is a huge upland which is flat at the top with steep sides

 It is usually very quiet
 The lava comes out through fissures or small cracks in the earth’s crust
 The lava spreads out over the surrounding area layer upon layer to form a lava
platea

WHY SOME VOLCANOES ERUPT VIOLENTLY.

Magma contains gases, which are under great pressure. In some, there is a sudden
decrease in pressure in the rising magma and this causes the gases in it to expand
very rapidly. The sudden expansion can cause violent explosions.

WHY SOME AREAS IN AFRICA EXPERIENCE VOLCANIC ACTIVITY

 Some areas are near areas of instability/plate boundaries

 Some areas experience earth movements due to tension and compression forces
 Some areas have cracks or are experiencing faulting
 Some areas experience tremors /earthquakes

EVIDENCE OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY IN AFRICA

 Presence of volcanic mountains
 Low lakes/calderas
 Associated volcanic features-intrusive features (batholiths, laccoliths, sills, dykes)
and extrusive features (hot springs, lava plateaus, geysers, craters)

WHY SOME VOLCANIC SLOPES ARE SPARCELY POPULATED WHILE

SOME ARE DENSELY POPULATED

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SPARCELY DENSELY
- Still active - Are dormant/extinct
- Have steep slopes - Have gentle slopes
- Are too cold - Water supply from lakes
- Have thin/infertile soils - Have fertile soils
- Rarefied air - Have clean air
- Little rainfall - Have adequate rain fall
- Prone to diseases/pests/epidemics - Presence of pastures
- Acid rain - Ancestral connections
- Employment opportunities in hotels
for tourism
- Availability of forests for
lumbering

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EARTHQUAKES

Earthquake: The vibration/shaking or sudden movement of the earth crust.

Seismology: the study of earthquakes

Seismologist: a scientist who studies earthquakes

Plate collision also results in the faulting of the crystal rocks thereby creating fractures or
cracks through which magma can escape. When vulcanicity occurs, the earth crust is
bound to shake, thus, earthquakes and volcanic actions and often associated.

CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES
1. Collision of tectonic plates along a line of fault
2. volcanic eruptions

REGIONS OF EARTHQUAKES/DISTRIBUTION

- Along plate boundaries

- At the pacific ring of fire
- Areas of weakness in the crust e.g where faulting occurs
- Along mid-oceanic ridges
- In volcanic islands e.g Madagascar
- Western coast of South America
- At the Great Rift Valley of Africa
- On the North East of Asia

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NATURE OF EARTH QUAKES

The point at which an earthquake originates is called the focus. This takes place several
kilometers below the earth’ surface. The energy in an earthquake travels as SHOCK
WAVES from the focus.
The type of shockwaves known as BODYWAVE travels through the crust to hit the
surface of the earth. The point at which the surface is first hit is called EPICENTRE.
From the epicenter, shockwaves travel as SURFACE WAVES and spread to affect a
wider area of the earth’s surface.

There are two types of body waves which are:

Primary wave - causes crustal waves to move or shake back and forth

Secondary waves – causes crustal rocks to move from side to side

There are two types of surface waves namely:

Love wave – causes rocks to dance from side to side at right angle to the direction
of wave movement
Rayleigh waves – causes rocks to vibrate in a vertical circular movement

HOW EARTHQUAKES OCCUR

- There plate movement/collision of plates

- Faulting/folding occurs
- Pressure/energy is released at the focus

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 - Shockwaves radiate outwards/towards the epicenter
- Vibrations are felt
- The minor vibrations cause tremors and major vibrations causes
earthquakes.

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES

o They can destroy buildings, communication systems and other

infrastructure e.g roads, telephone and electric poles
o They can cause displacement of oceanic floors which result in flooding of
coastal settlements
o They may destroy natural vegetation and animal habitat
o Can cause loss of life/injuries
o Can cause tidal waves/tsunamis
o Can cause mud flows
o Destroy the earth’s scenery by opening up deep cracks.
o May lead to displacement of people/relocation
o May cause destruction of farmland
o May cause outbreak of fires

HOW THE EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES CAN BE REDUCED

o Predicting future earthquakes/early warning e.g planning earthquake

regularity
o Formation of disaster plans e.g training emergency services such as fire,
police and ambulance crews
o Construction of earthquake resistance building e.g use of steel frames
which can sway during earthquakes
o Evacuation/ use of rescue teams
o Education about earthquakes
o Construction of roads which provide quick access for emergency services
o Enforcing strict building regulations

WHY IMPACTS OF EARTHQUAKES VARY FROM PLACE TO PLACE

 Time of the day- during there could be fewer impacts since people are awake and
can easily and quickly respond unlike at night.
 Distance from the epicenter- places nearer to the epicenter will experience more
damage than those far.

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  Structure of the rocks – places with strong rock base may experience less damage
as compared to those with weak rock bases.
 Depth of the focus - the deeper the focus the lesser the impact of the earthquakes
and vice versa. This is because as shock waves travel longer distances to reach the
earth surface they lose their strength.
 Strength of the earthquake – stronger earth has larger impacts and vice versa.
 Population size – places with less people have less impacts and vice versa.
 Distance from the sea – places closer to the sea maybe affected by flooding and
tsunamis as compared to those which are far.

DETECTING EARTHQUAKES

The intensity of earthquakes refers to the effort produced or the strength of an

earthquake. It is detected by an instrument called SEISMOGRAPH.

The magnitude (size) of an earthquake is the total amount of energy produced. It is

measured or recorded on a RICHTER SCALE, which ranges from 0 to 9.

The greater the reading on the ritcher scale, the greater the extent of damage caused on
the earth’s surface.

WHY INTERIORS OF MOST CONTINETS DO NOT EXPERIENCE

EARTHQUAKES

 It is far away from plate boundaries

 They are no plate boundaries
 It has stable plates/rigid plates

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 WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Weather – the average condition of the atmosphere observed over a short period of time

Climate - the average condition of the atmosphere observed over a long period of time

Elements of weather need to be measured in order to obtain a picture of the weather. A

weather station is a place where the weather elements are measured and recorded. Each
weather station has a Stevenson’s screen. The Stevenson’s screen contains four
thermometers: namely:

- The maximum thermometer

- Minimum thermometer
- The wet bulb thermometer
- The dry bulb thermometer

CHARACTERISTICES OF A STEVENSON’S SCREEN

FEATURE REASON/ JUSTIFICATION

It is white in colour To reflect sun’s rays
It has louvers To allow free air circulation
It is made of wood Wood is a bad conductor of heat
It is double roofed To insulate it from the sun’s heat
It has a sloppy roof To shed away rain water
It is raised 121cm above the ground To avoid water and heat from the ground

MEASURING AND RECORDING TEMPERATURE

MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE
The maximum thermometer is used to measure the maximum temperature of the day.

How it works

When temperature rises, the mercury expands and pushes the index along the tube. When
the temperature falls, the mercury contracts and the index remain behind. The maximum
temperature is read at the bottom of the index.

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In the example above, the maximum temperature to be recorded is 30ᵒC. After taking the
reading a magnet is used to draw the index back to the meniscus. This is called
RESETTING.

MINIMUM TEMPERATURE

The minimum thermometer is used to measure the minimum temperature of the day.

How it works

When temperatures fall, alcohol contracts and pulls the index down above the tube. When
the temperature rises, alcohol expands but the index remains behind. The minimum
temperature is obtained or read by reading the scale at the end of the index which was in
contact with the meniscus. The instrument is reset by shaking it.
In the example above, the minimum temperature to be recorded is 15ᵒC.

SIX’S THERMOMETER
It is U shaped and has a round bulb and a conical bulb. The round bulb on the left side is
filled with alcohol (measures minimum temperature) , the conical bulb on the right side is
filled with mercury (measuring maximum temperature).

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How it works

 When temperature rises, alcohol on the left expands and this causes the mercury
to flow on the left side.
 As mercury flow upwards, it pushes up the metal index, thus recording maximum
temperature.
 When temperature drops, alcohol contracts and flows on the reserve direction
forcing the index on the left to go up thus recording minimum temperature.
 The reading on both sides of the tubes is taken on the bottom side of the metal
index.

TEMPERATURE STATISTICS

 MEAN DAY TEMEPRATURE – this is the average day temperature. It is

calculated by adding the minimum temperature of the day and dividing by 2.
e.g. max 19
min 17

Calculate the mean for the day

 MEAN MONTH TEMPERATURE – this is the average temperature of the

month. It is calculated by adding the mean day temperatures and dividing by the
number of days in that month.
 MEANS ANNUAL TEMPERATURE – this is the average temperature of the
year. It is calculated by adding the mean month temperatures and dividing by 12.
 DAILY RANGE OF TEMPARATURE – it is obtained by subtracting the
minimum reading from the maximum reading of the day.
E.g. max 22
mini 20

Calculate the daily range of temperature

 MONTHLY RANGE OF TEMPERATURE – it is obtained by subtracting the

lowest mean day temperature from the highest mean day temperature
 ANNUAL RANGE OF TEMPERATURE – it is obtained by subtracting the
lowest mean month temperature from the highest mean month temperature.

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DESCRIBING TEMPERATURE

Temperature Describing words

Below -10 Very cold

-10 to 0 Cold

0 to 10 Cool

10 to 21 Warm

21 to 30 Hot

Over 30 Very hot

FACTORS INFLUENCING TEMEPTRATURE

1. Cloud cover – lowers the day time temperature by reducing the amount of incoming
solar radiation, keeping the night warmer by reducing loss of out emitted radiant heat.

2. Latitude

Low (Equator) High (Polar)

Sun almost directly over head resulting in Sun’s heat received at oblique angles
high temperature resulting in low temperatures

Solar rays travel shorter distance to equator Rays travel long distances resulting in heat
resulting in high temperature loss thus low temperatures

Heat concentrated over a smaller area Heat concentrated in large area resulting in
resulting in high temperatures low temperature

3. Altitude
This refers to the height of relief above sea level. Water vapour and dust in the air prevent
heat formed at the surface of the earth from rapidly passing back into space. At high
altitudes e.g on the top of mountains, the air is rarefied and it contains less dust and water

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vapour. The heat from the earth’s surface therefore rapidly escapes and the air remains
cold.

4. Distance from the sea

Summer Winter
Sea absorbs heat slowly Sea loses heat slowly
Land absorbs heat slows Land loses heat quickly
Coastal areas affected by cool breeze from Coastal areas affected by war breeze from
the sea the sea
Continents are hot Continents are cold

5. Aspect
Aspect is the direction in which the land faces. Slopes, which face the north in the
southern hemisphere, will receive more heat in winter than those facing south.

6. Ocean currents
Warm currents raise the temperature in coastal areas while cold currents from oceans
decrease temperatures of coastal areas. The temperature is modified by cool sea breeze or
land breeze.

MEASURING AND RECORDING HUMIDITY

HUMIDITY
This refers to water vapour in the air. The instrument used for measuring humidity is the
hygrometer or wet and dry bulb thermometers.

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RELATIVE HUMIDITY
This is the ratio between the content of water vapor in the air and the maximum amount
the air can hold at a given temperature, expressed as a percentage.

HOW A HYGROMETER WORKS

 A hygrometer consists of two ordinary thermometers which are the dry
bulb and the wet bulb thermometers.
 The wet bulb thermometer is wrapped with a muslin cloth which is
attached to a wick.
 The wick is dipped in a small container of distilled water to keep the bulb
wet.
 The reading of the wet bulb thermometer is always lower than that of the
dry bulb because when evaporation takes place it causes cooling and
contraction of the thermometer so it shows a lower temperature/reading.
 When the air is dry, there will be high evaporation from the cloth and the
thermometer will show low readings.
 When the air is very humid, the evaporation is low so the temperature is
not influenced very much.
 The dry bulb thermometer does not have a muslin cloth and it measures
the temperature of dry air.

The readings of the two thermometers are used to calculate the relative humidity.
The difference between the readings of the two thermometers is called the wet
bulb depression. When the wet and dry bulb thermometers have the same
reading we say the air is saturated.

28
 READING THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY

TABLE OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY VALUES

DRY BULB WET BULB DEPRESSION

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
20 100 80% 79% 74% 69% 67%
21 100 80% 75% 73% 69% 65%

22 100 80% 76% 73% 67% 64%

23 100 80% 75% 71% 67% 60%

1. Find the difference between the wet bulb and dry bulb reading to get the
wet bulb depression
2. Refer to the relative humidity table/values
3. Find the coordinating point of the dry bulb and the wet bulb depression
4. Read the figure at the coordinating point as the relative humidity in
percentage.
N.B - when the difference between the two readings is zero, relative humidity is
100%/air saturated.

- When the difference is small or little, relative humidity will be high

- When the difference is large, relative humidity will be low.

CALCULATING RELATIVE HUMIDITY

WET BULB READING 21ᵒC

DRY BULB READING 23ᵒC
(Do the calculations)

RAINFALL
Rainfall refers to the amount of water droplets which fall from the sky when clouds
become saturated with water particles. Rainfall is one form of precipitation. Other forms
are snow, hail, fog etc Rainfall is measured by an instrument called a rain gauge.

29
HOW RAINFALL IS MEASURED AND RECORDED
 The amount of rainfall is collected in the collecting jar.
 The collected rainfall is then carefully poured into a measuring cylinder
marked in millimeters
 The cylinder is then placed on a flat surface
 The reading is taken from the bottom part of the meniscus and recorded in
millimeters after every 24 hrs

POSITIONING OF THE RAINGAUGE

1. Away from buildings to avoid destructions and runoff from roof tops
2. Away from trees to avoid destructions from the tree leaves.
3. It must be put at least one meter above the ground to prevent splashes
going into the gauge and to avoid heat from the ground.
4. The ground around the rain gauge should preferably be grassy to avoid
rain splashing into the funnel
5. It must be placed upright to collect the rain

30
TYPES OF RAINFALL

Relief/orographic rainfall
Relief refers to the shape of the landscape. Relief rainfall is influenced by high
landscapes e.g mountains

HOW IT IS FORMED
WINDWARD SIDE
 It occurs when on-shore winds (winds from the sea to land) carry warm
moisture with them up a mountain slope.
 As air rises, it expands and absorbs more moisture
 The air becomes saturated
 It then cools and condenses to form clouds (tiny water droplets)
 When the water droplets become too heavy and cannot be held in the
atmosphere, they fall as rain.

There are two sides of the mountain that is, the leeward and the wind ward side. The
wind ward side receives more rain than the leeward side. This is so because

WIND WARD LEEWARD

Warm moist air Cool dry air
Has less density and rises Has high density and descends
Expands Contracts
Pressure decreases Pressure increases
Air cools Air warms
Condensation No condensation
Air ascends Air descends

COVENCTIONAL RAINFALL
It occurs when air immediately above the ground surface is heated so that convection
currents are set up. The warm air is lighter in density; therefore it will expand and rise.
The warm moist air will be cooled and gets saturated. The moisture contained in the air
condenses to form clouds which will fall as rain.
1. Solar radiation heats the air above the ground.
2. The air sets up convectional currents, expands, rises and absorbs moisture
3. The air becomes saturated
4. At condensation level the moisture in the air condenses to form clouds

31
 5. When the water droplets become too heavy and cannot be held in the
atmosphere, they fall as rain.
6. Cool, dry air which is heavier descends to replace warm air so that the
cycle continues.

Characteristics of convectional rainfall

- Fall in the late afternoon
- Intense or heavy rainfall
- Accompanied by thunder and lightening
- Brought by cumulonimbus clouds
- Sudden down pours
- Has large drops

FRONTAL/CYCLONIC/DEPRESSION RAINFALL

 It occurs when two air masses converge (meet) in the atmosphere.

 Cold air which is dense tends to be displaced downwards (i.e. it descends
or falls) whilst warm air which is light turns to rise over the descending
cold air.
 The rising warm air expands and absorbs moisture.
 It gets cooled and condensed to form clouds.
 When the water droplets become too heavy and cannot be held in the
atmosphere, they fall as rain.

The line of separation between the two air masses is called the front. The part of
a front is ahead of the warm mass is called the warm front ( ). The part of
the front ahead of the cold air mass is called cold front ( ). The area between
the warm front and the cold front is calle’’’warmm sector. The two air masses are
different in terms of their temperature, density and moisture content.

CLOUDS

Clouds are made up of tiny water droplets or ice particles. The shape, height and
movement of clouds can indicate the type of weather that may occur in the region.
The lines drawn through places having the same amount of clouds cover are
called isonephs. Cloud cover is not measured y an instrument but it is estimated
by observing in oktas (eights). One oktas represents 1/8 of the sky covered by
clouds. The symbols are as follows:

32
Clouds are classified according to their appearance, form and height. There are
four main groups of clouds and several types of clouds that fall into these groups.

The following are roots and translations of the names of the clouds:

Cirro – curl of hair, high

Strato – layer
Alto – mid
Nimbo – rain, precipitation
Cumulo- heap

GROUPS, TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT CLOUDS

HIGH CLOUDS

They occur above 6000 meters above sea level and are given the prefix “cirro”.
Due to cold temperatures at these levels, the clouds are composed of ice crystals.
They are often thin, striped and white. The main types of high clouds are;
1. Cirrus
- Composed of ice crystals

33
 - White in colour
- Fibrous looking
- Feather-like in appearance
- Are often the first sign of an approaching warm front (as they thicken into
cirro-stratus)

2. Cirro-cumulus
- Appear as small, rounded white puffs that appear in long rows
- Form thin clouds
- Composed of ice crystals
- Seen in winter and indicate fair but cold weather

3. Cirro-stratus
- Sheet-like high clouds that often cover the entire sky
- Thin white- almost transparent that the sun can be seen through them
- Usually come 12-24 hours before a rain or snow storm

MIDDLE CLOUDS
They are given the prefix “alto” and appear between 2100 and 6000 meters above
sea level.
1. Alto-stratus
- Composed of water droplets and ice crystals
- Usually cover the entire sky
- They often form ahead of storms with continuous rain or snow

2. Alto-cumulus
- Composed of water droplets
- Appear as grey puffy masses
- Usually form in groups
- Forms ahead of thunderstorms
- Heap-like in appeareance

LOW CLOUDS
Are not given any prefix, although their names are derived from “strato” or
“cumulo” depending on their characteristics
1. Stratus
- Grayish clouds that often cover the entire sky
- Resemble fog that doesn’t reach ground level
- Brings mist or drizzle

34
 2. Strato-cumulus
- Puffy and grey looking
- Most form in rows with blue sky visible in between them
- Rain rarely occurs but they can turn into nimbostratus clouds

3. Nimbo-stratus
- Dark grey
- Associated with continuously falling rain or snow
- Often produce precipitation that is usually light to moderate rain
- Dense and shapeless
- Thick

CLOUDS OF GREAT VERTICAL EXTENT

1. Cumulus
- White, puffy clouds that look like pieces of floating cotton
- Often associated with fair-weather
- Has flat base and the top of each cloud has rounded tops
- They grow upward and can develop into giant cumulonimbus clouds

2. Cumulo-nimbus
- White or black in colour
- Summit like towers and mountains
- Often indicate convectional rainfall with thunder and lightening

35
WINDS
Wind is air in motion. It has both direction and speed. When leaves fall, trees
sway and dust particles move up we realize that wind is blowing.

Wind direction

An instrument that is used to indicate the direction of wind is called wind vane. A
wind vane needs to be erected in an exposed position to get the right direction. It
is made up of two parts. One part is an arrow/vane which is free to move with
prevailing winds. The other part is the compass point to show the direction the
wind is moving from.

Prevailing winds – common winds

36
Wind rose
A wind rose is used for recording the direction of prevailing winds of a place over a
period of a month. It consists of an octagon with 8 compass points. Each of the small
rectangles represents the date/direction in which the wind comes from. Those days which
are still are recorded in the box of calms and the number of calm days is indicated in the
centre of the octagon.

37
38
Wind speed
Wind speed is measured with an instrument called cup anemometer. It consists of:
1. four semi-circular cups
2. horizontal spokes/arms
3. vertical shaft/mast/spindle
4. speed meter/dial

The semi circular cups are attached to the ends of the horizontal arms, mounted on the
vertical shaft. When there is wind the cups rotate, so the stronger the wind the faster the
rotation. The number of rotations is recorded on the meter give the speed of wind in
km/h.

SYMBOLS USED TO DESCRIBE WIND SPEED

39
SUNSHINE

The amount of sunshine a place receives depends on the seasons, factor determine by
latitude and by the position of the earth in its revolution around the sun. At the
meteorological station, sunshine duration (length) is recorded by a sunshine recorder. It
consists of a glass sphere attached to a metal frame. Underneath this glass sphere is a
sensitised card, which is graduated in hours and minutes.

How it works

 When the sun shines, the glass sphere is focused onto the card.
 As the sun moves across the sky from east to west, a trace of burn
develops on the card.
 The trace of burn can only be seen when the sun shines.
 After 24hrs the card is taken out and the length of the trace is considered
and converted into hours and minutes to find out the total amount of
sunshine for a particular day.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Air is made up of gases and therefore it has a weight which exerts more pressure on the
earth surface.

FACTORS INFLUENCING PRESSURE

40
ALTITUDE

Since air exerts a downward force on the earth surface, its pressure will be greatest near
the earth surface and lower at a higher altitude. This is because at lower areas air has to
support a greater weight of air than at high areas. Therefore air pressure increases with
decreasing altitude. When air descends its pressure increases and when air rises its
pressure decreases

TEMPERATURE

Temperature increases with decreasing pressure. When temperature rises, the air expands
and its molecules move wide apart, therefore pressure of the air will decrease. when air is
cooled it contracts and when this happens the outward pressure of the molecules is spread
over a smaller area. This means that the pressure of the air increases. The pressure of air
increases when its temperature falls.

EARTH ROTATION
When the earth rotates, the air molecules at the north and the south poles will be thrown
away to the equator. in theory this should result in air piling up along the equator to make
the pressure at the equator to be high.

But temperature tends to make the process a bit complicated. This is because low
temperatures at the poles cause the air to contract – high pressure develops. High
temperatures along equator cause air to expand- low pressure develops.
Air pressure is measured by an instrument known as barometer. It is measured in
millibars (mb). There are two types of barometers, an aneroid barometer and a mercury
barometer.

ANEROID BAROMETER

41
 It consists of a metal box with air completely drawn out so that there is no pressure
acting inside the box.

HOW IT WORKS
 When pressure increases, the metal box lid collapses/moves inwards
 The movement of the box activates the lever system/the lever system
moves
 The pointer/dial moves to the right when pressure is high
 When pressure decreases the metal box lid springs upwards/outwards
 The dial/pointer will move to the left to register low pressure

MERCURY BAROMETER

It consists of mercury in a container and a glass tube placed into the mercury.
 At sea level the air pressure supports the level of mercury at about 760mm
high
 When air pressure increases, it presses on the surface of the container
 When air pressure reduces, there is less pressure on the mercury in the
container allowing the mercury to flow down the tube

42
  A scale places against the tube helps read the amount of air pressure acting
on the surface.

N.B: any reading below 1000 means low pressure, while that above 1000 means
high pressure

THE DISTRIBUTION OF WORLD PRESSURE BELTS AND PLANETARY

WINDS

Air pressure has some influence on the direction of winds, thus winds tend to blow from
areas of high pressure to those of low pressure. The winds are named after the direction
they blow from.
Prevailing winds/planetary winds
These are winds that blow often. The earth rotation causes the winds to be deflected to
the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. The force
that makes the deflection is known as the Coriolis force.

There are 3 major wind types in each hemisphere

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NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

1. North Easterly Polar winds

They blow from polar high pressure areas to low pressure temperate belts
2. South Westerly winds
Blow from subtropical high pressure belts to temperate low pressure belts
3. North Easterly Trade winds
Blow from the sub-tropical high pressure belts towards the doldrums
(along the equator)

SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

1. South Easterly Polar winds

Blow from the polar high pressure belts towards the temperate low
pressure belts
2. North Easterly winds
Blow from the sub-tropical high pressure belt to the temperate low
pressure belts
3. South Easterly Trade Winds
Blow from the sub-tropical high pressure belts towards the doldrums.

INTERTROPICAL CONVEGENCE

The climate of Africa is greatly influenced by the movement of air masses i.e. maritime
(wind blown from the sea) and the continental. The point where the air masses meet is
called Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

TROPICAL CYCLONE
Tropical cyclones occur where two tropical air masses meet along the ITCZ front. This
area is an area of intense pressure. The isobars are closely spaced and they form a circular
shape. Strong winds spiral towards the center rushing upwards with great force in area
called vortex, which surrounds the centre of the eye of the cyclone. The rapid raising air
gives rise to torrential/heavy rains and strong wind which cause damage to building and
vegetation.

HOW A TROPICAL CYCLONE DEVELOPE

There are three conditions necessary for tropical cyclones to develop.

44
  A sufficient sources of moist air of temperatures of about 27 degrees
Celsius near the sea surface
 The air must be blowing inwards and rising rapidly to great heights to give
cloud of great vertical extends which are capable of providing rain
 There must be an outward flow of air at the upper level.

LA NINA
It is a weather condition that is influenced by excessive cooling of the tropical
Pacific Ocean. It results into cold conditions. When air rises over the continents
during summer, cooler moist air from the sea moves in to replace it. The air which
moves away over the continents eventually descends over the sea. As it descends
it accumulates moisture and creeps back into the continents. The circular
movement of air between the continents and oceans described above is known as
the walker circulation. The winds which blow from over the seas known as the
trade winds, brings in moisture and rain to the continents.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

- It brings floods
- It causes soil erosion
- It causes leaching of the soils
- Fields become water logged
- Destruction of infrastructure

SOCIAL IMPACTS

- Leads to starvation
- Can cause loss of life
- Causes damage of infrastructure
- Can cause diseases such as malaria

ECONOMIC IMPACTS

- Decreases crop production

- Causes rise in prices
- Causes loss of jobs

EL-NINO

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It is a weather condition that is influences by excessive warming of the tropical
Pacific Ocean. It results into droughts and low crop yields in Southern Africa.
During El Niño periods the walker circulation is changed. Instead of air mostly
rising above the continents in summer, it rises above the seas. Why this happens is
not exactly known but it is believed that the heating affects of volcanic eruptions,
which cause the temperature of the sea to rise cause it. The rising air over the sea
reverses the walker circulation.

THE HISTORY OF ELNINO

 It was discovered in 1567
 The name ‘EL nino’ comes from Peruvian fishermen who were fishing
along the western shore of South America
 They noticed that normally cold water that flowed from the north to the
south became warm.
 The water therefore was not good for fishing
 At the same time, this brought a long period of drought and lack of fish and
sometimes torrential rains that swiped out all the crops in southern Africa.
 Therefore the fishermen named it El nino, which is a Spanish word for ‘little
one or Christ’s child’

El Nino events come every three to seven years. These events can last for many
months or persist for more than a month.

IMPACTS OF EL-NINO ON THE ENVIRONMENT

- Results in very high temperatures

- Causes lack of rainfall
- Can cause veld fires
- Results in warm winters
- Can result in droughts
- Results in low crop yields

EFFECTS OF ELNINO ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN BOTSWANA AND

SOUTHERN AFRICA
 crop failure/shortage of food
 animals/livestock die
 migration to urban areas
 loss of income

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 EFFORTS MADE BY THE GOVERNMENT TO REDUCE THE IMPACTS
OF EL-NINO
- Observing the tropical pacific zone
- Availing weather forecast to the public in advance
- Educating people about the impacts/dangers of elnino
- Prediction of elnino

Therefore the ability to anticipate how the climate will change from year to
year will lead to better management of agriculture, water supplies and
fisheries in Southern Africa.

CLIMATIC REGIONS IN AFRICA

The world is divided into several climatic regions of zones, each with its own climatic
characteristics, related natural vegetation and associated human activities.

EQUATORIAL CLIMATE

LOCATION
It is located in the low land between 5ᵒC north and 5ْᵒC south along the equator. This type
of climate is experienced in the Congo basin, south western Nigeria, South western
Ghana and the southern part of the Ivory Coast.
CLIMATE CHARACTERISTICS

 It is hot, wet and humid throughout the year

 It lies along the doldrums low
 It has little variation in mean monthly temperature with an average monthly range
of about 3°C
 It receives heavy rainfalls throughout the year due to low pressure cells lying over
the region.
 The rainfall type received is convectional which is accompanied by
thunderstorms, lightning and hail.
 The rain falls mostly in the afternoons
 There is one uniform season

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  Mean monthly temperatures are around 27°C
 Thick clouds and high humidity are present most of the time (they prevent day
temperatures from rising too high and night temperatures falling too low

E.g

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temp 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 30 30 26 26 26
in °C
Rain in 230 220 250 200 150 60 50 25 30 80 150 175
mm

8 lines

WHY TEMPERATURES DO NOT RISE TOO HIGH IN THE EQUATORIAL

 Thick cloud cover
 High humidity
 Dense vegetation

NATURAL VEGETATION

The climatic condition of the abundant rainfall and uniform temperature throughout the
year favors tree growth. Trees are tall and broad leaved making up a forest called
equatorial rainforest or tropical green.

Description of the rainforest

1. The trees form 3 layers

 top layer- consists of tall trees, which grow up to 45m tall and form a
continuous thick canopy
 middle layer- consists of thick stemmed trees, which grow up to 30m tall
e.g palm trees, ferns etc
 Bottom layer- consists mostly of herbaceous plants which grow from
stems of other trees. The layer grows up to 18m tall
2. Most trees are broad leaved and are ever green e.g mahogany, greenheart, ebony
and rose wood
3. Plants bear fruits and flower throughout the year because there are no seasons.

48
 4. It has a variety of plants species which includes creepers,ferns,herbs,shrubs etc
5. The tall trees form a continuous canopy which hinders the growth of short plants
and grass
6. Most plants have drip tips which enables them to shed excess water
7. The grass that is available there is the tall grass which is not nutritious
8. Vegetation near rivers or clearings, where sunlight can penetrate, has dense under
growth

HOW VEGETATION HAS ADAPTED TO THE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS

Have drip tips to shed away excess water

They have straight, branchless to support the tall big trees
trunks with large buttress root
They grow very tall in an effort to get sunlight
They have broad leaves to catch sunlight and lose excess
water through transpiration
The leaves have waxy surface to shed the heavy rainfall
Plants leaves have many stomata for increased transpiration

Plants have leathery leaves for protection against strong

sunlight
Plants have shallow roots as water is easily available from the
surface
The plants have buttress roots to support their height
They have thin trunks as there is no need to store water in
trunks
Plants are evergreen because there is no seasonal change
Plants flower and fruit throughout due to abundant sunshine and high
the year amount of rainfall throughout the
year.

HUMAN ACTIVITIES

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The Equatorial is generally sparsely populated

 Cultivation-most advanced ones practice shifting cultivation. Many parts of the

forests are cleared for cultivation of yams,maize,bananas,cocoa,coffee,tobacco etc
 Gathering-Vegetative food is abundant in the form of wild fruits,nuts,leaves and
other veldt products
 Hunting-The rainforest is habitat for a variety of wild animals which are hunted
 Fishing-the ever-flowing rivers provide a large supply of fish and other marine
animals
 Lumbering- people cut down hardwood trees in the forests for timber
 Industrial activities – timber processing industries use timber as a raw material to
produce furniture, boats, products for construction of houses, railways sleepers.
Plantations also have their industries.
 Hydro-electric power production- because of abundant water

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH EVELOPING LAND IN THE EQUATORIAL

REGION.

 Excessive heat tends to limit physical ability of carrying out work. It also results
in loss of energy and exposes people to the dangers of heat stroke and skin cancer.

 Humidity also limits physical ability of carrying out work. It may result in
diseases such as yellow fever and malaria.

 Rapid deterioration of soil- because of too much rain the soils lose humus
through soil erosion and leaching

 The fact that the place is a jungle- makes construction of roads and railways
difficult and expensive. It is also dangerous since people may encounter wild
animals, poisonous reptiles and insects.

 A difficulty in livestock farming- pastoral farming is hindered by the absence

of grass. The grass available is tall and not nutritious. The livestock can also be
attacked by tsetse-fly which causes sleeping sickness.

 Prevalence of pests- the hot and wet climate encourages the spread of diseases
and pests. Germs and bacteria are more easily transmitted through moisture.

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TROPICAL CONTINENT/SAVANNA/SUDAN CLIMATE

LOCATION

It is located between 5N and 15N and 5S and 15S of the equator. It is best developed in
Sudan where the summer and winters are most distinct (therefore sometimes called the
Sudan climate)

CLIMATE CHARACTERISTICS

 It has hot, wet summers and cool, dry winters.

 The annual range of temperature is about 11C
 Alternating dry and wet seasons due to movement of the sun.
 The hottest month is just before the rainy season (October in Southern hemisphere
and April in the Northern hemisphere.
 Heavy summer rain of convectional type accompanied by thunderstorms,
lightning and hail.
 It usually rains in the late afternoons
 Annual rainfall is of about 762mm
 High humidity in summer due to high temperature and rainfall
 In the northern hemisphere rain is May to September and the Southern
hemisphere is from October to April.

VEGETATION IN TROPICAL SAVANNA

 The name of the vegetation in this region is called tropical grassland or savanna
parkland.
 Vegetation varies with amount of rainfall distribution.
 Areas near the equator have savanna woodland vegetation (bigger, denser trees
due to increased amount of rainfall0
 Areas near the desert have savanna scrub (scrub thorny bushes and coarse short
grasses due to a decrease in rainfall.)

CHARACTERISTICS AND ADAPTATION OF SAVANNA VEGETATION

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Description/feature Adaptation/justification
Deciduous trees (shed leaves in winter) To minimize loss of water through
transpiration
Long rooted trees To reach underground water
Trees have small leaves To reduce transpiration
Trees have broad trunks/thick stems To store excess water for use during the dry
period
Trees are dispersed To reduce competition for water and
nutrients
Grass dies leaving roots to lie dormant To grow again during the wet season
during the dry season
Umbrella shapes crowns (y shape To provide shade around roots and trunk to
branches) help conserve moisture around the tree

HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN TROPICAL SAVANNA

 Nomadic pastoralism – they large herds of cattle, goat and sheep to graze on
savanna grassland. In drier parts they move one place to another in search of
water and pastures for livestock. They keep livestock for subsistence and
commercial purposes.
 Arable farming/ growing crops/crop cultivation – growing of maize, millet,
sorghum, cotton , tobacco etc. they crops for subsistence and commercial
purposes
 Mining – diamonds in Botswana, copper on Zambia, iron in Zimbabwe, tin and
petroleum in Nigeria
 Industrial activities with agro-based industries e.g sorghum milling
 Tourism – savanna has a wide range of wildlife so it has national parks and game
reserves e.g Chobe national park,
 Fishing – due some places having direct access to the sea, having perennial rivers
lakes and dams, people do practice fishing

IMPACTS OF HUMAN CATIVITIES ON THE SAVANNA ENVIRONMENT

 Deforestation due to cutting trees for fuel wood, clearing of land for farming, veld
fires etc

52
  Overgrazing – over population of livestock and poor management of grazing land
leads to over grazing and eventually soil erosion. The problem is worsened by
drought
 Pollution – mining and industrial activities causes water, land and air pollution
increasing the problem of global warming.
 Desertification – areas bordering the deserts are turning into deserts due to over
use of the dry land through over cultivation, over grazing and deforestation.
 Loss of wild life – use of toxic waste kills both plants and animals. Over hunting
and poaching may result in extinction of wild animals
 Land degradation – mining causes land scaring with open pits and waste heaps.
Landslides become a problem as huge gullies and dongas develop due to soil
erosion

FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT IN THE SAVANN REGION

 Drought – long drought periods affects both crop and livestock farming
 Pests and diseases – presence of tsetse fly brings sleeping sickness to people
and nagana to cattle, locusts affects vegetation and crops. Malaria is also very
common due to mosquitoes
 Deforestation – exploiting grass and trees for different purposes e.g for
firewood, thatching grass, leads to deforestation
 Less fertile soils – this is caused by heavy rains which leads to leaching and
soil erosion which carries away the top fertile soil

HOT DESERT

LOCATION
It is located between 15 and 30 both north and south of the equator.
12 lines
Examples of deserts in Africa
1. Sahara (largest in Africa)
2. Kalahari in Botswana
3. Namib in Namibia

Climatic characteristics
 Cool winter (10c)
 Hot summers (29c)
 Deserts have very high day temperatures in summer and very low night
temperatures in winter due to the absence of cloud cover

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  Annual temperature range is very high, this is due to high summer temperatures
and low winter temperatures.
 Very little or no rainfall which occurs in summer
 Annual rainfall rarely exceeds 250mm
 It is of a convectional nature

Why rainfall is low in deserts

 Deserts lie across high pressure belts (horse latitudes)
 Dry off shore winds blow across deserts
 Deserts lie along cold descending currents which have very little moisture

N.B: in semi desert temperatures are not extreme as in hot deserts and annual rainfall
varies from 250mm to 500mm
20 lines
Vegetation (both hot and semi desert)

The vegetation here is of xerophytic type (drought resistant) e.g barrel cactus, desert sage,
saguaro, palm trees

Description/feature Adaptation/justification
Long rooted plants To search for water and plants nutrients
underground
Few or no leaves To reduce transpiration
Leaves in thick skins and waxy surfaces To reflect heat and reduce transpiration
Needle shaped leaves To reduce transpiration
Thick stems For storing water
Seeds in tough skins or hard shells To protect them the intense heat while
lying dormant before germination/ the
rainy season
Few stomata To reduce transpiration
Umbrella shaped crowns To reduce transpiration around roots.
Thorny leaves To reduce transpiration

Human activities in hot deserts and semi deserts

 Hunting and gathering – hunt wild animals and gather wild fruits and berries
 Mining – done in areas with mineral deposits e.g gold , oil, diamonds etc
 Nomadic herding – keeping animals such camels goats and sheep and move from
place to place in search of water.

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  Growing crops – done in crops with constant water supply along rivers (Nile,
Indus and Tigris)
 Growing drought resistant crops – dates, wheat, vegetables and fruits

Factors hindering development in desert/ semi desert

 Drought – low and unreliable rainfall/lack of water
 Poor infertile soils/lack of nutrient
 Loose and mobile soils
 Sandy acidic soils
 Saline/salty water
 Dry soils/lack of moisture
 High temperature/high evaporation rate
 Pests and diseases

Mediterranean climate
It is found between 30 and 45 north and south of the equator. E.g. Cape Town in South
Africa, central Chile, California, Algiers in Algeria.

Climatic characteristics
 Sunny, warm to hot dry summers
 Cool to warm wet winters
Temperature
 Moderate of about 12 C (warm summers)
 Winter are cool at about 10 C

Rainfall
 Occurs when temperatures are low (winter rainfall)
 Rainfall varies between 250mm to 800mm
 During summer there is no rainfall as the air is dry, heat is high and humidity is
low
 Receives cyclonic type of rainfall brought by Western winds in winter.
NATURAL VEGETATION

Vegetation varies because temperature and rain varies.

1. Evergreen forest/woodland- occurs in the wettest part of the Mediterranean region
i.e where rainfall is over 650mm e.g cork trees, ecucalyptus
2. Evergreen coniferous forests – occurs where rainfall is average e.g pines, firs,
cider,

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 3. Mediterranean bushes and scrub – found in the dry parts of the Mediterranean
region e.g dwarf trees, short grasses, sweet smelling herbs

Description/feature Adaptation/justification
Grasses wither and die during dry To grow again during the wet season
seasons leaving roots dormant
Leaves have few stomata To reduce transpiration
Waxy leave surface To reduce transpiration
Plants with long tap roots To reach underground water
Plants roll their leaves in summer To reduce transpiration
Scattered thorny shrubs and bushes To reduce competition for moisture
Needle shaped leaves To reduce transpiration

HUMAN ACTIVITIES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION

 Orchard farming – growing of citrus fruits e.g oranges, limes, grape fruits etc
 Crop cultivation – mainly cereals e.g barley, wheat,
 Viticulture – growing of grapes for making wine and grapes dried into raisins and
sultanas
 Cultivation of nuts – e.g chestnuts. Almonds, hazel nuts etc
 Industries e.g wine making, flower milling, fruit canning etc
 Tourism – the bright sunny weather attract tourist mainly from cold countries.
 Lumbering – because of the abundant woodland trees.

CLIMATIC REGIONS OF BOTSWANA

Botswana has 4 main types of climates mainly:

- Tropical sub-humid
- Sub humid
- Semi arid
- Desert or arid climate

Temperature
Botswana experiences hot summers with the mean monthly averages of 27ᵒc and cool
winters with an average of above 12ᵒc. Temperature of over 40c can be recorded on some
summer days especially in the west and south western parts of the country. The highest
temperatures are usually recorded in December and January.
Winter temperatures ranges between 2ᵒc and 19ᵒc. Lower temperatures below the
freezing are often recorded between June and July. During winter the daily temperature is
high due to the absence of clouds and lack of moisture.
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Rainfall distribution

Rainfall is generally low. The northern parts of the country especially the Chobe district
gets the highest rainfall (more than 600mm). the south eastern part or areas around
Gaborone and Lobatse gets more than 500mm. rainfall gradually decreases from these
area to the west and south western parts of the country. Rain falls mainly between
November and April.

Natural vegetation

Vegetation types is influenced by climatic and soil conditions. There are three main types
namely:
- Deciduous forests – found in the north eastern part of the country (Chobe
district). This area receives the highest amount of rainfall. Theses tree shed their
leaves during the dry season to reduce transpiration. E.g Mukwa, Mukusi
- Savanna vegetation – Botswana has different types of savanna vegetation due to
the differences in climatic and soil characteristics.
a. Mophane savanna- found in the eastern and north eastern parts of the country,
which are frost free.
b. tree and bush savanna – found in semi arid regions with rain fall amounts of
400mm to 600mm. it consists of acacia thorn trees e.g moloto,mokoba etc
c. Bush savanna – found in semi arid environments with lower rainfall of about
300mm to 400mm. it is characterised by scattered shorter trees, bushes and
grasses.
d. Shrub savanna – occurs in the driest parts of the country, where rainfall is
below 300mm. it is characterised by thorn bushes, cacti
e. Grass savanna – found at Mababe depression, Lake Ngami and around
Makgadikgadi salt pans. Grass savanna consists mainly of coarse or wiry short
grasses
- Aquatic vegetation- consists of water loving plants like reeds, water lilies and
palms. It is found in swampy areas e.g Okavango delta and on the banks of Chobe
River.

Human activities
- Crop cultivation
- Fishing
- Pastoral farming
- Mining
- Manufacturing and processing industries e.g BMC
- Tourism

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 SECTION B

UTILISATION AND MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL

RESOURCE

Botswana is blessed with a lot of natural resources which needs to be conserved for
everyone to benefit from them. These resources include
 Water
 Coal
 Forests
 Rangelands
 Veld products
 Wild animals etc
The concept of Sustainable Development came about as a tool for wise use of the
resources worldwide. It is defined as

The wise use of resources by the present generation without jeopardizing the changes of
the future generation to use the same resources.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVLOPMENT

 Recycling of resources
 Reusing resources
 Reducing amount of usage
 Poverty eradication programmes etc

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UTILISATION AND MANAGEMENT OF WATER

Hydrological/ water cycle

Water in the atmosphere reaches the earth mainly in the form of rain or snow. The water
falling on the surface is distributed in various ways. Some water runoff the surface as
rivers and streams and empty into lakes or seas. Some of the water sinks into the ground.
The rest of the water on the other hand is absorbed by vegetation. Water is then returned
to the atmosphere as water vapour.

Evaporation – change of water from liquid to a gaseous state due to high temperature
Transpiration – this is where plants lose water through their leaves
Condensation – this is a process whereby water changes from a gaseous state to a liquid
due to a fall in temperature.
Infiltration – this is a process where water seep/ sink through/ into the ground
Precipitation – when water falls from clouds e.g rain, snow, hail etc

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SOURCES OF WATER

There are two main sources of water. These are

 Surface water
 Underground water

SURFACE WATER

This is water that settles on the earth surface e.g dams, rivers, oceans, lakes etc. The
circulation of surface water is influenced by either perennial or seasonal rivers.

Perennial rivers
These are rivers that contain water all year round. However there are few perennial rivers
in Botswana. These are Chobe and Okavango river. This means that many areas do not
depend on surface water.

Seasonal rivers
These are rivers that contain water for a short period of time after heavy rainfalls e.g Tati,
Motloutse, Lotsane, Notwane etc. apart from rivers, there are also dams which provide
surface water such as Gaborone, Letsibogo, Mopipi, Molatedi etc

UNDERGROUND WATER
This is water that comes from infiltration. This water is found underneath the earth
surface. It can be stored in wells and boreholes.

WATER AUTHORITIES THAT SUPPLY WATER IN BOTSWANA

 Water utilities
 Water affairs
 Local council

WAYS IN WHICH THE WATER AUTHORIES ECOURAGE WATER

CONSERAVTION

 They encourage people to reuse water

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  They introduced the pre-paid meter
 They do public awareness on water conservation
 They encourage people to re-cycle water
 They encourage people to reduce the consumption of water

DEMAND FOR WATER

There are different types of water consumers in Botswana e.g
Public demand, industrial demand and domestic demand
REASONS FOR HIGH/INCREASING WATER DEMAND
 Increasing population
 Growth of industries e.g mining
 Increase in livestock
 Growth of farms which needs irrigation
 Improved lifestyle e.g use of Jacuzzi and construction of swimming pools
 urban growth/expansion of towns and cities
 increase in construction of infrastructure e.g roads, schools

REASONS FOR WATER SCARCITY

Though the need/demand for water in Botswana is increasing, there is a problem

of water scarcity due to the following reasons.
 Semi arid conditions of the country
 The rainfall in Botswana is unreliable
 There is low level of underground water recharge due to high temperatures
 There is high rates or high temperature.
 Topography of the country is not flat making dam construction difficult
and costly
 Main river systems are shared with other countries, so, it is not easy to
interfere with them e.g Chobe and Okavango.
 Porous nature of the soil/sandy soils
 Salinity of underground water
 deep water table which make it difficult to explore underground water

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FACTORS THAT CAN LIMIT WATER SUPPLY TO DIFFERENT AREAS

PHYSICAL HUMAN
- semi arid conditions - too costly/high installation
cost
- Unrealiable rainfall - Vandalizing of pipes e.g
theft of pipes
- Low rainfall - Busting of pipes e.g during
road works.
- Porous nature of soils/sandy
soils
- Salinity/saltiness of
underground water
- Most local rivers are
seasonal rivers
- Deep water table

MEASURES FOR IMPROVING WATER SUPPLY

- Importing water from other areas e.g north-south project, Molatedi dam
- Education on water conservation
- Collecting/harvesting rainwater e.g water catchment tanks, wells,
- Introducing government scheme e.g borehole subsidy scheme
- Desalinization of salty water
- Use of bowsers e.g council

NATIONAL WATER MASTER PLAN

NORTH-SOUTH WATER PROJECT

The government came up with a project that was to solve the problem of water shortage.
The project started in started in 1990 and will run up to 2020. It has two phases, phase 1
and 2. The estimated cost of the project was 1.3 billion pula.

PHASE 1
This was the first project to be implemented. The dam has been built in Letsibogo on the
Motloutse river near Mmadinare.

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PHASE 2
It was divided into 2 parts

Part 1
It covers the construction of the second dam which is located on the lower Shashe river at
a place called Polometsi. It was expected to be completed by 1995.
Part 2
This will include the construction of the second line during the years 2010 and 2013. This
will double the supply of water from the dams.

Advantages
 It helps to provide water to the communities in the south of the country
 Helps create jobs
 Construction of dams resulted into development of infrastructure
 Water supply stimulated development of industries
Advantages
 It does not cover the years beyond 2020
 Land suitable for agriculture is suitable for laying pipes
 Vegetation is lost during clearing of land
 It is an expensive project

WATER CONSERVATION

Water resources in Botswana are limited and cost of developing water resources is
high and will become even higher when the country is found to exploit more
remote and less accessible water resources. People must therefore start conserving
water. Conserving means consuming a resource in such a way that the level of the
resource is not lowered. Conservation implies that a resource is consumed for
ever without being depleted

HOW TO CONSERVE WATER

 Reuse waste water- private households can use waste water to water their
garden
 Recycle water – harvesting effluents from sewage works and treating
them to be used again
 Installation of water catchment systems e.g wells, basement water
catchment system

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  Construction of dams
 Public education on water conservation
 Increase billing of water
 Reduce leakages in the system by mending pipes
 Introduce pre-payment method
 Growing drought resistant plants
 Fencing/protecting water sources
 Use of water tariffs

WETLANDS

Wetlands are all places in which water remains on the ground permanently or temporarily
thus affecting the physical characteristic of an area e.g Okavango delta, Makgadikgadi
pans, rivers, dams

Importance /value of wetlands

 Source of water for irrigation, domestic use
 Source of food e.g fish, water lilies
 Sources of raw material e.g reeds for building and for basket weaving
 Attracts tourists
 Used for recreational purposes e.g fishing, swimming
 They are habitat for animals e.g fish, crocodiles
 They are a means for transport
 They control floods
 Source of medicinal plants

PROBLEMS FACED BY LOCALS/COMMUNITIES LIVING AROUND

WETLANDS
 Flooding
 Difficulties in transport
 Danger from wild animals
 Water borne diseases

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HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT COULD LEAD TO THE DESTRUCTION OF
WETLANDS
HUMAN ACTIVITY DESTRUCTION
 industrialization  pollution
 fishing  overfishing
 agriculture  Over abstraction of water
 overstocking  over grazing
 basketry  over harvesting of reeds and
thatch grass
 construction  over abstraction of sand
 damming of rivers  reduce water downstream,
disturbs movement of
marine life and their
breeding

THE NATIONAL WETLAND POLICY

It was developed to appreciate the value of wetlands and the threats facing it. Its aims are
to:
 promote the conservation and use of Botswana’s wetlands
 sustain the social and economic value of Botswana’s wetlands
 Maintain the ecological functions and benefits of Botswana’s wetlands.

CONVENTION ON WETLANDS OF INTERNATIONAL IMPOTANCE

(RAMSAR CONVENTION, 1971)

The RAMSAR convention is concerned with conservation and sustainable utilization of

wetlands especially water flow habitat. The convection does not dictate policies but
serves as forum for fostering objective discussion on sustainable use of the source base of
wetlands. Its aims are to:

 Stopping the progressive loss of wetlands now and in future

 Recognize the ecological functions of wetlands
 Recognize the economic, cultural, scientific and recreational value of
wetlands.
 Encourage international cooperation
 Encourage wise use of wetlands
 Encourage research

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  Encourages wise use of wetlands

ADVANTAGES OF BOTSWANA AS A PARTY OF THE RAMSAR

 The privilege of participating in the global environmental debate on the

conservation and wise use of wetlands
 Access to international research funding
 Advice from experts on wetland conservation.

WATER AS AN INTERNATIONALLY SHARED RESOURCE

From the water cycle, it is evident that water is an international resource.

 Rivers flow across the globe from one country to another

 Rainfall across the earths’ surface irrespective of national boundaries
 Evaporation and wind movement distribute water all over the globe
although some parts of the globe have more water sources than others.


UNTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF WILDLIFE IN BOTSWANA

Botswana is one of the few countries where wildlife can be seen in national parks and
game reserves.

Wildlife - a country’s flora (plant life) and fauna (animal life)

National park - protected areas in which animals and plants are reserved
Game reserve - a protected area in which only animals are reserved
Endangered species - animals that may soon get extinct
Photographic tourism -a tourist activity in which tourists take photographs of
animals after paying a fee to do so.
Community Based Natural Resource Management Programs - projects set for local
communities and designed for proper management of wildlife resources.

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NATIONAL PARKS, GAME RESERVES AND HUNTING AREAS IN
BOTSWANA
25 lines
IMPORTANCE OF WILDLIFE TO BOTSWANA

ECONOMY OTHER BENEFITS

- source of employment as - Source of food e.g game
people can be hired in meat
national parks and game
reserves
- source of tourist attraction - Source of raw material e.g
elephant tasks, hides etc
- source of government
revenue from the tourist
industry

- source of foreign exchange

- it leads to diversification of
economy

- It leads to development of
other industries e.g service
industries like banking,
lodges etc

IMPACTS OF WILD ANIMALS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

POSITIVE NEGATIVE
Animal excretion add manure to the They destroy vegetation
soil
They balance the ecosystem They cause soil erosion
They cause loss of soil structure
Their movement result in
development of tracks
They destroy the habitat for other
wildlife

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CONFLICTS BETWEEN WILDLIFE AND OTHER LAND USERS

 Conflicts between wildlife and some Batswana (Basarwa) who see

wildlife as a source of meat not to be reserved or preserved.
 Conflicts between wildlife and some people who feel that dangerous
animals are a constant threat to their live, therefore it is better to kill them.
 Conflicts between wildlife and farmers – because wild animals kill their
crops and livestock but they are not allowed to kill the wild animals
 A land that is reserved for wildlife is considered to be a loss for
agricultural activities
 Conflicts between wildlife and firewood and wild fruit gatherers – all the
flora and fauna in reserved areas are not to be harvested.
 Conflicts between wildlife and expansion of settlements – land reserved
for animals is a loss to settlement expansion.

ROLE OF THE STAKE HOLDERS IN THE SUSTAINABLE USE OF WILDLIFE

GOVERNMENT ROLE
The role of the government lies in the national conservation strategy. Conservation is
encouraged through the department of wildlife and national parks which aims at:

 Increasing education and participation by all members of the society in

improving the environment (through the Community Based Natural
Resource Management)
 Protecting endangered species
 Conserving major ecosystems like the Okavango Delta
 Improving the distribution of income rewards from conservation (e.g
people whose livestock are killed by wild animals are compensated)
 Establish a balance between population growth and supply of natural
resources
 Sells and advertises the country’s tourism locally and abroad
 Promote wildlife clubs in schools
 To minimize conflicts between human and wildlife population
 Controlling hunting through hunting permits and licenses
 Controlling the wildlife population etc

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NON GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS

NGOs like Kalahari Conservation Society (KCS), Association of Wild Clubs of

Botswana and Somarelang Tikologo encourage conservation education through:
 Provision of funds/sponsorship for trips, research projects and
environmental projects
 Provision of personnel
 Education to the locals on wildlife conservation
 Promotion of policies of conservation of wildlife
 They do research on wildlife

LOCAL COMMUNITY
 Directly get involved in the management and conservation of wildlife in
their areas.
 Promote wildlife based rural development e.g resources based
management
 Educate each other about wildlife conservation

LOCAL AUTHORITY
 Allocate land for wildlife conservation e.g land boards
 Establish rules and regulations on access and control of resources e.g
rangelands
 Provide facilities such as boreholes e.g councils

PRIVATE SECTOR

 Provide guidelines in proper hunting of animals by tourists e.g safari

hunters
 Provide sponsorships for community projects
 Provides training to the locals

WAYS / METHODS USED TO ENCOURAGE SUATAINABLE USE OF

WILDLIFE

 Introduce anti-poaching laws

 Using hunting seasons
 Issuing of hunting licenses
 Use of conservation and national parks Act
 Public education on the importance of wildlife conservation

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  Protection of endangered species.

IMPACT OF FENCES (BUFFALO FENCE AND CORDON FENCES) ON

ANIMALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

 Cause restriction of movement

 Affect the breeding of wild animals
 Vegetation along the fence get destroyed/ overgrazing occurs
 Animals may get caught by fence and some may die
 It affects distribution of animal species
 Controls the spread animal diseases e.g foot and mouth

UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FORESTS AND VELD PRODUCTS

Forests and veld products are wildlife goods found naturally in an area and can be
harvested by locals for consumption or commercial purposes.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Forest products are mainly found the north east (especially phane) and south east
(especially morula) because of higher rainfall in these areas meaning more trees grow
here as compared to the rest of the country. The higher rainfall areas of the east have
many products e.g Lengana, mosukujane, moretlwa and mogwana while the west have
fewer but some very important ones such as sengaparile. The Okavango delta has many
products including tswii (water lilly).

IMPORTANCE OF THE COMMERCIALISATION OF FORESTS AND VELD

PRODUCTS TO STAKE HOLDERS/ECONOMIC BENEFITS.

GOVERNMENT
 Creates employment
 Generate revenue which help to reduce rural-urban migration
 Diversify the economy
 Foreign exchange as some are commercially exported

PRIVATE SECTOR
 There is an organization of sengaparile as it is bought and manufactured
into tablets for export.

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  Mophane is bought by a commercial company, worldwide commodities
and exported to RSA
 Many small vendors are involved in the selling of veld products on the
local markets.

LOCAL COMMUNITY
 It is a source of food
 Can be used for medicinal purposes
 Way to supplement income

Examples are:
- Collection and selling of phane by thousands of people in the north and
district
- Communities in Kweneng west, Ghantsi, Kgalagadi and Ngwaketse south
harvest and sells sengaparile to Thusanyo lefatsheng.
- Mosukudu and mosukujane are used as tea substitutes and medicinal
purpose.
- Mokola has helped in the development of basket making industry in
Ngamiland district which gives some type of employment or income to an
estimated 2000 women.
- Motshikitshane and motshikiri are prized thatch grass

NGOs
 Involved in the gathering of these products
 Mainly concerned with making these activities sustainable

Examples are:
- Council for scientific and industrial research of RSA which is trying to
help develop phane silk production
- Thusanyo Lefatsheng which employs extension workers to try to show
people how to harvest sengaparile without destroying the plant so it
remains sustainable. It is also put quotas on individual sellers to try to
prevent overharvesting.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF GATHERING

 Phane trees are often destroyed by harvesters wishing to get all the worms
even at the highest level.

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  Extinction of some products in some areas caused by a combination of
over harvesting and drought
 Depletion of products closer to the village
 Poor harvesting methods leading to the destruction of sengaparile plant
and leaving of deep holes that can be further eroded destroying the local
environment.
 Destruction of mokola palm by harvesting all its leaves
 Over harvesting thatch grass leading to range land degradation
 Fencing of land and the prevention of gatherers from entering and the
overgrazing of cattle destroying the areas of grasses and veld products.

ROLES THAT STAKEHOLDERS CAN PLAY TO MAKE FORESTS AND VELD

PRODUCTS SUSTAINABLE

GOVERNMENT
 Bring in legislation under the national conservation strategy that will
make the utilization of these sustainable.
 Gathers should be registered
 Gathers should be given permits
 Set quotas
 Develop commercial cultivations of these products
 Carry scientific research into these products as they are not well known
 Should give recognition to veld products as a distinct land use under NDP
and so monitor their use more closely

LOCAL AUTHORITIES

 Must look past their needs to the future and practice selective harvesting
 Learn about the product they are using such as proper way of harvesting
and ways of cultivating the product
 Set up organization that organize education of locals, place local quotas,
decide on areas to be harvested and areas that could be left for
recuperation and market the product.
NGOs

 Lead the way in research and development

 Provide funding

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Thusanyo Lefatsheng has its objective to:
- Develop methods of cultivation processing and marketing of indigenous
trees and medicinal plants
- Harvesting of such plants in a sound and ecological manner
- The protection and cultivation of endangered plant species
- The introduction of sustainable agricultural methods
- The creation of rural employment

EXAMPLES OF VELD PRODUCTS

- Devils claw
- Mosithane
- Herbal trees
- Morula
- Phane worm
- Honey etc

HUMAN FACTORS LEADING TO DESTRUCTION OF FORESTS

- Expansion of settlements leading to deforestation thus reduction in the size of

rangelands.
- Overstocking leading to overgrazing
- Over harvesting of thatch grass
Clearing of land for agriculture
- Occurrence of veld fires
- Construction of infrastructure
- Pollution e.g air pollution leading to acid rain which kills plants
- Mining/ industries
- Lumbering

SOLUTION TO PROBLEMS OF FORESTS DESTRUCTION

- Afforestation – growing of trees where forests have been cut

- Reforestation- planting of trees in areas with few trees
- Public awareness on forest conservation
- Use of alternative energy sources e.g use of gas instead of firewood.
- Use of government laws/policies e.g use of permit for firewood collection for
commercial purposes

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FOREST RESERVES IN BOTSWANA

Large forest occur mainly in Chobe and some areas there have been declared forest
reserves. There are 6 forest reserves which are protected by law namely:

- Chobe forest reserve

- Kasane forest reserve
- Kasane forest extension
- Maikaelelo forest reserve
- Sibuyu forest reserve
- Kazuma forest reserves

The following are prohibited in these areas:

- Unauthorized cutting of trees

- Burning of grass
- The grazing of livestock
- The removal of trees to make fields

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ORGANISATIONS CONCERNED WITH CONSERVATION OF FORESTS

ORGANISATION BRIEF OBJECTIVES PROGRAMMES

FOREST It is a non- - To promote 1. community based
ASSOCIATION OF governmental public woodland
BOTSWANA (FAB) organisation awareness and management
which is non- education on the 2. home tree
profit making. It importance of planting
was formed in trees and natural 3. school
1983 by resources programmes
individuals - To assist in the 4. agro forestry
concerned about protection of
the depletion of forests, bush
natural trees and shrubs
- To promote
forest industries
and related
employment
throughout the
country
- To assist
organisation
involved in tree
planting and
fencing
extension work
- To act as a focal
point for all
NGOs forestry
activities
THUSANO A non- - Processing and
LEFATSHENG governmental marketing of
organisation in indigenous trees
the field of and medical
forests and veld plants
products - Harvesting of
medical and
aromatic plants
in a sustainable
- Protection and
cultivation of
endangered
plants species
- Creation of rural

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 employment

RANGELANDS
It is a stretch of grazing land where animal feed or it is a land that supplies forage /
vegetation for grazing animals. It is often not fenced.

Rangeland degradation/destruction
It is the deterioration of reduction of grazing land for livestock by human and nature / the
permanent decline in the rate at which land yields livestock products due to human action
and natural causes.

Types of rangelands

Communal - rangelands that are used by the community/general public

Commercial - rangelands that are privately owned. Divided into paddocks and the
animals are monitored.
An example of a type of rangeland in Botswana is Barolong farms.

Examples of rangelands
- Grassland
- Shrub lands
- Woodlands

FACTORS INFLUENCING RANGELANDS

- suitable climatic conditions

- The available soil type
- Duration of gazing in the area

HUMAN FACTORS CAUSING RANGELAND DEGRADATION

- Deforestation
- Overstocking which leads to overgrazing
- Over harvesting of thatch grass
- Veldfires
- Expansion of settlements due to population growth
- Lack of knowledge/education/poor methods of farming

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PHYSICAL FACTORS CAUSING RANGELAND DEGRADATION

- Flooding due to heavy rains

- Drought/lack of rainfall
- Poor/less fertile soils
- Salinization of the soils
- Hot/high temperatures (which may cause veldfires)

EFFECTS/RESULTS OF RANGELAND DEGRADATION

- Soil erosion resulting in gullies and removal of top soil

- Desertification
- Loss of quality of the soil
- Loss/low quality livestock
- Increased water run-off
- Poor pastures/lack of grass for livestock

HOW RANGELANDS CAN BE MANAGED/ SUSTAINABLE USE OF

RANGELANDS

-
Ranching/fencing/paddocking to control movement of livestock controlled
stocking of livestock
- Practicing rotational grazing
- Growing fodder crops
- Construction of fire breaks
- Controlled cutting of vegetation
- Public education and research on rangelands
- Zero grazing
- Afforestation
- Irrigation of fodder crops rather than relying on rainfall
GOVERNMENT’S EFFORT TOWARDS MANAGEMENT OF RANGELANDS

In 1975, the government introduced the Tribal Grazing Land Policy (TGLP) to prevent
rangeland degradation. The reasons/objectives of the TGLP were:

- To fence grazing areas to control movement of livestock

- To reduce overgrazing and soil erosion

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 - To divide land into communal, commercial and reserved farming areas
- To educate farmers on sustainable use of rangelands.
However, the TGLP later failed and the government stopped its services. Though the
TGLP failed it had some successes.

Success Failures
It controlled Poor management of ranges by
overstocking/overgrazing in farmers
communal areas
It encouraged growth and Unwillingness to limit/reduce their
commercialization of livestock stock numbers by farmers
industry
It encouraged livestock owners to Lack of monitoring/supervision by
adopt better methods of herd and relevant authorities/extension
range management workers
It encouraged use of commercial Lack of knowledge/education by
areas/ranching farmers

ENERGY-

Africa has the potential of producing power. There are 2 main resources of power.

 Non- renewable fossil fuels e.g coal and oil

 Renewable e.g water and the sun
Some of the examples of sources of energy are:

 Wind
 Water
 Sun
 Coal etc

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HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER STATION

Penstock - a large metal pipe

Turbine - a wheel with blades
Grid - a net used to separate the water from unwanted materials
Hydro-electricity - energy produced by force of flowing water
Tail race - a passage through which water is released after it has
turned the turbines
Power house - where voltage is changed to the acceptable standard of the
country.

HOW IT WORKS

 Water flows through the grid into the penstock to the power house
 The water turns the turbines
 The generator is activated
 Electricity is produced
 The transformer will change the voltage to an acceptable standard of that
country.
 The water from the turbines flows to the tail race

DISTRIBUTION OF DAMS FOR HYDRO-ELECTRICITIC POWER SUPPLY IN

AFRICA
20 lines

Examples of HEP stations in Africa South of Sahara

HEP Country Water source

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 which was
dammed
Kainji Nigeria
Kafue Zambia
Kariba Zambia/Zimbabwe
Akosombo Ghana
Cabora Bassa Mozambique
Aswan Egypt

FACTORS INFLUENCING LOCATION OF AN HEP

 Availability of a steep gradient

 Availability of a large market e.g. industries
 Availability of skilled man power
 Availability of large capital
 Availability of a strong geographic rock base
 Availability of a regular water supply/perennial water source
 Availability of an ice free area

ADVANTAGES OF AN HEP

 Serves as a tourist attraction

 Helps to provide cheap electricity for locals
 Stimulates development of industries
 Helps in controlling flooding
 Can be used for transportation
 Source of food e.g fish
 Source of water for irrigation and domestic use
 It uses a renewable resource

DISADVANTAGES OF AN HEP

 Construction cost is high

 Reserves can be flooded
 During drought ,power output drops
 Agricultural land around the reserves is submerged
 Reduction in water down stream
 Leads to loss of vegetation (deforestation)
 Disruption of the ecosystem

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  Disturbance of the breeding of the water species

THERMAL POWER

This is the production of electricity from heat. Coal and oil are the usual energy sources
used in the thermal station. An example of a thermal power station in Botswana is the
MORUPULE Power station

FACTORS INFLUENCING LOCATION OF THE MORUPULE THERMAL

POWER STATION

 Nearness to large supplies of coal

 Availability of water from Paje river for cooling the pipes
 Availability of a large market e.g. Gaborone, Palapye etc
 Availability of skilled man power e.g. from Palapye, Gaborone etc
 Availability of large flat land
 Availability of capital from the Botswana government

HOW IT WORKS

 Coal is crushed and blown into a furnace

 The coal dust is burnt to produce heat energy
 The heat energy will change the water in the pipes into steam
 Steam passes through the turbine under great pressure/ steam turns the
turbine
 The central shaft turns inside a large coil in the generator
 Electricity is produced
 Steam passes along pipes into the cooling tank/cools and condenses

The power produced at Morupule is linked to all major centers in Botswana by

220kv and 132kv transmission lines. The station gets water from Paje River 45km
north west of Morupule.

ADVANTAGES OF A THERMAL POWER STATION

 It provides cheap electricity to the local community and industries

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  It creates employment
 It uses a local resource and therefore it is cheap to produce
 It stimulates development of industries
 Water that is used for cooling can be reused

DISADVANTAGES OF A THERMAL POWER

 It causes air pollution

 It is too expensive to construct
 It uses a non-renewable resource
 It needs huge supplies of water for cooling
 Clearing of land for construction destroys vegetation
 Can cause waste heaps
 It is dirty to handle (coal dust)
 Coal is bulky and result in high transport cost
 It is not safe due to its explosive nature of the power station

SOLAR ENERGY

It is energy produced from the sun

HOW IT WORKS

 The sun rays are trapped by the solar panels

 The heat energy (from the sun rays) is converted to electricity by
photovoltaic cells
 Electricity is stored in booster batteries for use later

EXAMPLES OF VILLAGES IN BOTSWANA USING SOLAR POWER

 Manyana
 Motshegaletau
 Takatokwane
 Thamaga etc

ADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ENERGY

 It can be used in most parts of the works

 It uses a renewable resources

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  It is clean (causes no pollution)
 It is cheap to use

DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ENERGY

 Installation costs are high

 It is unreliable e.g when it is raining
 It needs a lot of sunlight to produce large amount of energy

BOTSWANA’S STRATEGY FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION

 Public education on the importance of conservation energy

 Introduction of pre-payment meters by BPC
 Substitute scares and more expensive fuel with those which are renewable
and cheaper e.g solar power
 Increasing billing
 Use load shedding
 Use of quotas
 Use of sensor lights
 Switching off of unused electrical appliances and lights

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 SECTION C
ECONOMIC ACTIVTIES

TOURISM INDUSTRY
Tourism is a whole business of providing services such as accommodation, entertainment
and other amenities such as food, furniture and shopping facilities for travelling visitors.
Ecotourism is tourism that is planned to respect and safeguard the environment.
A tourist is a person who travels away from his/her home for pleasure on a temporary
basis. There are two types of tourists:
 Internal tourist – a tourist who travels within the boundaries of his/her country.
 International tourist – a tourist who travels outside the boundaries of his/her
country.

TYPES OF TOURISM

 INLAND TOURISM
It refers to the tourist attractions areas and activities found in the interior of a
country or continent, far away from the sea. This will include game reserves,
monuments etc.
 COASTAL TOURISM
It refers to the tourist attraction areas and activities that era found near the sea,
along the beach. This include sea diving, bays etc.

Some of the countries in Africa that practice coastal tourism are South Africa and Kenya.
Areas of coastal tourism in these countries include:
South Africa Kenya
Mossel Bay Watamu bay
Durban Mombasa
Cape Town Malindi
Port Elizabeth Sunny Beaches
Oyster Coral Reefs
Marine life Oceans

FACTORS INFLUENCING TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

 Climate e.g. sunny conditions, areas with snow
 Physical landscape e.g. mountains, lakes - mountain climbing /hiking, sky diving
and lakes for swimming, boat cruising.
 Wildlife e.g. birds, wild animals and vegetation.
 Buildings and monuments – Matsieng foot print and three Dikgosi monument

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  Sports and recreational activities e.g. football, golf, fishing etc
 Availability of accommodation e.g. hotels, camping sites etc
 Transport accessibility e.g. better roads, railway line and air lines
 Cultural activities e.g. letlhafula day, domboshaba, dithubaruba
 Political stability
 Beaches

INLAND TOURISM (BOTSWANA)

TOURIST ATTRACTIONS IN BOTSWANA
o Wildlife
o Okavango Delta
o Caves – Gcwihaba Caves, Legaga la ga Setshele
o Rock Paintings – Tsodilo hills, Manyana
o The Kalahari Desert – Sand dunes
o Historical sites e.g. Lentswe la Baratani, Kolobeng, David Livingstone’s Fig. Tree

ADVANTAGES/BENEFITS/IMPORTANCE/POSITIVE IMPACTS OF
TOURISM INDUSTRY IN BOTSWANA.
o It creates employment/income
o Source of foreign exchange
o Leads to the development of infrastructure
o Encourages local industries
o Encourages conservation of natural resources
o It improves international relations
o Encourages preservation of local culture
o Promotes the name of the country
o Promotes the development of remote areas by stimulating the provision of
services

DISADVANTAGES/NEGATIVE IMPACTS
o Poaching
o It brings conflicts between the tourism industry and other land users e.g.
agriculture
o Leads to the spread of diseases across countries e.g. SARS
o Promotes pollution e.g. littering
o Can promote prostitution
o May lead to the erosion of local culture through imitating foreign clothing,
hairstyles etc

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 o It is seasonal (during the off-peaks season, the industry suffers and people may
lose their jobs)
o Encourages all forms of crime e.g. theft, illegal drugs/substance abuse, poaching,
human trafficking, burglary, rape etc.

PROBLEMS FACED BY BOTSWANA AND OTHER COUNTRIES IN

DEVELOPING/IMPROVING THE TOURISM INDUSTRY
o Lack of capital – the industry requires a lot of capital
o Poor road conditions, especially in remote rural areas
o Serious competitions from other well known countries
o Shortage of skilled manpower – needs high level of management
o Limited participation of the local people – few people afford touring
o Poor transport systems e.g. poor air line services

POSSIBLE SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEMS

o Financial assistance by the government e.g. CEDA
o Infrastructural Development to link all tourist attraction areas and make them
accessible e.g. Trans – Kalahari road
o Manpower training for locals e.g. LEA
o Encouraging local people to visit areas of attraction so that they can develop their
own tourist industry e.g. low tourist packages for locals
o Formulation of policies to develop the tourism industries
o Increasing air lines, improving transport systems.

THE ROLE PLAYED BY STAKEHOLDERS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE

TOURISM INDUSTRY.
THE GOVERNMENT
 Enforces anti – poaching laws
 Protects and conserves natural resources and wildlife through national parks and
game reserves.
 Formulate tourism policies and implement them
 Develop infrastructure in tourist areas
 Advertise the tourism industry abroad through BEDIA, HATAB

THE PRIVATE SECTOR

 Provides/improves tourist accommodation
 Advertises Botswana abroad through agencies
 Can train locals in hotels catering and tourism skills
 Can reduce flight rates and have holiday packages to attract tourists
 Improve tourism attractions

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NON – GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS
 Promotes and implements tourism policies
 Provides education
 Can research on tourism related topics to give more information about the
industry
 Can promote conservation of wildlife e.g. Mokolodi Nature Reserve

LOCAL COMMUNITIES
 Promotes conservation through CBNRM (Community Based National Resource
Management)
 Provides resort areas e.g. Cultural Villages

CASE STUDIES
KRUGER NATIONAL PARK (SOUTH AFRICA)

- Located in the northwest corner of Mpumalanga province

- It covers about 20 000km2
- Vegetation is savanna type which is sustainable for game grazing
- Relief is flat
- It has a well developed network of tarred and dirt roads as well as services to the
park
- Plenty of animals by the riverside, so they are easy to view
- 3000 Rest Camps with a total of 5000 beds
- Wide variety of animals/ wildlife
- Several air strips

Problems in Kruger National Park

- Animals do not live in a real natural state i.e. diseases are controlled by injections
and spraying of sick animals
- The park is fenced so animals are not free to search further away for food
- Predatory animals such as lions, leopards and hyenas do not reduce the number of
other animals
- Culling is being done to reduce the number or keep down the number of animals
- Overgrazing due to large number of elephants
- Competition for water with people in the surrounding areas who want for
domestic use

Benefits/Advantages
- High level of local tourists
- Well developed tourist infrastructure

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 - Availability of home grown skills to develop the tourist industry
- Employment within and outside park
- Market for local products

Disadvantages/Negatives
- High incidents of all forms of crime e.g. theft, substance abuse
- Dilution of culture/Erosion of culture
- Prostitution/social ills

TOURISM IN KENYA

Factors influencing tourism in Kenya

- Political stability
- The government of Kenya has actively encouraged tourists
- Great variety of scenery such as highlands, rift valleys and many lakes, volcanoes.
- Variety of wildlife in parks
- Sunny and sandy beaches

Advantages of tourism in Kenya

- Source of foreign exchange
- Source of income/employment
- Source of government revenue through taxes

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 - Encourages local craft industry

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture is the practice of growing crops and rearing animals.

TYPES OF AGRICULTURE
1. Arable farming – the growing of crops
2. Pastoral farming – rearing of livestock
3. Mixed farming – growing of crops and rearing of livestock
4. Intensive farming – where there are:

 More yields per hectare

 More profits per hectare
 A large amount of capital used
 Small farms used
5. Extensive farming – where there are:

 Less yields per hectare

 Less profits per hectare
 Less workers per hectare
 Small amount of capital invested
 Large farms used

ARABLE FARMING
There are two types of arable farming mainly: subsistence and commercial farming.
a. Subsistence arable farming (Practiced all over Botswana except in some
areas within the Kalahari desert)
This is the growing of crops for family consumption
Characteristics/features:
 It depends on family labor
 Simple hand tools are used/use of simple implements e.g. hoe
 There is small scale production
 Do not use pesticides and fertilizers

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  Produce a variety of crops at the same time e.g. sorghum, maize, water melon etc
 Crop farms are usually unfenced
 Rely on rainfall
Activities

 Clearing of land
 Fencing
 Ploughing
 Weeding (using simple tools)
 Harvesting

Inputs:
 Communal land
 Simple tools e.g. ox drawn plough (drought power), hoe
 Rainfall (natural input)
 Ordinary seeds (seeds from the previous harvest)
 Family labor
 Tree branches used as fence

Outputs (mainly crops)

 Maize
 Water melon
 Groundnuts
 Sweet potatoes
 Millet
 Beans

Problems faced by subsistence farmers

 Pests and diseases

 Drought
 Wild Animals
 Infertile Soil
 Unreliable rainfall/low rainfall/uneven distribution of rainfall
 High temperatures
 Porous soils/sandy soil/high infiltration soils/poor water holding capacity

Possible Solutions

 Use of pesticides and insecticides

 Use of irrigation methods
 Fencing and use of scarecrows
 Use of Fertilizers

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EFFORTS MADE BY THE GOVERNMENT TO IMPROVE
TRADITIONAL/SUBSISTANCE FARMING

 Arable Land Development Programme (ALDEP)

It was formed to provide loans and grants for:

Fencing materials
Water tanks
Buying simple tools for farmers e.g. ploughs, harrows, planters and
cultivators
Scotch Cart – to transport inputs and farm produce to and from the
markets and homesteads
Thrashing Machine
Chaff – Cutter for cutting stover into small pieces for feeding livestock

 Accelerated Rain – fed Arable Programme(ARAP)

Its main aim was to provide water and pesticides to farmers

 Botswana Agricultural Marketing Board

It is responsible for purchasing food grains e.g. maize, sorghum, millet etc from
farmers
b. Commercial Arable farming:

This is a farming system that is based on cash crop farming. It is mainly for profit
making. The areas of commercial farming in Botswana are:

- Tuli Block Gantsi Block

- Talana Farms Mogobane farms
- Barolong Farms Lobatse Block
- Chobe farms Pandamatenga Farms

Examples of commercial farms are freehold farms and Leasehold farms which are
privately owned farms.

Characteristics:

o The farms are large

o Rotational farming is practiced

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 o Chemicals such as pesticides and artificial fertilizers are used
o Irrigation systems are used
o Large amount of capital is required
o Use of heavy machinery
o Requires skilled labor
o Produce high amounts of outputs

Activities:

o Clearing and fencing

o Ploughing
o Weeding
o Harvesting
o Processing
o Irrigation

Inputs:

o Commercial or freehold land

o Hired labor
o Selected and treated seeds
o Artificial fertilizers
o Heavy machinery

Outputs:

o High quality grain for sale e.g. rice, maize

o Citrus fruits
o Sunflower
o Groundnuts
o Cotton
o Tea

Problems faced by commercial farmers: Solutions

 Lack of market Introduce new marketing

strategies
 Crop pests and diseases Use pesticides and herbicides
 Lack of enough capital Provision of grants and loans
Lack of skilled labor Training manpower
Lack of transport Improving transport infrastructure

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 Wild animals Improve managerial skills

CASE STUDY - TULI BLOCK

Factors that influence the Location of Tuli Block:

o Availability of water for irrigation from Limpopo river

o Availability of large flat land
o Availability of fertile loamy and alluvial soil which are easy to cultivate
o Availability of casual labour from surrounding villages such as Tsetsetbjwe and
Molalatau
o Suitable weather conditions; just about enough rainfall and sunlight

PLANTATIONS:

It is a large estate or farm where there is an intensive cultivation of one crop

(monoculture) for sale e.g. sugar cane in Natal, South Africa, Cotton wool plantation in
Sudan (Gezira Scheme), sunflower, coffee etc. It involves a massive capital investment.

The characteristics or features of a plantation include the following:

 A large freehold land

 Practice monoculture
 Has a nursery
 Transport for workers is provided to and from the plantation
 Has a processing plant on site
 Has workers houses on site
 Has water supply for irrigation
 Has a wide variety of services or amenities on site e.g. schools for education, hall
and bar for entertainment and recreational purposes, shop for shopping
 There is use of chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides)
 There is use of advanced machinery

BENEFITS/IMPORTANCE/ADVANTAGES TO THE PEOPLE AND THE COUNTRY

PEOPLE COUNTRY

Creates employment/income Source of Foreign Exchange

Source of livestock food Source of Government revenue

Source of cheap food stuff Diversifies the economy

Leads to rural developments/reduces rural Leads to the development of other

urban migration industries

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Leads to high standard of living/improved Leads to infrastructural developments e.g.
lifestyles roads, railway lines

Acquire Knowledge/skills in advanced Has large supply of raw materials/food

modern methods of farming supply

It has a large scale of production ensuring

increased yields

Reduces dependence on other

countries/reduces imports/self – sufficient

PROBLEMS/DISAVANTAGES ASSOCIATED WITH PLANTATION

FARMING:

 Crops are usually for export, not for local market

 Plantation farming leads to over production of one crop/monoculture
 Leads to migration of people
 The economy is dominated by foreign companies
 Creates competition for land
 Diseases may destroy the whole crop in a plantation
 Multinational companies may pull out at any time
 Most of the profits leaves the country
 At the plantations, there is exploitation of workers
 There is pollution from the fertilizers
 Deforestation
 Soil erosion/land degradation
 Plantations causes soil exhaustion
 Leads to subsistence farming being neglected
 Plantations are affected by fluctuation of prices/demand/recession

SUGAR CANE PLANTATION IN KWA ZULU NATAL SOUTH AFRICA:

It is a tall grass that grows in areas that are influenced by warm and moist weather. South
Africa is known as the great producer of sugar. The sugar cane plantations are found in
the Kwa Zulu Natal Province and it was first grown there in 1847 by a man called Mr.
Morewood.

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FACTORS INFLUENCING CULTIVATION OF SUGARCANE IN KWA ZULU
NATAL WEST OF DURBAN.

o Suitable temperatures (mean monthly temperatures between 25oc and 30oc)

o Annual rainfall between 1000mm and 1500mm
o Availability of fertile soils
o Availability of large flat land
o Availability of cheap labour from locals
o Availability of better communication systems e.g. roads

CULTIVATION:

o Stems of sugarcane are cut about 15 – 20cm (1 or 2 joints) with 2 to 4 buds.

o The buds are dipped into insecticides to prevent diseases
o The stems are then planted in furrows which are about 13.5cm apart.
o This takes place between September and November because it is the rainy period
and temperatures are appropriate
o The first shoot is cut to allow the growth of the stronger stem
o The growing period is between 20 – 25 months.

HARVESTING:

o It takes place between May and September

o The cane is cut with machetes
o The cane is then collected in bundles and transported by trucks to the processing
plant

PROCESSING SUGARCANE:

It is first cut into short lengths by revolving knives

o It is then crushed by rollers to extract juice

o The juice is weighed and then mixed with lime in order to remove impurities
o The clarifier removes impurities and the evaporation and boiling pans purify it
further
o The juice is boiled to remove excess water, then is cooled to produce sugar
crystals
o The crystals are then covered in a sticky brown liquid (molasses) so they are put
into the separator

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PROBLEMS OF SUGARCANE PLANTATIONS:

o Crop diseases and pests

o Infertile soil
o Shortage of capital
o Heavy storm and floods
o Drought
o Fluctuation of market prices
o

BENEFITS/IMPORTANCE OF SUGARCANE PLANTATION:

o Creates employment
o Source of foreign exchange
o Provides sugar/source of food
o Diversifies the economy
o Its wastes provides fertilizers and animal feed

USES OF SUGAR:

o Sweetens food
o Used in an adhesive as an ingredient
o Used in the production of drugs/medicinal
o Used in Photographic materials

COTTON PLANTATION (GEZIRA SCHEME) SUDAN:

The most important and successful large scale irrigation scheme in Sudan is the Gezira
scheme. It is located between the Blue and White Nile Rivers and also north of the
Sennar dam. The Gezira has been known for the production of good quality cotton for
many years.

FAVOURABLE FACTORS FOR THE GEZIRA IRRIGATION SCHEME:

 A large flat land/gentle slope between the Blue and White Nile Rivers
 Availability of cheap labor from locals
 Have fertile silt soil from volcanic basalt
 Are near perennial water sources/ Blue and White Nile Rivers
 Has clay beneath silt which reduces drainage of valuable water

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  Has little vegetation to be cleared
 Water can flow by gravity avoiding expense of pumping
 Availability of reliable water source from the Sennar dam
 Political stability

CULTIVATION OF COTTON:

 Cotton is sewn in ridges that are a meter apart

 Several seeds are planted together and when they have grown to a height of a few
centimeters, thinning is done
 The plants start flowering after three months
 They mature into seed pods known as bolls
 The bolls contain a fluffy white fiber called lint
 When they are mature, the bolls burst and open to expose the lint.

HARVESTING:

 Harvesting is done by hand

 The clean bolls will be separated from the stained/dirty ones and then sent to the
gins for processing

PROCESSING:

 The bolls are put in gins

 Lint is separated from the seeds and compressed into bales
 Bales of cotton are sent to textile factories to be weaved into cotton cloth
 The seeds are crushed to produce oil

USES OF COTTON:

 To provide cotton
 The seeds can be used to make cooking oil

BENEFITS/IMPORTANCE:

 Source of large supply raw material

 Creates employment/income
 Source of foreign Exchange
 Diversify the economy
 Leads to the development of infrastructure
 Source of government revenue
 Leads to the development of other industries
 Leads to rural developments

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  Leads to high standards of living
 Reduces dependence on other countries/reduces importing from other countries
 It has advanced modern methods of farming

PROBLEMS:

 Pests and diseases

 Fluctuating market prices
 Drought
 Infertile soils
 Shortage of capital

IRRIGATION SYSTEMS IN BOTSWANA

Irrigation is the controlled application of water to particular area by means a rivers,

boreholes, dams etc. There are various irrigation methods used by commercial farmers in
Botswana:

1. FLOOD IRRIGATION

This is where water is spread over a large area to soak into the ground. The water
flows through irrigation channels with branches leading to areas to be irrigated.
The method is practiced in Tuli Block.

2. SPRINKLER IRRIGATION

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 The water is pumped through a pipe with a series of holes and the water is spread
out through holes. This method is used in Seleka and Talana farms.

3. SURFACE/FURROW IRRIGATION

It is usually used in a sloppy area/land to allow water to be directed to specific

areas in the field. This method is used at Mmathubudukwane in the banks of
Madikwe river.

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4. DRIP IRRIGATION

Its water drips at a rate of two litters per hour from the suspended plastic pipes set
60cm apart. Drip method is highly recommended compared to other methods
because evaporation rate is very low.

5. CENTRE PIVOT

A centre pivot is a long structure where pipes are attached with sprinkles at
regular intervals. The fields are usually in a circular place. This method is used in
some freehold areas such as the Gaborone Block, Talana farms and Tuli Block.

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Reasons why irrigation is not wide spread in Botswana

 High evaporation rate

 Lack of knowledge in the application of irrigation systems
 Unreliable rainfall
 Few perennial rivers
 It is expensive

Advantages of using irrigation

 Increase agricultural yields/production

 Can be used during dry seasons
 Can help to provide water throughout the year

PASTORAL FARMING IN BOTSWANA

It is the rearing of animals/livestock

Subsistence pastoral farming – the rearing or livestock for family consumption

Commercial pastoral farming – the raring of livestock for profit/sale

Ranch – a large fenced area of commercial pastoral farming

Freehold farm – privately owned farm

Factors influencing distribution of cattle/livestock

 Availability of vegetation
 Availability of water supply
 Availability of market for the products
 Availability of cheap labor
 Availability for transport to the market

Cattle distribution in Botswana

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Most cattle are found in the eastern part of Botswana because there is more pastures/large
grazing area.

There are no cattle farming in the following areas because:

A – Thick forest/tsetse fly/wildlife/national park

B – Swamps/tsetse fly/wildlife/national park/game reserve

C – Salt pans/no drinking water

Commercial farming: Subsistence farming

Carried out in ranches

uses communal
land
Practices rotational grazing
depends on family
labor
Employs trained managers produces at small scale
Practices regular vaccination
Produces at large scale

Inputs Inputs

Commercial land communal land

Local and exotic breeds local breeds
Stock feeds rain
Hired labor family labor
Vaccines

Outputs Outputs

Milk milk
Meat meat
Skin/hide skin/hide

Activities Activities

Dehorning milking

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Dipping branding
Branding
Vaccinating

Problems: Problems

Unreliable rainfall unreliable rainfall

Livestock diseases livestock diseases
Conflict with the tourism industry overgrazing
Distant markets livestock
Fluctuating market prices
Overgrazing

Solutions: Solutions:

Regular vaccinating and dipping Regular vaccinating and dipping

Expansion of transport links using boreholes
Limit stocking rates training workers
Limit stocking rates

ADVANTAGES OF KEEPING LIVESTOCK ON RANCHES

They control breeding

Control grazing by paddocking
Easy control of diseases
Control movement of cattle/reduces loss of livestock through going astray

IMPACTS OF PASTORAL FARMING ON THE ENVIROMENT

o Overgrazing
o Soil erosion
o Depletion of water sources
o Deforestation
o Rangeland degradation
o Desertification
o Extinction of certain plant species

PROBLEMS THAT MAKE IT DIFFICULT FOR MANY CATTLE FARMERS

TO BECOME COMMRCIAL FARMERS

o Lack of access to credit facilities

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 o Lack of boreholes
o Lack of education/skill/managerial skill
o Lack of forage/pastures
o Poor breeds
o Lack of capital

CHANGES OCCURING IN THE SUBSISTENCE FARMING SYSTEM IN

BOTSWANA

o Use of fertilizers/pesticides
o Hired labour
o Use of irrigation systems
o Regular dipping and vaccinating
o Rotational farming
o Dehorning of cattle

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 MINING
Mining is the extraction of minerals underground.

MINERALS AND ROCKS FOUND IN BOTSWANA

The main type of rocks are:

1. Sedimentary rocks – these are formed when rock particles are deposited in rivers,
seas, oceans and lakes e.g. sandstones and river sand.
2. Igneous rocks – these are formed from the cooling of very hot liquid which comes
from deep in the earth.
3. Metamorphic rocks – they are formed when sedimentary and igneous rocks are
changed by heat and pressure

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE MINING

o Size of the deposit

o Geological occurrence of the ore
o Market price and demand
o Availability of capital
o Availability of labour
o Availability waters supply
o Accessibility to railway and roads
o Political stability of the area
o Availability of power supply
o Quality of the mineral ore
o Accessibility of the ore
o Relief of the site etc

IMPORTANCE OF MINING TO THE PEOPLE AND GOVERNMENT OF

BOTSWANA

o Brings revenue
o Provides foreign exchange/income
o Creates employment
o Influence the development of infrastructure e.g schools
o Provides raw materials for other industries e.g processing industries

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 o Stimulates the development of new industries e.g diamond polishing, construction
o Helps pay for the training of locals e.g DEBSWANA scholarship program

METHODS OF MINING

1. shaft mining
It is used when the ore is deep underground. It has several problems that include:
 danger of underground dangerous gases
 excessive heat
 flooding
 rocks falling

2. Open pit/open cast/strip

It is used when the ore is close to the ground surface
3. Panning
It is used in mining minerals which are found on the river bed
4. Adit/drift mining
It is used to mine minerals on the side of the hill or the mineral ore occurs in horizontal
layers
5. Quarrying
It is when explosives are used to loosen the rock from the rock surface.

PROBLEMS FACED BY COUNTRIES/ECONOMIES DEPENDENT ON

MINERAL EXTRACTION

1. Fluctuating market prices

2. Exhaustion of the mineral ore
3. People may lose their jobs if the mineral ore gets depleted
4. It may lead to the development of ghost town when the mines closes
5. Closure of some businesses e.g. hare ware selling mine equipment
6. Decline in the gross national product

COPPER NICKEL MINE IN SELIBE PHIKWE

GEOLOGICAL OCCURANCE

Deposits of copper are found in the metamorphic, igneous and sedimentary rocks. These
are rocks which can be easily folded under great pressure. Its ore has only 1% mineral
content and found in combination with nickel and cobalt. The 2 methods of copper
extraction are:

 Open pit for surface ore

 Vertical shaft for the deeper ore

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METHODS OF EXTRACTION

1. Removal of waste rocks to expose the ore

2. Drilling using hand drilling
3. Explosives are put at the end of drilling holes to blast the ore into pieces
4. The ore is loaded into a small train through a haulage way into a skip which will
be pulled to the surface through the shaft
5. The ore will then be loaded into trucks and transported to the processing plant.

PROCESSING

1. At the processing plant, the mineral ore is put into a primary crasher where it is
crushed into small pieces
2. It is then sent to the secondary crusher where it would be crushed into particles
under 12mm in size.
3. It is then grinded in the ball mills into fine power
4. It is then sent to the concentrator where it would be mixed with water and some
chemicals
5. The wet concentrator ore will be dried and taken for smelting.

SMELTING

1. The ore is heated in the blast furnace

2. It melts and produces a very hot molten liquid called matte
3. The matte is removed from the bottom of the furnace and passes through water to
cool
4. Black powder will be produced
5. It is then packed in bags for exportation

USES OF COPPER

1. For making ornaments

2. For making alloys
3. Making cans
4. Making pipes for plumbing
5. Making electrical appliances etc

DIAMOND MINING

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Diamonds in Botswana are mined by the DeBeers Botswana Mining Company
(Debswana). It is jointly owned by the DeBeers and the Botswana government. In
Botswana, diamonds are mined at Jwaneng, Orapa and Letlhakeng.

GEOLOGICAL OCCURANCE

Diamonds are found in soft igneous rocks called kimberlite. They are formed due to
volcanic eruption which result in crystallized carbon.

EXTRACTION

Drilling machines are used to drill holes in the rocks

1. Explosives are put into the bottom of the hole and they blast/break the rocks into
small pieces.
2. A mechanical shovel loads the rock pieces into a large truck.
3. The truck transports the rocks out of the pit.

PROCESSING

1. CRUSHING
The rocks from the truck are put into the primary crusher which brakes them into
small pieces less than 15cm in size. The secondary crusher further crushes the
rocks into pieces less than 2.5 in diameter.

2. CONCERNTRATION
The waste material is separated from the diamond by mixing the ore with water
and chemicals in large drums (cyclones) which rotates quickly. The waste
material is usually lighter and is removed from the top of the cyclone. The
diamonds being heavier, fall to the bottom. Other heavy materials also pass
through with the diamonds. This mixture is called concentrate.

3. FINAL SEPARATION
The concentrate is passed through an x-ray machine called x-ray separator which
separates diamond from most of the remaining heavy materials. As the diamonds
pass through this machine, they shine and an air gun will blow them into a bin.
The remaining heavy materials are separated by hand.

4. GRADING

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 The diamonds are then sent to Gaborone where they are sorted, graded and valued
at Orapa House by the Botswana Diamond Valuing Company (BDVC). They are
first sorted into gemstones and industrial diamonds. The best diamonds are the
gemstones and are used for making expensive jewellery. The gemstones are
graded according to their shape, colour, size and their purity. The low quality
stones, known as industrial dimes may be used in drilling or cutting tools, since
diamond is the hardest substance known.

5. VALUING
After grading the diamonds are valued and then sent to London by air. In London,
they are sold to diamond dealers through the Central Selling Organization (CSO).

CHANGES BROUGHT BY MINING ON THE ENVIRONMENT/LANDSCAPE

POSITIVE
- Development of infrastructure
- Development of other industries

NEGATIVE
- Pollution in all forms
- Development of holes on the earth surface
- Development of waste heaps
- Removal of vegetation, resulting in soil erosion etc

PROCESSING AND MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

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Industrial estate – an area reserved for industrial development
Industrial site – the actual ground on which industries stand

CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES

1. PRIMARY INDUSTRIES

They involve the extraction of raw materials from the environment. Most
of the products require processing before they are used. E.g. farming,
forestry, mining, quarrying, fishing etc

2. SECONDARY INDUSTRIES
They use raw materials from primary industries to produce a wide range of
products. Two types of secondary industries are:

- Processing - It is an industry that refines/cleans/purifies/treats raw

materials into finished goods that resemble the raw materials used. Only
one raw material is used. e.g. BMC

- Manufacturing - It is an industry where 2 or more raw materials are

combined to make or produce new and different end products. It produces
goods of high quality e.g. motor vehicle assembling industry

PROCESSING MANUFACTURING
- Few changes made to the - Products may appear quite
raw materials different from the original
raw material
- Often employ unskilled - Employ a higher portion of
labour who operate simple skilled workers in the labour
machinery
- Simple - complex
- machines used are large and
require skilled operators

3. TERTIARY INDUSTRIES

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 It deals with service activities/provides services to the people e.g. shops,
banks, hospitals etc. they can be privately owned e.g. banks, insurances or
owned by the government e.g. Air Botswana or even parastatals e.g. BPC,
WUC

4. QUATERNARY INDUSTRIES
They provide specialized services e.g. computer programming, computer
engineering etc

FACTORS INFLUENCING LOCATION OF AN INDUSTRY

- Proximity (near) to the raw material

- Proximity to source of power
- Government policy
- Availability of a large market
- Availability of cheap abundant flat land
- Availability of good infrastructure e.g roads
- Availability if skilled man power
- Personal choice

ADVANTAGES BOTSWANA HAS FOR INDUSTRAIL DEVELOPMENT

- Availability of heap labour

- Political stability
- Good infrastructure development of industrial estates with water and
power connections
- Availability of raw material
- Membership to the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) which
offers a large market since there is free movement of certain goods
between member states.

FACTORS HINDERING INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

- Lack of capital
- Lack of skilled labour
- Lack/shortage of water
- Expensive urban land
- Competition in the world market
- Small local market because the small population size
- Expensive

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IMPORTANCE/BENEFITS OF INDUSTRIES
- It increases the wealth of the country
- Leads to development of manpower training of locals
- Leads to diversification of the of the country’s economy
- Increases employment opportunities
- Decreases dependence on imports.

REASONS WHY INDUSTRIAL ESTATES ARE LOCATED IN THE

OUTSKIRTS OF TOWNS.

- To avoid pollution
- For cheaper land
- To avoid congestion
- For more space to expand
- There is less competition of land at the outskirts

ADVANTAGES OF CONCERNTRATING INDUSTRIES IN INDUSTRIAL

ESTATES (industrial agglomeration)

- There is easy access to people living around industries

- There is easy access to materials
- There is sharing of the costs of certain facilities e.g power
- It is a pool of skilled labour

DISADVANTAGES OF CONCERNTRATING INDUSTRIES IN

INDUSTRIAL ESTATES (industrial agglomeration)

- Pollution
- Competition for land and customers
- Traffic congestion
- They may be far from customers

EFFORTS MADE BY THE GOVERNMENT OF BOTSWANA TO

IMPROVE INDUSTRAIL DEVELOPMENT

- Financial assistance e.g. CEDA, NDB, BDC, Youth Fund

- Education and training e.g. LEA
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 - Setting up industrial estates
- Providing factory shells
- Promotion of local raw materials
- Industrialization of rural areas
- Development of infrastructure e.g. roads
- Provision of markets
- Advertising e.g. BEDIA
- Provision of tax holidays
- Quotas and tariffs on imported goods

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SMALL AND LARGE SCALE INDISTRIES

SMALL SCALE e.g pottery, LARGE SCALE

metal work, basketry
Uses less capital investment Uses large capital investment
Uses few manpower Uses more manpower (labour
intensive)
Has low inputs and outputs Has high inputs and outputs
Uses simple technology Uses complex technology
Covers /uses a small area of land Uses a large area of land

CASE STUDY OF PROCESSING INDUSTRIES IN BOTSWANA

BOTSWANA MEAT COMMISSION (LARGE SCALE)

Raw material - cattle

Location- Lobatse, Francistown

FACTORS INFLUENCING LOCATION OF BMC IN LOBATSE

- Availability of cheap labour from surrounding villages e.g Kanye,
Goodhope, Otse etc
- Availability of cattle from both traditional and freehold farmers
- Availability of water from Gaborone and Nnywane dams

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 - Good road and rail transport
- Enough land for establishment of the industry

BY PRODUCTS
- Horns are used to make buttons
- Skins are treated and preserved, half of it is sent to the tannery in Lobatse
to be turned into leather while the other half is exported as wet hides
- Bones are washed and crushed to make bone meal
- Blood is cooked to make blood meal
- Bile from the gall bladder is extracted to used in medicine
- Condemned carcasses and heads are cooked and crushed to make carcass
meal
- Intestines, kidneys,liver,lungs and stomach lining are cleaned and packed
for human consumption

IMPORTANCE OF THE CATTLE INDUSTRY TO THE ECONOMY

- Provides importance market for the local farmers

- Provides employment
- Generate income/foreign exchange
- Leads to development of infrastructure e.g roads,
- Some Batswana are trained to work in the plant
- Promotes the name of the country
- It s source of food
- It is source of raw material e.g horns, bile etc

PROBLEMS FACED BY THE CATTLE INDUSTRY IN BOTSWANA

- Cattle are trekked for a long distance and lose weight

- Fluctuating market prices in the world market
- Cattle diseases e.g foot and mouth
- Competition with butcheries which offer immediate cash to farmers
- Shortage of water during drought period
- Distant markets European Union (EU) result in high transport costs
- Low quality beef which affect the prices in the world market

SOLUTIONS

- Provision of boreholes to farmers by the government

- Regular vaccinations
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 - Subsidized prices of supplementary feeds to livestock to improve the
quality if the beef
- Provision of loans and grants for improving the standards of the beef
industry

IMPACT OF BMC ON THE ENVIRONMENT

- Pollution
- Development of waste heaps within the surrounding areas
- Re-allocation of settlements
- Clearing of land leads to loss of vegetation

GUMARE BASKET WEAVERS (SMALL SCALE)

Raw material – mokolwane leaves/motlhakola barks

Location – Ngamiland

HOW BASKETS ARE MADE

- Mokolwane leaves are boiled and then dried in the sun

- Leaves are then cut into long thin strips
- The strips are then boiled together with motlhakola barks to dye them to a
brownish colour
- Reeds, grass, or creepers are used to make basket coils
- Leaf strips are then used to wrap around the basket coil
- The basket is then stitched together

USE OF BASKETS

- For decoration
- For winnowing (leselo)
- For storing grain (sesigo)
- For carrying things (grains)

MARKET
- Botswana Craft in Gaborone
- Local shops in Gumare
- Tourists
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BENEFITS / IMPORTANCE
- Women are empowered
- Creation of employment
- Promotes tourism in the area
- Utilization of local resources
- Improvement of standard of living for Gumare women
- Improves self-sufficiency

CASE STUDY OF A MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY IN SOUTH

AFRICA

Integrated steel works – all processes form input of ore to finished steel carried
out in one place
Pig iron – molten iron with impurities i.e. iron as it comes out from the blast
furnace containing impurities

Iron ore is found in rocks which are associated with volcanic eruptions and
igneous rocks.

Location – Pretoria

Raw material – iron ore

Factors influencing location

- Availability of water from the Vaal river

- Availability of cheap labour from surrounding areas e.g Mamelodi,
Soshanguve
- Availability of power supplied by Eskom
- Availability of coke from Natal
- Availability of capital from South African government
- Availability of coking coal from Witbank

METHODS OF EXTRACTION

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 - Drilling machines are used to open holes in rocks in order to pave way for
explosive
- Explosives are put at the end of the holes to blast the rocks open
- The ore is then transported by trucks to the processing plant

PROCESSING OF IRON ORE

- The ore will be crushed into small pieces
- The crushed ore is put into a concentrator and mixed with chemicals to
remove impurities
- The ore is dried and then put into the blast furnace where it is heated at
very high temperatures
- Molten iron is called molten pig iron
- The molten pig iron is then cooled

CONVERSION OF THE PIG IRON TO STEEL

Steel is produced by smelting pig iron and some small amounts of metals such as
cobalt and nickel. The steel will be rolled into bars, plates and sheets. The steel is
used as the main raw material for the manufacture of motor vehicles.

INPUTS PROCESSES OUTPUT

Scrap iron Casting/moulding Pig iron/cast iron
Limestone Rolling Slag
Coke/coke Forging
Oxygen/air
Alloy metal
Carbon
Water
Sand
Fire clay
Electricity

SECTION D

POPULATION AND SETTLEMENT STUDIES

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POPULATION STUDIES

Definition of terms

Population: it is the number of people in an area or a country

Doubling time: the number of years it takes for a population to double the present
population e.g. in every 15 years
Dependency ratio: the ratio of the economically dependent part of the population (under
16 and above 64) to the productive part of the population (between 16 and 64) or the
proportion of working people to non-working people.
Population growth: the speed at which the population is increasing. Growth may occur
when the number of births is greater than the number of deaths.
Life expectancy: it is the average number of years that one is expected to live in a
particular country e.g. In Botswana life expectancy for men is 54 years and 62 for women
Infant mortality rate: the number of death of infants before their first birthday
expressed per thousand live births. Infant mortality is a widely used indicator of health
condition and general living standard of people in a particular area.
Population explosion: it is the sudden population increase resulting from a rapid fall in
death rate and a high birth rate.
Population density: the number of people living per square kilometer (km²). It shows the
number of people found within a square unit of land such as a kilometer (km). It is
influenced by factors such as climate, minerals, water availability, less fertile soils.
Population distribution: the way people are spread or settled in a country. It is
influenced by the availability of water, fertile soils, and minerals etc.
Optimum population: it is the population size which is felt to be most desirable for the
utilization of the country’s natural resources.
Overpopulation: it is when a country has more people and few resources. This can lead
to hunger, disease or under development.
Under population: it is when a country has more resources and less people
Population census; this is the official count of people in a country at a given time,
usually done every ten years.
Defacto: it is the actual population present in the country
Dejure: it is population in the country, including those residents temporarily out of the
country.
Fertility rate: the number of children born per 1000 women of child bearing age.
Mortality rate/death rate: the number deaths per 1000 people per year.
Birth rate: the number of live births per 1000 women

WORLD POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

DENSELY POPULATED
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  East Asia
 East of USA
 West of European

SPARCELY POPULATED
 Sahara desert
 Canada
 Russia/ North of Europe

WHY SOME AREAS ARE SPARCELY POPULATED

 Presence of mountains/mountainous land

 Low rainfall/too much of rainfall
 Extreme climatic conditions e.g too hot/too hot
 Desert areas
 Dense forests
 Occurrence of pests and diseases
 Presence of infertile soils
 Few resources e.g areas without minerals
 Presence of slopes

WHY SOME AREAS ARE DENSELY POPULATED

 Favourable climate e.g. adequate rainfall

 Presence of resources e.g minerals
 Presence of fertile soils
 Presence of gentle slopes/flat land
 Availability of water sources
 Political factors e.g whereby the government decides where people should
settle
 Availability of pastures/vegetation
 Presence of communication links e.g roads, railway lines etc
 Disease free areas
 Government policy

FACTORS AFFECTING/ INFLUENCING POPULATION GROWTH

HIGH BIRTH RATE

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This is when birth rate is higher than death rate. There are several reasons for high
birth rate. They include
o The desire for boys or girls
o Early marriage
o Social prestige
o Religion and beliefs

IMPROVED HEALTH FACILITIES

This has led to a decrease in death rates. Many people survive and this combined
with the fact that birth rate is high leads to rapid population growth

DECLINE IN INFANT MORTALITY

Many infants are able to survive due to food availability and good medical
facilities. This therefore leads to rapid population growth.

FAMILY PLANNING OF BIRTH CONTROL

It is not fully accepted in developing countries and most people have not yet seen
the need to control births. they end up having many children which result in rapid
population.

IMPROVED FOOD SUPPLY

People live much longer because they get nutritional balanced diets.

IMPROVED WATER SUPPLY

People live longer because they drink clean water

IN MIGRATION
Population will increase when people from other countries move into the country

PROBLEMS CAUSED BY RAPID POPULATION GROWTH

LACK OF JOBS
If the population increases rapidly, there won’t be enough jobs for everyone.

SHORTAGE OF HOUSING/OVERCROWDING
People will not be able to provide enough housing for their families.

OVER POPULATION
If the population grows rapidly they would be few resources which will not be
enough to support the population and this will put pressure on resources.

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 SHORTAGE OF FOOD AND WATER
Food and water will be expensive because they would be high demand (when
there are many people in-need of something the prices will be high). People will
not be able to provide enough food for their loved families.
GROWTH IN CRIME RATE
Crime will increase due to unemployment, lack of food and as well as lack of
housing. This is because some people resort to crime as a way living.
SHORTAGE OF MEDICAL FACILITIES
There will be shortage of medical facilities, therefore medical costs will go high
GROWTH OF SQUATTER SETTLEMENT
People would migrate to other areas to look for jobs. Those who are unable to find
descent houses/settlement will settle in the marginal areas thereby developing
squatter settlements.
POVERTY
People who can’t find jobs/employment will become poor.
SHORTAGE OF EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES
There will be many children and schools will not be enough for all of them.
LOW STANDARD OF LIVING
People will be unable to afford basic necessities such as batter food, shelter and
water and their standards of living will be low.
SHORTAGE OF TRANSPORT FACILITIES
If the population grows rapidly there would be many people and transport
facilities such as buses, trains e.t.c will not be enough.
Overcrowding/lack of housing
Pollution
Spread of disease
Land degradation
Social ills e.g. prostitution
Traffic congestion

SOLUTIONS TO TRAFFIC CONGESTION

- One way routes
- Fly-overs
- Overhead pedestrian bridges
- Number plates access
- Traffic circles
- By-passes
- Free ways
- Multi laned roads
- Traffic lights
- Parking meters
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 - Traffic cops

THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION MODEL

Demographic transition model states that population passes through stages of changes
and these changes are linked to the stage of development of the country.

STAGE 1 (high fluctuating)

It is characterized by high birth rates and high death rates and a low natural increase in
population

Reasons for high birth rates

o Traditional beliefs/social customs - Children are highly valued as a sign of

wealth
o No use of contraceptives
o Infant mortality rate is high so parents have many children to ensure that
some live (death insurance)
o Children are a source of free labour on the farms
o Polygamy – when people marry more than one wife they are bound to
have many children
o Desire to sure sexual power by having many children
o Early marriages – when people marry early, they have more child bearing
years as compared to those who marry late.
o Gender/sex preference – the desire have a certain leads to some people
having many children.

Reasons for high death rates

o Poor food supply and poor diets

o Outbreak of plague diseases e.g cholera
o Poor hygiene
o Poor medical facilities
o Lack of food / starvation
o Lack of clean piped water

STAGE 2 (early expanding)

It is characterized by declining deaths, high birth rates and a rapid natural increase in
population. This is because of:

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 o Availability of improved medical facilities
o Low knowledge on the use of contraceptives
o Improved sanitation
o Supply of clean piped water
o Reduction in infant mortality
o Improved food production leading better diets
o Improved hygiene and sanitation
o High child survival, meaning less pressure to bear many children

STAGE 3 (late expansion|)

It is characterized by low death rates, sharp decline in birth rates and a slow natural
increase in population.

Falling birth rate because ;

o Better standards of living e.g having bigger houses, cars as a results people start
having fewer children which competition with raising of children.
o people have accepted the use of birth control methods e.g use of family planning
and illegalized abortion
o Low infant mortality rate reduces the need to have more children.
o Increased level of education amongst women/ women also chooses careers than
child bearing.
o Incentives for people having fewer children

STAGE 4 (low stationary)

It is characterized by low birth rates, low death rates and a low natural increase of
population. These have shown that there are:

o Late marriages
o Children are no longer valued as assets (people opt to have few
children)
o people are educated and have fully accepted the used of birth control
methods
o More advancement in medical technology

Areas in stage 4 and 5 have a high aging population with signs of decline. Problems of an
aging population are:
o decline in labour force

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 o high demand for pensions
o pressure on medical facilities because of occurrence of high lifestyle
diseases e.g heart problems. Hypertension etc
o underutilized services
o underutilized natural resources

SUMMARY

Stage 1 2 3 4
Birth High High Decline Low
rate
Death High Decline Low Low
rate
N.P.I Low Rapid Slow Low
increase increase
N.P.I= natural population increase

N.B NATURAL POPULATION INCREASE: this is the difference between

birth rate and death rate expressed per 1000 of the population e.g Birth rate 65 per
thousand, death rate 30 per thousand therefore natural increases in population is
going to be 35 per thousand

65
-30
=35
35 per 1000 in one year

Total area Swaziland Lesotho 30 Botswana

in km² 17 000 000 600 000
Total 737 000 167 3000 1164 000
population
٪ living in 26 19 21
towns
Birth rate 47 41 47
per 1000
Death rate 13 12 12
per1000

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CALCULATE THE PERCENTAGE NATURAL POPULATION
INCREASE OF EACH OF THE COUNTRIES.

(SKIP 10 LINES FOR THE WORKING)

POPULATION PYRAMID
Age-sex pyramid
It is a special type of bar chart showing population distribution by age and sex
(male and female). The shape of the pyramid can show the level of development
of a country. There are three types of pyramids.

EXPANSIVE PYRAMID
It is associated with developing countries .It is characterized by:

CHARACTERISTICS/DESCRIPTION EXPLANATION
Broad based High birth rates
Steep sloped High death rate
Gets narrow towards the top Low life expectancy
Number of people decreases as age Low life expectancy
increases
Large number of dependents and a small High dependency ratio
number of economically active group

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 CONSTRUCTIVE PYRAMID
It associated with developed countries population. Its characteristics include:

CHARACTERISTICS/DESCRIPTION EXPLANATION
Narrow base Low birth rate
Gentle sloped Low death rate
Fairly straight edges High life expectancy
Number of people increase as age High life expectancy
increases
Small number of dependents and a large Low dependency ratio
number of economically active group
STATIONARY PYRAMID

It has a narrow base that shows a move towards zero growth in population. It is
used to describe highly developed countries. It used for countries with an aging
population. Its characteristics are:

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 - very few young people
- low dependency ratio
- high life expectancy
- more working population
- more elderly people

N.B: when comparing two pyramids, compare the following:

- gender (males and females)
- Life expectancy
- Dependency ratio
- Birth rate
- Death rate
- The shape

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND DENSITY IN BOTSWANA

SPARCELY POPULATED ARES

1. the Kgalagadi areas
- low and unreliable rainfall
- poor sandy soils
- drinking water is difficult and expensive to obtain as there is little surface
water
- poor pastures

2. Okavango Delta/area
- Diseases
- Presence of swamps
3. Chobe area
- Most of the land is used for wildlife and forest reserves

DENSELY POPULATED AREAS

1. Eastern areas
- High rainfall
- Fertile soils
- Disease free
- Pastures of better quality
- Developed infrastructure
- Employment opportunities

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EFFORTS MADE BY STAKEHOLDERS TO CURB RAPID POPULATION
GROWTH

GOVERNMENT

- Provides awareness/education on family planning

- Provides free contraceptives
- Formulate policies e.g paid maternity leave only for the 3 children, one
child policy
- Immunization to reduce infant mortality so lesser children will be born as
few die
- More job opportunities for women
- Improved status of women
- provision of incentives for small families
- migration laws e.g use of visas
- Discourage illegal settlements e.g shanty houses

CHURCHES

- Preach abstinence
- Provide awareness on family planning
- Promote sex after marriage
- Promote celibacy

NGOs
- Provides education on family planning
- Implement government policies

COMMUNITIES
- Later marriages therefore fewer child bearing years
- No children before marriage

POPULATION MOVEMENT

Migration
It is the movement of people from one area to another

Emigration
Moving out of a country

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Immigration
Movement into a country

Voluntary movement
When people choose to move from one area to another

Involuntary movement
When people are forced to move..Ususllyits due to:
- Famine/lack of food
- Wars creating large numbers of refugees
- Racial discrimination
- Natural disasters e.g floods, earthquakes
- Slavery/slave trade
- Resettlement
- Government policy

Permanent migration
When people leave their place of origin without the intention of coming back

Temporary migration
When people leave for a short period of time and return to original place

Internal migration
Movement of people within the country

External movement
Movement of people outside the country

Local migration
Movement within locality e.g from school to home

Regional migration
Movement of people within the region e.g from Gaborone to Mochudi

International movement
Movement of people outside boundaries of the country e.g from Gaborone to Harare

TYPES OF MIGRATION WITHIN BOTSWANA

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 - Rural – urban
- Urban – rural
- Rural – rural
- Urban – urban

FACTORS FOR MIGRATION

Push factors/negative

o starvation
o natural disasters e.g floods, droughts, earthquakes etc
o unemployment
o political instability/ persecution
o lack of development e.g educational facilities , health etc
o overcrowding/poor housing in rural areas
o low wages in agricultural work

Pull factors/positive

o higher employment opportunities

o better entertainment
o better medical facilities
o better transport
o political stability
o better education
o marriage
o better market
o better shopping facilities
o better standards of living
o higher wages

CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION

Negative effects on source areas / place of origin

o de-population/under population
o declining agricultural production/ agriculture left in the hands of the
inexperienced

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 o age-sex imbalance structure e.g. there may be more women than men
o leads to marriage breakdown/separation of families
o family lives changes because women have to play a role of being both
mother and father/juvenile delinquency
o brain drain

Positive effects on source areas / place of origin

o it creates employment opportunities for the remaining population

o pressure is reduces on resources of land
o decline in birth rates
o migrants may bring new skills
o migrants send money home to improve living standards

Negative effects on the receiving area

o overcrowding
o unemployment
o lack of housing
o poor sanitation
o increased crime rate
o traffic congestion
o pollution (noise and water)
o lack of social services e.g hospitals
o development of squatter camps
o racial tension/tribalism

Positive effects on receiving areas

- overcomes labour shortage

- brings specialized skills
- prepared to work dirty unskilled jobs and long hours
- cultural advantages and links

WAYS OF SOLVING RURAL – URBAN MIGRATION

o Establishment of industries to create employment

o Improvement of infrastructure e.g roads,schools,hospitals etc
o Use of youth empowerment programmes

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 o Decentralization of government offices
o Improvement in the agriculture sector e.g. NAMPAAD
o Increase of services in rural areas

HIV AIDS IN BOTSWANA

The acronym HIV stands for Human Immuno-deficiency Virus. The HIV causes
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.

Impacts of HIV/AIDS in Botswana

Social
- Increase psychological support
- Increased absenteeism from work
- Increased number of orphans
- Labour shortage on farms
- Stigma against the infected and the affected
- Loss of bread winners
- More children headed families
Economic
- Decline in family income
- Increased terminal benefits
- Low productivity
- Increased poverty
- Low Gross Domestic Product growth
- Increased dependency ratio
- Shortage of skills

SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS OF HIV/AIDS

- education on the dangers of unprotected sex e.g through theater groups
- provision of free condoms
- Prevention of Mother To Child Transition
- Encouraging abstinence
- Free provision of Anti Ritro Viral (ARV) drug
- Provision of food basket to the terminally ill
- Provision of home based car

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SETTLEMENTS

Settlement – it is an area where people leave

Site – refers to the actual ground on which settlements stand
Hamlet – a settlement with few houses and not more than 100 people. It has very
few basic services e.g tuck shop, mobile clinic etc
Village – a settlement of up to 2000 people. It has a variety of services e.g.
clinics, shops and library
Town – a settlement of a population of about 1000 000 people. It has many
different services.
City – a settlement of with population of more than 1000 000 people
Conurbation – when towns join together to form a large city
Megapolis – when towns and cities join together to form a very large city
Morphology – the study of the form and structure of settlements
Sphere of influence – the extent to which a town and its surrounding regions
interact
Settlement hierarchy- ranking of settlements according to size (population),
variety of services etc
Situation – position of a settlement in relation to other settlements around it
Function of a settlement – role played by a settlement in economic use e.g.
recreational, educational, commercial, industrial, administrative, health, and
religious center.
Urbanization- the growth of an urban area
Sphere of influence – how a settlement and its surrounding regions interact

RURAL SETTLEMENTS

A village is the most prominent form of rural settlements in Africa. The houses
are generally unplanned and there are few services compared to towns.
Agriculture is the main economic activity.

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 SETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN BOTSWANA

Dispersed settlements
The dwellings are scattered and are usually a walking distance from each other. In
Botswana, such settlements are common in the NE District, Ngamiland, Barolong
farms and the Kgalagadi

Describe places where dispersed settlements are likely to develop

-cattle posts
-lands
-ranches

REASONS FOR DISPERSED SETTLEMENTS in Botswana include:

- Plenty of space
- Lack of water so people must spread
- Flat land so there are no restrictions on size

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 - Improved transport makes it easier to get to market
- Cattle posts often covers large area of land
-
Describe places where nucleated settlements are likely to develop
-on plantations
-where there are mineral deposits for mining
-where there are fertile soils for crop production
-at a road junction for easy transport
-at the mouth of a river for easy accesse to water

Advantages Disadvantages
- Space to extend the farm - Lack of social contact and
- Farmers can use new community help
technology as there is plenty - A farmer must have his/her
of space. own machines
- Pressure on resources and - Difficult and expensive to
environmental impacts are provide social services
reduced - Difficult to mobilize people
- Land and resources are for community projects
shared equally without - Difficulty in administration
much competition by local chief since people
are scattered over a wide
area

Nucleated settlement
Buildings are usually close to each other. Usually the buildings are often clustered around
a water source or route focus.

REASONS FOR NUCLEATED SETTLEMENT

- Limited water supplies e.g. houses are built around a waterhole

- Defence against enemies e.g. clustering in hills e.g. the old site of
Molepolole
- Culture – the chiefs could easily control many people in a nucleated
settlement so they preferred this pattern
- Mineral deposits e.Sowa
- Nearness to shops, schools, health facilities

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 Advantages Disadvantage
- Short distance for services - Long distances to lands and
- Network of grazing
roads/accessibility - This makes intensive
- Easy administration farming and high yields
- Social cohesion difficult
- Easy provision of services - Overgrazing near the village
- Security/neighborhood - Firewood may run out near
watch the village
- Sewerage disposal is more
difficult for a large number
of people
- Traffic congestion in the
settlement center

Linear settlement

Buildings form a line that may be straight or curved along a road, river or railway line.
7 lines

Describe places where linear settlements are likely to develop.

-along the coastline for fishing
-along transport lines for easy movement
-fertile land along the river banks to grow crops

Advantages Disadvantages
- Easy provision of services - vulnerable to natural
which are linear in nature disaster like floods
e.g. electricity, telephone - Prone to vehicle accidents
line, water reticulation, and drowning
- Accessibility to water (use - Residents on the far end of
same river) the village travel long
- People easily connect with distance for services on the
main communication other side of the settlement
network i.e. road or internet
line

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FACTORS INFLUENCING LOCATION/SITING /EVOLUTION OF A
SETTLEMENT

 Availability of rangelands/pastures
 Availability of water supply
 Availability of fertile soils
 Availability of fuel wood
 Availability of raw m materials e.g. reeds, clay etc
 Availability of high lands for protection/relief
 Nearness to valuable resources e.g. minerals
 Historical sites
 Availability of good communication links e.g. roads

URBAN SETTLEMENT

They are different from rural settlements by size and function. Urban centers have
thousands of people and their major function is industrial. An urban centre can be defined
as a settlement whose major activities are: manufacturing, mining, administration,
commercial and tourism.

Internal structure of urban areas

1. Central Business District (CBD)

This forms the city center. It is made up of commercial activities of the
city. A CBD is characterized by:
 A variety of shops
 Tall, multistory buildings
 Banking and financial institutions
 Central government headquarters
 Buildings with glass walls
 Has a mixture of old and new buildings
 Has offices of private companies
 The buildings have elevators
 High day time population
 Low night time population

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 2. Industrial Areas
These are built far away from the CBD, where land is cheap and
infrastructure is accessible e.g roads and railway lines. There are light
industries (e.g textile industries) and heavy industries (e.g. motor vehicle
industries).

It is characterized by:
- Factory shells/warehouses
- Railroad
- Big trucks
- Smoke/pollution
- Noise (factories and trucks)
- Large land

They are found in the outskirts of the cities because:

- There is enough space for expansion

- There is need to avoid pollution in the inner city
- To avoid traffic congestion
- The land there is cheaper

3. Residential areas
a) Low density areas
It is made up of medium and high cost houses. They are usually found next
to the CBD or in the outskirts of the city. They are owned by people with a
good financial background. People living in such areas commute to work
every day and most of them own cars.
b) High density areas
These are low cost houses. They are far away from the CBD and the houses
are usually small and they are built in small plots. People living in these
areas are usually semi-skilled workers, labourers etc

4. Twilight Zone
This is a region of decaying industries and housing. It is usually close to
the CBD. It is in this zone that the problems of the city are at its worst e.g
crime rates

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5. Shanty Towns/squatter settlement
This is where many people live and the houses are built from anything one
can find e.g. metal sheets, plastics, tins, boxes etc it usually found in the
outskirts of the city because:

They are usually found in the outskirts of settlement because:

- Land in the inner city is expensive

- It is near industries
- There’s empty land/available land
- There is lack of accommodation
- It is near industries

They are characterized by:

- Houses made of waste material

- Small houses
- Houses clustered/closely packed
- Litter
- Bad smell
- Poor sanitation
- Noise pollution
- Poor ventilation/no windows
- Temporary building/flimsy structures

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MODELS OF URBAN MORPHOLOGY

LAND USE PATTERNS

This refers to the way land is used and situated in a particular place. In a city,
usually there is a certain pattern which is followed when structuring settlements
e.g residential areas, the CBD and industries are all in different areas.
Geographers have tried to come up with theories on how land use patterns should
be in a city:

 Concentric model
 Sector model
 Multi-nuclei model

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a) Concentric Model (Burgess Model)
He believed that cities and towns grow out as a series of rings around the
CBD

b) Sector Model (Hoyt and Homer model)

They said that regions in a city occur in sectors, extending from the CBD
along major routes such as roads and railway lines.

c) Multi-nuclei model (Harris and Hullman)

They believed that any important place in the city can cause the growth of
houses and offices around. There are a number of important sectors in

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 cities surrounded by different sectors.

SERVICES THAT PEOPLE IN THE SURROUNDING AREAS CAN GET

FROM TOWNS/CITIES

 Postal services
 Educational services
 Health services
 Shopping facilities
 Recreational services
 Banking services etc

URBANISATION

It occurs in both modern and indigenous towns in Botswana. It is caused mainly

by people moving from the rural areas into towns and cities (rural – urban
migration) as well as through natural population increase.

PROBLEMS OF URBANISATION

- Shortage of jobs causing unemployment

- Lack of cheap housing, so people build squatter camps
- High rents causing overcrowding
- Lack of clean piped water leading to diseases
- Traffic congestion
- Pollution e.g. due to lack of proper sewage disposal

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 - Lack of medical facilities
- Lack of educational facilities leading to low literacy rate
- Social ills e.g. prostitution, juvenile delinquency etc

BOTSWANA NATIONAL SETTLEMENT POLICY

In Botswana there is a National Settlement policy which has the following aims:

- To promote proper use of land

- Provide long term strategy for human settlement
- Regulate establishment of settlements
- Promote conservation of natural resources
- Help reduce rural – urban migration
- Provide guidelines on transport and utility networks
- Serve as guideline for development of various regions of the country
- Promote balanced development
- Facilitate orderly transition from rural to urban settlements

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 PAPER 3

RESEARCH SKILLS
Research is an activity where one finds out about something that interests him/her. It is
task carried out with the intention to discover new ideas, facts or gather information that
will help answer your questions. It begins with an inquisitive mind. It is process of
finding out more information about a specific problem or topic. Research is said to be
systematic because there is an acceptable way of conducting it.ie there are certain stages
or steps to be followed when conducting a research. The following are common stages of
research process:
 Identification of a problem
 Formulation of a research topic
 Formulation of a hypothesis
 Statement of aims and objectives
 Literature review
 Methodology
 Data analysis
 Conclusion
 Recommendation
 Acknowledgement
 Bibliography

A research should be as objective as much as possible.

WHY DO WE RESEACH

 To gather new facts

 Answer contemporary issues of concern
 To improve existing facts

Research methods can be classified as qualitative and quantitative research

1 .QUANTITATIVE METHOD

These are methods of investigating whereby the researcher emphasis numerical methods
describing situations. These methods are therefore scientific or mathematical nature.
They require a lot of statistical data in terms of numbers, addition, measurements,
calculations etc, various scales are used to ensure accuracy and precise description of
situations.

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ADVANTAGES
 More accurate and precise
 Deals with facts not options
 Help the researcher to acquire scientific skills
 Can be repeated many times to verify findings

DISADVANTAGES
 Difficult to qualify people`s behavioural attributes
 Expensive equipment may be needed in laboratories
 Suitable for literate people only since it involves calculations
 Do not allow the researcher to add his/her opinion

2. QUALITATIVE METHOD

These are methods of investigating a problem whereby the researcher uses other means of
describing situations other than scientific or statistical data. Qualitative research is done
by researchers in the social and behavioural science, as well as by practitioners in the
field that concerns themselves with issues related to human behaviour and functioning.
These methods involve collecting of people`s opinions, feelings, views, ideas etc.
Example of qualitative includes; students` views towards teachers, causes of teenage
pregnancy and effects of poverty on children. Some of the data may be qualified as with
census data but analysis itself is a qualitative one.

ADVANTAGES
 Offer more in-depth understanding of issues
 Presents a true picture of a way of life e.g people`s opinion, experiences, ideas etc
 Allow researcher to add his/her opinion
 Generally cheaper because it needs led equipment than qualitative methods.

DISADVANTAES
 Less accurate because it is prone to researcher bias
 Not easily repeatable as it deals with people`s opinion and views

GENERAL PROBLEM THAT MAYBE ENCOUNTERRED DURING A RESEARCH

 Lack of cooperation by respondents

 High transport or travelling costs
 Long distance to the area of study
 Lack of transport to the area of study
 Lack of security in the area
 Lack of accessibility to the area of study

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  Research cab be a time consuming exercise
 Disruption by unpredictable events such as bad weather

CHOOSING A RESEARCH TOPIC

A research topic is a topic of investigation at hand and should describe in clear terms
what the researcher is trying to find out. When selecting a topic of research the researcher
should consider the following:

 Decide what it is you want to find out (e.g the reason for the increase in rape in
your village, reasons why young people are leaving your village, or how the cell
phone has changed the way people communicate)
 Topic must be researchable i.e. it satisfies the ways and methods used in
collecting data
 Topic should not violate constitutional laws
 Set the length of time the research would last and make sure the research problem
can be investigated within the time frame
 It must have a local flavor i.e. the topic should be something that people in the
area know well. This is important since they would be your main source of data or
information.
 It must have a point of focus. This refers to the exact facts the researcher wants to
find out about. The use of verbs such as causes, impacts, effects and rate will help
direct the researcher to focus.

Researchable topics in Geography

1. Causes and effects of passion killing in Tlokweng

2. Effects of HIV&AIDS on low income earning families in Mahalapye
3. Impacts of fuel wood collecting in Marapong lands.
4. Importance of fuel wood collection in Mogoditshane
5. An investigation in the effects of paper littering in schools

AIMS/OBJECTIVES

A research topic must have aims or objectives. Objectives are statement of intention,
i.e. what is the researcher intending to find out. They should be clear and to the point.

TOPIC: Causes and effects of littering in ST Joseph`s College

e.g.
 To find out the main causes of littering in ST Joseph`s College
 To find out what students and teachers can do to keep the school clean
 To find out why there is littering in the school
 To find out why some areas have more litter than others

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HYPOTHESIS
 It is an idea that can be tested
 It is an intelligent guess

A good hypothesis

 Does not contradict existing knowledge

 Predicts relationship between variables

e.g.
 Paper littering is only caused by students
 The only sources of littering in the school are the duplicating room and the
kitchen
 The rate of teenage pregnancy is highest in Tlokweng.
 Population migration in Metsimotlhabe is the main cause of slow development
 The only type of litter in the schools are bottles and plastics

SOURCE OF DATA

 Published and unpublished books

 Government and private newspapers
 Radio programmes
 Journals
 Magazines
 Internet

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

1. QUESTIONNAIRE

The term questionnaire simply means a form, which is used for collecting information
from the respondent i.e person who is giving the information. This method involves
sending out a set of questions either by post or directly and physically carrying them to
the people to answer. The respondents will send the questionnaires back to the researcher
after filling them.

IMPORTANT POINTS TO NOTE WHEN PREPARING QUESTIONNAIRES

 Remember to make a polite start and finish

 Always start with a brief, persuasive statement stating the purpose and value of
the research exercise.

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  The first question must tackle the simpler and easier items which will not irritate
your respondents
 Phrase your questions clearly and courteously
 Make questions to the point
 Avoid questions which seek other people’s secrets
 Make the questions as few as possible
 Questions should target the aims of the course work or research problem
 The questionnaire should have bio-data e.g sex,age,occupation, education etc
(name may be made optional)
 Make all questions end with a question mark.
 Remember to conclude by thanking your respondent for their contribution.

How to collect data using questionnaires

 Prepare a set of questions

 Make a sample of responses
 Send or give questionnaires to the target group
 Collect back questionnaires
 Compile the information

A questionnaire on Shoppers
Gender:
Age:
Nationality:
1.Where do you live?
In Town Outside the Town
2.How have you travelled here today?
Bus Car Walk Bicycle Other
3.How long did it get you to get here?
>10 minutes 10-20 minutes between 20-30
minutes
<30 minutes Other, please specify
4.How long is it since you last visit here?
Yesterday The day before less than a week 1-2weeks
ago
5.What type of goods do u usually buy when you come to this shopping center?
Food and drinks Clothes and shoes Electrical
goods Jewellery Furniture Books

ADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRES

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  It has wide coverage because one can ask people from a number of locations or
places.
 Respondents can answer at their own time
 There is privacy or anonymity on the part of respondents. This means they may
not be required to show their identity.
 Respondents have plenty of time to think about the questions before answering
 Respondents can consult other sources.
 Questionnaires can be mailed to far places.
 Saves researchers time because he/she is not required to be always present

DISADVANTAGES
 Low response rate as some people may ignore the questionnaire
 Questionnaire get lost due to respondent`s carelessness or even in the mailing
process
 Lack of clarity as the researcher will not be there when the respondents answer
the questions
 Delayed response/time consuming. Some respondents may delay to send the
response and this may delay the whole research project.
 Language barrier as only people who understand the language used can answer
the questionnaire
 Lack of flexibility, respondent is confined to questions
 Non-verbal behaviour cannot be observed
 It is suitable for the literate only
 It can be costly e.g when posting questionnaires

2. INTERVIEW

It involves the discussion or talking or exchanging words with individuals or group of

people.
How to collect information using interview method:

 Relevant questions to the study are set in advance.

 Choose a sample of respondents who will take part
 Appoint with respondents at a time and location that is suitable and convenient to
them.
 Send or take copies of the questionnaire to the respondent.
 Sit with respondents and ask questions
 Avoid being judgemental during the interview
 Write down responses

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  Keep the interview short not to bore and tire the respondent
 Compile information

ADVANTAGES

 Allows researcher to ask follow up questions

 Clarify of the information as the researcher will be present
 There is flexibility as it allows the interviewer to make changes where possible
 Suitable for both non-literate and literates
 High response rate because of the research`s presence
 Non-verbal behaviour can be observed

DISADVANTAGES
 Time consuming as the researcher has to spend time with the respondent who take
a long time to answer even simple questions
 Presence of researcher may make the respondents uncomfortable and may
withhold some information
 High costs involved, e.g transport to the respondents
 The respondent may give misleading answers just to please the interviewer
 Respondents may be uncooperative by not honour appointment

3. DOCUMENTAY STUDY

In this method the researcher reads written materials such as books, newspaper,
magazines, internet etc related to the topic.
How to collect data using documentary study

 Visit library
 Read written materials related to the topic
 Take notes
 Compile information

ADVANTAGES
 Materials can be re-visited
 Detailed and specific information e.g, numbers
 Wider coverage by different sources
 Saves time as it provides already analysed information

DISADVANTAGES

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  Available information might not be specific to the study
 Information might be outdated or old
 Pages maybe missing
 Researcher my repeat mistakes done by previous researchers
 Suitable for literate people only

4. OBSERVATION

This is where the researcher goes into the field to examine or see things with his/her eyes.
E.g, one can go and observe traffic flow at the main mall during lunch hours.
How to collect data using observation:
 Visit the area
 Examine
 Write down notes
 Compile data

ADVANTAGES

 It gives first hand information

 It is a direct method of studying therefore there is no distortion of information

DISADVANTAGES
 Travelling costs
 Can be easily disrupted by unpredictable events, e.g rain
 It is highly subjective tan objective

Below is an example of an observation sheet used for collecting data:

An observation sheet

Place of observation; _____________________ Time ___________________

Date of observation: _____________________

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 SKETCH MAP

Vehicle Morning rush Lunch rush Evening rush

observed
Buses
Trucks
Taxis
Private sedans

5. SIMPLE SURVEY

The researcher goes into the field and gathers some information. Normally samples are
used. Surveys are good for topics where one wants to:
 Assess the impacts of development in an area
e.g Impacts of an open cost mine in Orapa

 investigating about something

e.g the best place to build another university in the central district

 compare different things, concepts or ideas

e.g performance of teachers in private schools with those in government schools

ADVANTAGES
 Gives first hand information
 Quick methods as sample are used to represent a whole
 It is flexible as the researcher determines the sample size

DISADVATAGES
 Travelling costs
 Can be time consuming
 Sample maybe un representative (too small)
 Biased information

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 6. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

This is a way of collecting data through carrying out experiments under conditions. It is
mainly confined to laboratories and involves the use of apparatus which may sometimes
be complicated. A lot of care and patience is needed for results to be valuable.

Advantages
 Results are reliable if all the necessary steps were followed
 It is a direct method of study
 First hand information is obtained
 It can be repeated if necessary

Disadvantages
 It needs people with skills
 It is expensive since the equipment may be sophisticated
 Accidents are common when handling dangerous materials
 It may yield wrong result if wrong method is used

METHOD OF DATA PRESENTATION

 Bar chart/graph

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 Pie chart

 Pictogram/pictograph

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 Line-graph/ linear-graph

 Histogram

 Triangular gram
 Maps
 Written report
 Flow charts
10 lines

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  Statistical tables

WHAT TO REMEMER WHEN PRESENTING DATA

 Title
 Label axis properly
 Do not use abbreviations (if so provide key)
 For bar graph and histograms, the width of the bars should be equal
 For linear graphs, line should start and end where they are suppose to
 For pie charts use protractor, sharp pencil and eraser

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRENTATION

 Analyse/interpret
 Conclude/summarise
 make recommendations
 submit to relevant authorities
 compile a report
 present
 evaluate
 publish
 test hypothesis

RESEARCH ETHICS

 Confidential and privacy assured

 Anonymity
 Honesty
 Informed consent
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  Right to discontinue
 Show courtesy

PAPER 1

MAP READING

GRID

In order to locate features on the topographical maps, reference need to be made to grid
lines. These are the numbered lines crossing the map from West to East and from South
to North. Vertical grid lines are known as the Eastings because they are numbered from
West to East. The horizontal grid lines are known as Northings and they are numbered
from South to North.
A grid reference gives the location/position of a feature on a map. In all grid references
the Eastings are given before the Northings.

4 grid references 6 grid references

A=1406 A=148069
B=1405 B=145058

DIRECTIONS

Direction on a topographic map may be given by using;

a) CAMPUS DIRECTION: here reference is made to the main campus points of

North, South, West, and East. Other points in between give directions in more
detailed and include NE, SE, NW, SW. Even more precision can be given if
reference is made to points in between these, such as NNE etc

EXAMPLE
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Finding directions between features.

1. Make a North line where it says from
2. Join the two points or features
3. Write the other cardinal point from the North line
4. Note direction

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 b) GRID BEARINGS
The direction is obtained using bearings from Grid North. These bearings are
known as grid bearings. They are given in degrees working clockwise from zero
degrees or Grid North

Finding directions using grid bearings

1. Make North line where it says from
2. Join the two points or features together
3. Measure the angle from the North line to the line joining the two points in a
clockwise direction (using a protector)
4. Note the grid bearing

NB: Remember to indicate units and start with a zero then the angle is 2 digits e.g 090
degrees

MEASURING DISTANCE

Maps are drawn to scale. The actual size of features o the ground and the distances
between them can be reduced in proportion, in order to show them on topographical map.

Straight line distance

1. Place ruler or straight edge of a piece of paper on the map and measure or mark
off distance along or between the two locations.
2. Transfer the map measurement to the scale line provided below the ap oe use the
ratio scale also provided in the map. E.g

If map distance is 5cm and the scale is 2cm:1km

2cm: 1km
5cm: X

X=2.5km or 2500m

Curved distance
1. Divide the length of the line to be measured into a straight sections
2. Place a corner of a straight edge of paper where the line begins and mark on the
paper the first bend line measured
3. Keeping the mark you have made firmly fixed rotate the straight edge of paper
until it follow straight line

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 4. Continue with the procedure until the end of the line
5. When you have completed the measurements use the scale to convert the
measurement to actual distance or ratio

DETERMINING HEIGHTS

Heights are shown in three ways on a topographical map.

1. SPOT HEIGHT: these are spots marked on maps with the heights given in (m)

2. TRIGONOMETRICAL STATION: They are given on maps by a triangular

symbol with the height given in (m)

3. CONTOURS: They are lines joining places of the same height. On a

topographical map they are shown as brown lines. The spacing between contours
is known as the contour vertical interval.

CALCULATING GRADIENT

A gradient is the steepness of slopes between two points. It is calculated using the
horizontal distance and the difference in heights. Slopes differ in their steepness and you
can determine how steep a slope is by referring to the height and distance details in the
map. The gradient is usually given as ratio. E.g 1:200

STEPS OF CALCULATING GRADIENT

1. Find difference in heights between the two points given (VI)

2. Measure the horizontal distance either as straight line or a curved line
3. Make sure that both the height and horizontal distance are in the same units,
namely (m)
4. Use these formula
Vertical interval = VI
Horizontal interval HD
And give the gradient as a ratio

AREA

 Count the number of whole squares

 Count the number of part squares and divide the number by 2
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  Add the number of whole squares and part squares (i.e. total number of
squares)
 Find the area of 1 square using the scale
 Multiply area of 1 square by the total number of squares

E.g. If the total number of square is 5

Area of 1 square is 1km x 1km which is 1km
Therefore: the area of the total number of squares is :

1km x 5

ANSWER = 5km²

LAND FORMS

VALLEY
This is a narrow lowland surrounded by highlands. The highest contour lines are on the
outside. Therefore the V`s of the valley points to the highlands.

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SPUR
This is a narrow part of highland cutting out from the sides of a mountain over hill. It
points towards the low land. The lowest contour lines are on the outside.

Skip 7 lines

PLATEAUS

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RIDGES

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KNOLL

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CONICAL HILL

Skip 7
RANGE

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Skip 7 lines
GORGE

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SADDLE

TYPES SLOPES

1. GENTLE SLOPE
The contours are widely spaced. For a uniform (regular) gentle slope, the contours
are more or less an equal distance apart.

2. A STEEP SLOPE
The contours are close together

3. UNEVEN

Skip 10 lines

4. A VERTICAL SLOPE OR CLIFF

The contours are close together that they almost merge into one. For a vertical cliff, all
the contours form one line.

Skip 7 line

5. A CONVEX SLOPE
The contours are closely spaced, showing a steeper slope along the lower part of
the slope; and more widely spaced, showing a gentler slope in the upper part.

6. A CONCAVE SLOPES
The contours are widely spaced showing a gentler slope on the lower part of the
slope; and more closely spaced, showing a steeper slope in the upper part. The
dictionary tells us that concave means “curved like the inside of circle”

Skip 15 lines

7. STEPPED OR TERRACED

Skip 7 lines

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SERVICES

Hospital -health services

School- education
Post office - communication
Police station – security services
Dam – water supply
Roads - communication
Power lines – power supply etc

HUMAN ACTIVITIES
Dip tank – pastoral farming
Quarry – quarrying, mining
Farming etc

SETTLEMENT PATTERNS
Linear
Nucleated
Concentric

OTHER CALCULATIONS TO LOOK AT

 Temperature statistics i.e. mean, range
 Relative humidity
 Population statistics

CALCULATING TIME

INTRODUCTION
The earth rotates in two ways:
1. It rotates around an elliptical orbit around the sun. This kind of rotation takes one
year (365.25 days) to complete and brings about the seasons i.e. winter, springs,
summer and autumn
2. It rotates about its axes. This rotation takes one day (24hours) to complete and
brings about:
i. The deflection of winds and ocean currents
ii. The daily rising and falling of the tides
iii. Nights and days in places around the earth
iv. A difference of one hour between two meridians 15ᵒ apart

CALCULATION OF TIME
As indicated above, the second type of earth rotation brings about a time difference of
one hour between two meridians 15ᵒ apart. This is in an anticlockwise direction and it is

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described as being from west to east. This means that all the areas that are in the east
experience sunrise before those in the west. The areas in the east are thus said to be ahead
in time.
For this reason, when we travel in an easterly direction we add time or gain time. For
every 15ᵒ we add 1 hour or for every 1ᵒ we add 4 minutes.
On the contrary, when we travel in a westerly direction we subtract time or lose time. For
every 15ᵒ we subtract 1 hour or for every 1ᵒ we subtract 4 minutes.
Using these basic facts, we can calculate time for any place, given the necessary
information.

Example 1:
If it is 12:00 noon at the Greenwich Meridian (0ᵒ), what time will it be at a place
(i) 45ᵒE
(II) 30ᵒW
There are two ways of calculating these times.
Method one: counting directly from meridians
(i) between 0ᵒ and 45ᵒ , there are 3 intervals of 15ᵒ, so we add 1 hour three times
beginning from 12:00 noon. This gives a time of 15:00 or 3:00pm at 45ᵒE
(II) between 0ᵒ and 30ᵒ , there are 2 intervals of 15ᵒ, so we subtract 1 hour two times
beginning from 12:00 noon. This gives a time of 10:00 or 10.00am at 30ᵒW

Calculating time difference between lines of longitude.

Method two: using ratio
(i) 1ᵒ : 4ˊ
45ᵒ : Xˊ cross multiplying

1ᵒ x Xˊ = 45ᵒ x 4ˊ
X= 180ˊ = 3hours this is the time difference between 0ᵒ and
45ᵒ

We then add 3 hours to 12:00 noon giving a time of 1500hours at 45ᵒ

(ii) 1ᵒ : 4ˊ
30ᵒ : Xˊ cross multiplying

1ᵒ x Xˊ = 30ᵒ x 4ˊ
X= 120ˊ = 2hours this is the time difference between 0ᵒ and
45ᵒ

We then subtract 2 hours from 12:00 noon giving a time of 1000hours at 30ᵒ

Example 2:
The time at meridian 30ᵒE is 1420 hours. What time is it at meridians
(i) 90ᵒE
(ii) 60ᵒW
Method 1: counting off the meridians we get

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 (i) 1820 hours at 90ᵒE
(ii) 0820 hours at 60ᵒW
Method 2: using ration
(i) Since 30ᵒE and 90ᵒare both on the east of Greenwich Meridian, we first calculate
the meridian difference between them:
90ᵒ - 30ᵒ = 60ᵒ then use ration
1ᵒ = X cross multiplying

1ᵒ x X = 60ᵒ X 4ˊ
X = 240ˊ = 4 hours time difference
So adding 4 hours to 1420 hours gives a time of 1820 hours at 90ᵒE
(ii) Since 30ᵒE and 60ᵒW are on opposite sides of the Greenwich Meridian, we add
them up to get the meridian difference between them.
30ᵒ + 60ᵒ = 90ᵒ Then use ratio
1ᵒ : 4ˊ
90ᵒ : X cross multiplying

1ᵒ x X = 90ᵒ x 4ˊ
X = 360ˊ = 6 hours time difference
So, subtracting 6 hours from 1420 hours gives a time of 0820 hours at 60ᵒW.

TIME ZONE AND STANDARD TIME

If each town were to keep the time of its own meridian, there would be much difference
in local time between one town and the other.
For example Ghanzi is approximately 6ᵒ west of Francistown, so there is a time
difference of 24 minutes between them. There is also a time difference of about 16
minutes between Gaborone and Ghanzi: 8 minute difference between Gaborone and
Francistown and so on. This means that people travelling between these towns (cities)
will have to adjust their watches from time to time- a great inconvenience!
To avoid this inconvenience, the world is divided into 24 belts, each 15ᵒ of longitude
wide and the local time of the central meridian for each belt is applied to that belt which
is called a time zone. The local time of the central meridian is called standard time.
A country of limited longitudinal width has only one standard time which is based on its
central meridian e.g the standard time for Nigeria is set by meridian 15ᵒE and Botswana
by 30ᵒE which means that these countries are 1 hour and 2 hours ahead of the GMT
respectively.
A country of great longitudinal width or west-west stretch has several time zones e.g the
former U.S.S.R which has longitudinal width of 165ᵒ has 11 time zones for practical
purposes.

INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE

This is a line that follows the 180ᵒ meridian except where it crosses land surfaces. It is a
line where a day is lost or gained depending in which direction one is travelling. If a
traveller crosses the line from east to west he loses a day and while crossing the line from
west to east he gains a day

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Example 1:
If the GMT is 1800hrs on a Monday, what time would it be at:
(i) 180ᵒE
(ii) 180ᵒW
Method 1: counting directly from meridians.

Method 2: using ratio

1ᵒ : 4ˊ
180ᵒ : X

1ᵒ x X : 180ᵒ X 4
X : 720ˊ = 12 hours time difference

So, the time at 180ᵒE will be 1800

+ 1200
= 3000
We subtract 24hrs from our answer which means that we have crossed to another day.
This means that we are no longer on Monday but Tuesday. The time will be 0600 on
Tuesday.
The time at 180ᵒW will be 1800
-1200
=0600
Answer 0600 Monday
From the examples above it can be seen that crossing the date line from west to east one
will gain a day

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