ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Analysis
Analysis is the process of breaking up the whole study into its constituent parts of categories according
to the specific questions under the statement of the problem. This is to bring out into focus the essential
features of the study. Analysis usually precedes presentation.

Example:
In the study of the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A, the whole study may be divided
into its constituent parts as follows according to the specific questions:

1. Educational qualifications of the science teachers

2. Methods and strategies used in the teaching of Science
3. Facilities available for the teaching of science
4. Forms of supervisory assistance
5. Differences between the perceptions of the teachers and those of the students concerning the
teaching or science
6. Problems encountered in the teaching of science
7. Proposed solutions to the problems
8. Implications of the findings

Each constituent part may still be divided into its essential categories.
Example:
The educational qualifications of the teachers may further be subdivided into the following:

1. Degrees earned in pre-service education

2. Majors or specializations
3. Units earned in science :
4. Teacher’s examinations and other examinations passed
5. Seminars, conferences, and other special trainings attended for the teaching of science
6. Books, journals, and other materials in science being read
7. Advanced studies
8. Number of years in science teaching

Then under degrees earned are

1. Bachelor of Arts
2. Bachelor of Science in Education
3. Master of Arts

The other constituent parts may also be similarly divided and subdivided. The data are then grouped
under the categories or parts to which they belong.
Classification of data.
Classification is grouping together data with similar characteristics. Classification is a part of analysis. The
bases of classification are the following:

1. Qualitative (kind). Those having the same quality or are of the same kind are grouped together.
The grouping of elements in the examples given under analysis is qualitative.

2. Quantitative. Data are grouped according to their quantity. In age, for instance, people may be
grouped into ages of 10-14, 15-19, 20-24, 25-29, etc.

3. Geographical. Data may be classified according to their location. For instance, the schools in the
secondary level in Province A may be grouped by district, as District 1, District 2, District 3, etc.

4. Chronological. In this, data are classified according to the order of their occurrence. Example:
The enrolments of the high schools of Province A may be classified according to school, as for
instance, enrolments during the school years 1985-86, 1986-‘87, 1987-'88.

Cross-classification. This is further classifying a group of data into Subclasses. This is breaking up or
dividing a big class into smaller classes. For instance, a group of students may be classified as high school
students as distinguished from elementary and college students. Then they are further divided from
elementary and they are further subdivided into curricular years as first, second, third and fourth years.
Each curricular year may still be subdivided into male and female.

Arrangement of data or classes of data. The bases of arrangement of data or groups of data are the
same as those of classification.

1. Qualitative. Data may be arranged alphabetically, or from the biggest to the smallest class as
from phylum to specie in classifying animals or vice versa, or listing the biggest country to the
smallest one or vice versa, or from the most important to the least important. Ranking students
according to brightness is qualitative arrangement.

2. Quantitative. This is arranging data according to their numerical magnitudes, from the greatest
to the smallest number or vice versa. Schools may be arranged according to their population,
from the most populated to the least populated, and so with countries, provinces, cities, towns,
etc.

3. Geographical. Data may be arranged according to their geographical location or according to

direction. Data from the Ilocos region may be listed from north to south by province as Ilocos
Norte, Abra, Ilocos Sur, and La Union.

4. Chronological. This is listing down data that occurred first and last those that occurred last, or
vice versa according to the purpose of presentation. This is especially true in historical research.
For instance, data during the Spanish period should be treated first before the data during the
American period.
Classification, cross-classification and arrangement of data are done for purposes of organizing the
thesis report and in presenting them done for purposes of in tabular form. In tables, data are properly
and logically classified, cross-classified, and arranged so that their relationships are readily seen.

Group-derived Generalizations

One of the main purposes of analyzing research data is to form inferences, interpretations, conclusions,
and/or generalizations from the collected data. In so doing the researcher should be guided by the
following discussions about group-derived generalizations.

The use of the survey, usually called the normative survey, as a method of collecting data for research
implies the study of groups. From the findings are formulated conclusions in the form of generalizations
that pertain to the particular group studied. These conclusions are called group-derived generalizations
designed to represent characteristics of groups and are to be applied to groups rather than to individual
cases one at a time. These are applicable to all kinds of research, be they social, science or natural
science research. There are several types of these but are discussed under four categories by Good and
Scates. (Good and Scates, pp. 290-298) The key sentences are of this author.

1. Generally, only proportional predictions can be made. One type of generalization is that which is
expressed in terms of proportion’ of the cases in a group, often in the form of probability. When
this type is used, we do not have enough information about individual cases to make predictions
for them, but we can nevertheless predict for a group of future observations. As to individual
event, however, we can say nothing; probability is distinctly a group concept and applies only to
groups.

Quality control in manufacturing is an example. Based on the recognition that products cannot
be turned out as precisely as intended, but that so long as a given proportion of the cases fall
within assigned limits of variation, that is all that is expected. In the biological field, certain
proportions of offspring, inherit certain degrees of characteristics of parents, but individual
predictions cannot be made. In the social field, in insurance especially, based on demographic
and actuarial data, life tables indicate life expectancies of groups but nothing whatsoever is
known about the life expectancy of any particular individual.

Here is another example. Suppose in a certain school offering civil engineering, it is a known fact
that all through the years, about 70% of its graduates with an average of 2.0 or its equivalent or
higher pass the licensing examination for civil engineers. On this basis, we can predict that about
70% of the graduates of the school with an average grade of 2.0 or higher will pass the next
licensing examination for civil engineers but we cannot predict with certainty the passing of a
particular graduate even if his average grade is 1.25.

2. The average can be made to represent the whole group. A second type of group-derived
generalization results from using the average as a representation of the group of cases and
offering it as a typical result. This is ignoring the individuals comprising the group or the
variation existing in the group but the average represents the whole group. Generally, the mean
and the median are used to denote the averages of scale position but other statistical measures
such as the common measures of variation, correlation, regression lines, etc. are also
 structurally considered as averages. These are group functions conveying no sure knowledge
about any individual case in the group.

3. Full-frequency distribution reveals characteristics of a group. As a third type of knowledge

growing out of the study of groups, we have the full-frequency distribution the most
characteristic device, perhaps of all statistical work. Perhaps too, the most inferential
characteristics of frequency distribution are shape and spread. Frequency distributions carry the
implication of probability. One implication is as follows. Suppose the heights of Grade I pupils
are taken and then grouped into a class frequency distribution, using height as the trait or basis
of distribution in groups. Then the suppliers of chairs and tables for the pupils will be able to
know the number of chairs and tables to suit the heights of the pupils.

Here is another example which enables us to know certain characteristics of a group. Suppose a
test is given to a group of students. Then their scores are grouped into a class frequency
distribution. If the standard deviation, a measure of variability, is computed and it is unusually
large, then we know that the group is heterogeneous. If the standard deviation is small, the
group is more or less homogeneous. If the distribution is graphed and the curve is bell-shaped,
the distribution is normal, that is, there is an equal number of bright and dull students with the
average in the middle. If the curve is skewed to the right, there are more dull students than
bright ones, and if the distribution is skewed to the left there are more bright students than dull
ones.

4. A group itself generates new qualities, characteristics, properties, or aspects not present in
individual cases. For instance, there are many chairs in a room. The chairs can be arranged in a
variety of ways. However, if there is only one chair, there can be no arrangement in any Order,
Hence, order and arrangement are group properties and they represent relationships within a
group, properties which can arise only if there are two or more cases.

Other group properties that exist only in groups are cooperation, Opposition, organization,
specialization, leadership, teaching, morale, reciprocal sharing of emotions, etc. which vanish in
individual cases,

Two more categories of generalization may be added at this point.

1. A generalization can also be made about an individual case. For instance, a high school
graduating student is declared valedictorian of his Class. We can generalize that, that student is
the brightest in his class. This is a group-derived generalization because it cannot be made if
there is only one student. Here is another example. A teacher declares that Juan is the best
behaved pupil in her class. This is a group-derived generalization because this statement cannot
be made if there is only one pupil. There are many instances of this kind.

2. In certain cases, predictions on individual cases can be made. It has been mentioned earlier that,
generally, only proportional predictions can be made. However, in correlation and regression
studies, one variable can be predicted from another. Take the case of the civil engineering
graduate taking the licensing examination. If the coefficient of correlation between the school
grades of those who took the licensing examination and their scores in the examination is
computed and it is high, it is possible to predict the chance of an individual graduate of passing
the licensing examination by the use of regression equations. The accuracy of prediction is high
 if (1) there is linearity in the relationship of the two variables if graphed, (2) the distributions in
the two variables are normal or not badly skewed, and (3) the spread or scatter of the two
variables is the same for each column or row in the correlation table. The process involves a
complicated statistical procedure and the researcher is better referred to a good statistical book
especially that of Garrett, pp. 122-146 for linear correlation and pp. 151-165 for regression and
prediction.

Preparing Data for Presentation

Before presenting data in accepted forms, especially in presenting them in the form of statistical tables,
they have to be tallied first in a tabulation diagram which may be called talligram, a contraction of tally
and diagram. The individual responses to a questionnaire or interview schedule have to be tallied one by
one.

How to construct a talligram. A talligram may be constructed as follows:

1. Determine the classes and their respective subclasses along with their respective numbers. For
instance, in the study about science teaching in the high schools of Province A, anent the
qualifications of the teachers, suppose there are four degrees earned by the teachers such as AB
(Bachelor of Arts), BSCE (Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering), BSE (Bachelor of Science in
Education) and MA (Master of Arts with undergraduate courses). The subclasses are the
specializations or majors of the teachers. ‘There are also four such as English, History,
Mathematics, and Science. The classes and their subclasses are arranged alphabetically.

2. Make rows for the classes by drawing horizontal lines with appropriate spaces between the lines
and the number of the rows should be two more than the number of classes. So in the example
given in step No. 1, there should be six rows because there are four classes. The uppermost row
is for the labels of the subclasses, the bottom row is for the totals, and the middle four rows are
for the classes: AB, BSCE, BSE, and MA.

3. Make columns for the subclasses by drawing vertical lines with appropriate spaces between the
lines and the number of columns should be two more than the number of subclasses. So in the
example in No. 1 step there should be six columns. The left most column is for the labels of the
class rows, the rightmost column is for totals, and the four middle columns are for the four
subclasses.

See Figure 1 for an example of a talligram

Degrees and Specializations of Teachers

Specializations (Majors)
Degrees Total
English History Mathematics Science
AB 1 (1) 1 (2)
BSCE 1(5)
BSE 1 (4) 1 (3)
MA
Total
How to tally data (responses) gathered through a questionnaire. Tallying responses to a questionnaire in
a talligram follows. Suppose a questionnaire gives the following data:

1. Teacher A is an AB graduate with a science major. Enter a tally in the cell which is the
intersection of the AB row and the Science column. The tally is a short vertical bar.

2. Teacher B is an AB graduate with a science major. Enter a tally in the cell which is the
intersection of the AB row and the Science column.

3. Teacher C is a BSE graduate with a science major. Enter a tally in the cell which is the
intersection of the BSE row and the Science column.

4. Teacher D is a BSE graduate with a mathematics major. Enter a tally in the cell which is the
intersection of the BSE row and the Mathematics column.

5. Teacher E is a BSCE graduate with a mathematics major. Enter a tally in the cell which is the
intersection of the BSCE row and the Mathematics column.

6. Continue the process until all the data needed are entered.

When finshed, the talligram will look exactly like Figure 2.

Degrees and Specializations of Teachers
Specializations (Majors)
Degrees Total
English History Mathematics Science
AB | || |||| - | |||| - |||| - || 21
BSCE |||| 4
BSE || || |||| - |||| - |||| |||| - |||| - ||| 31
MA | || 3
Total 3 4 25 27 59

Figure 2 may now be converted into a statistical data presentation. Generally all quantified data are
tallied first in talligrams which bare then converted into statistical tables for data presentation using
Hindu-Arabic numerals in the cells in place of tallies.

Presentation of Data
Presentation is the process of organizing data into logical, sequential, and meaningful categories and
classifications to make them amenable to study and interpretation, Analysis and presentation put data
into proper order and in categories reducing them into forms that are intelligible and interpretable so
that the relationships between the research specific questions and their intended answers can be
established: There are three ways of presenting data: textual, tabular, and graphical.
Textual Presentation of Data
Textual presentation uses statements with numerals or numbers to describe data. The main aims of
textual presentation are to focus attention to some important data and to supplement tabular
presentation.

The disadvantage, especially if it is too long, is that it is boring to read and the reader may not even be
able to grasp the quantitative relationships of the data presented. The reader may even skip some
statements.

Example: The following refers to the degrees earned by 59 science teachers in the hypothetical study of
the teaching of science in the high Schools of Province A:

Of the 59 science teachers, 21 or 35.59 percent have earned a Bachelor of Arts degree with education
units, four or 6.78 percent have earned a Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering degrees with education
units, 31 or 52.54 percent a Bachelor of Science in Education degree, and three or 5.08 percent a Master
of Arts degree.

According to government regulations, all the teachers are qualified to teach in the high school. (This is
already a finding, interpretation, of inference)

Tabular Presentation of Data

Statistical table defined. A statistical table or simply table is defined as a systematic arrangement of
related data in which classes of numerical facts or data are given each a row and their subclasses are
given each a column in order to present the relationships of the sets or numerical facts or data in a
definite, compact, and understandable form or forms.

Purpose of a table. The purpose is to facilitate the study and interpretation, the making of inferences
and implications of the relationships of statistical data. Table construction for data presentation is a part
of analysis because the data are separated and grouped according to class or category.

Advantages of tabular over textual presentation of data.

The advantages of the tabular over the textual presentation of data are:

1. Statistical tables are concise, and because data are systematically grouped and arranged,
explanatory matter is minimal.

2. Data are more easily read, understood and compared because of their systematic and logical
arrangement into rows and columns. The reader can understand and interpret a great bulk of
data rapidly because he can see significant relationships of data at once.

3. Tables give the whole information even without combining numerals with textual matter. This is
so because tables are so constructed that the ideas they convey can be understood even
without reading their textual presentation.

The major functional parts of a statistical table. The names of the functional parts of a statistical table
are shown in the following diagrams: (Bacani. et al. p. 55)
 Master Caption
Sub Head
Column Caption Column Caption Column Caption Column Caption
Row Label Entry Entry Entry Entry
“ “ “ “ “ “
“ “ “ “ “ “
“ “ “ “ “ “
“ “ “ “ “ “
Total

The above illustration of a table is only a simple one. There are tables that are very complicated. For
instance, the column captions may further be subdivided into sub-column captions which in turn may
still be subdivided. This happens when the subject matter of the table is classified, then the first
classifications are further sub-classified, and so on.

1. Table Number. Each table should have number, preferably in Arabic, for reference purposes.
This is because only the table numbers are cited. The number is written above the title of the
table. Tables are numbered consecutively throughout the thesis report. If there is only one table
the number is necessary.
2. Title. The title should tell about the following:
a. The subject matter that said table deals with.
b. where such subject matter is situated, or to what entity or person it belongs, or from
whom the data about such subject matter were gathered;
c. when data about such subject matter were gathered or the time period when such data
were existent; and
d. sometimes how the data about such subject matter are classified.

Usually, however, only the first two elements are mentioned in the title, and occasionally only the
subject matter. This is possible if the time period of the study as well as the locale and respondents are
well discussed in the scope and delimitation of the study. Only the beginning letters of the important
words in the title are capitalized. If the title contains more than one line, it should be written like an
inverted pyramid.

See Table 1 below.

Table 1
Degree and Specializations of the Teachers

Specializations (Majors)
Degrees Total
English History Mathematics Science
Earned
Fb %b Fb %b Fb %b Fb %b Fb %b
AB 1 1.69 2 3.39 6 10.17 12 20.34 21 35.59
BSCE 4 6.78 4 6.78
BSE 2 3.39 2 3.39 14 23.73 13 22.03 31 52.54
MA 1 1.69 2 3.39 3 5.08
Total 3 5.08 4 6.78 25 42.37 27 45.76 59 99.99c
Footnotes:
a. All the teachers have enough education units as required by regulations,
b. The total number of teachers, 59, was the base used in computing all percents.
c. The percent total does not equal to 100.00 percent due to rounding off of partial percent to two
decimal places. However, the 99.99 percent can be increased to 100.00 percent by adding .01 to
the largest partial percent. A principle supports this process.

Sources: The Principals’ Offices.

In the example, Table 1, the subject matter is “degrees and specializations,” and the entities from whom
the data or from whom the data were gathered are the teachers. The period of the inquiry was school
year 1989-1990 but that was already mentioned in the scope and delimitation of the study and it does
not need to be included in all tables anymore. “How the data are classified” need not be included in the
title because the table is only a simple one and the classifications of the data are clear enough. If the
title is “Distribution of Teachers According to Degrees and Specializations,” the way the teachers are
classified is already indicated.

3. Headnote or Prefatory Note. This is written below the title and it is usually enclosed in
parentheses. It explains some things in the table that are not clear. Suppose a table entitled
“Monetary Values or Properties of the High Schools in Province A” is to be constructed and the
entries in the table are in rounded millions of pesos. If the amount to be entered is six million
pesos, the entry is only 6, instead of entering 8,000,000 the entry is only 8, etc. The headnote
that should be written below the title should be “Millions of Pesos.” So, the entry of 6 instead six
million pesos, the entry of 8 should be read eight million pesos, etc.

4. Stub. The stub contains the stub head and the row labels. The stub head tells what the stub
contains, the row labels. Each row label describes the data contained in that row. In the table
given as example, Table 1, Degrees is the stub head and below it are the degrees which are the
row label: AB, BSCE, BSE, and MA. In the AB row all the teachers listed there are AB graduates,
in the BSCE row all BSCE graduates, in the BSE row all BSE graduates, and in the MA row all MA
graduates. Totals may be considered as part of the stub.

5. Box Head. The box head contains the master caption, the column captions, and the column sub-
captions. The master caption describes the column captions and the column captions in turn
describe: the sub-column captions. In Table 1, the master caption is Specializations (Majors). The
column captions ate English, History, Mathematics, Science, and Totals. The sub-captions are F
(frequency), and % (percent). The F indicates the number of teachers under it and the symbol %
indicates the proportion of the number under F to the total, 59.

6. Main body, field or text. The main body, field, or text of the table contains all the quantitative
and/or proportional information presented in the table in rows and in columns. Each numerical
datum is entered in the cell which is the intersection of the row and the column of the datum.
For instance, the 14 teachers who are BSE graduates and who majored in mathematics are
entered in the cell which is the intersection of the BSE row and the mathematics column.

7. Footnote. The footnote which appears immediately below the bottom line of the table explains,
qualifies, or clarifies some items in the table which are not readily understandable or are
missing. Proper symbols are used to indicate the items that are clarified or explained. In Table 1,
 ais used to indicate that all the teachers have enough education units, b is used to indicate that
all percent were computed with 59 as the base, and c is used to indicate that the total percent
does not equal 100.00 due to the rounding off of the partial percents.to two decimal places. The
footnote is not necessary if everything in the table is clear and there is nothing to clarify or
explain.

8. Source note. The source note which is generally written below the footnote indicates the origin
or source of the data presented in the table. In Table 1, the sources of the data are the
Principals’ Offices. The purposes of placing the source note are:

a. To give credit or recognition to the author of the table or the source or sources of the
data;
b. To allow the user to secure additional data from the same source;
c. To provide the user a basis for determining the accuracy and reliability of the
information provided by the table; and
d. To protect the maker of the table against any charge of accuracy and unreliability.

The source note is not necessary if the sources of the data are the respondents to a questionnaire or
interview schedule.

Rulings and spacing in tables. Ruling is done in a table to emphasize or make clear relationships. There
are no fixed standard rules to follow in ruling and spacing tables. Emphasis and clarity are the
determining factors. However, the following guidelines are generally owed in the construction of tables
for a thesis report:

1. The table number is not separated by line from the title. It is written two spaces above the title.
2. The title is separated from the rest of the table by a double line placed two spaces below the
lowest line of the title.
3. The stub, master caption, captions, sub-captions, and totals are separated from one another by
vertical and horizontal lines.
4. The rows and columns are not separated by lines. Major groups, however, are separated by
single lines. For purposes of clarity, rows are separated by a double space and the columns are
separated by as wide a space as possible.
5. Both ends of the table are unruled
6. There is always a line, either single or double, at the bottom of the table.

Unity in a table. There should always be unity in a table. To achieve this, presenting too many ideas in a
single table should be avoided. One subject matter is enough, one that can be divided into categories
which in turn can be divided into common classifications. In Table 1, for instance, the subject matter is
degrees and majors. Degrees is divided into similar categories such as AB, BSCE, BSE, and MA. The
subclasses such as English, History, Mathematics, and Science are common to the degree categories. .

Textual presentation of tabular data. Generally, there should be a textual presentation of a table which
precedes the table or the table may be placed within the textual presentation. The table and its textual
presentation should be placed as near as possible to each other. Textual presentation is mixing words
with numbers in statements.

There are two ways of making a textual presentation of a table:

 1. All the items in the table are textually presented. This manner enables the reader to
comprehend the totality of the data even without consulting the table. This is alright if the data
arc not so many. However, if the data are so numerous, reading becomes boring and the reader
may even skip some of the items.

2. Only the highlights or important parts of the data are textually presented.

The basic principles that should be remembered in the textual Presentation of a table are:

1. The textual presentation of a table should be as complete as possible so that the ideas conveyed
in the table are understood even without referring to the table itself of the datum. For instance,
the 14 teachers who are BSE graduates and who majored in mathematics are entered in the cell
which is the intersection of the BSE row and the mathematics column.

2. Textual presentation is generally followed by interpretation, inference or implication. This is

done after the data from the table have been textually presented.
3. Findings in the present study should be compared with the findings of other studies as
presented in the related literature and studies. This enables the researcher to make some
generalizations if there-are enough data to support such generalizations.

Following is the textual presentation of Table 1:

(Complete) Table 1 shows that there were 59 science teachers in the high schools of Province A. Of this
number, 21 or 35.59 percent were AB graduates. Of the AB graduates, one or 1.69 percent majored in
English, two or 3.39 percent in History, six or 10.17 percent in Mathematics, and 12 or 30.34 percent in
Science.

There were only four or 6.78 percent who were BSCE graduates, ail majoring in Mathematics.

There were 31 or 52.54 percent who were BSE graduates and of this number, two or 3.39 percent
majored in English, the same number in History, 14 or 23.73 percent in Mathematics, and 13 or 22.03
percent in Science.

Summarizing the majors, three or 5.08 percent were majors in English, four or 6.78 percent in History,
25 or 42.37 percent in Mathematics, and 27 or 45.76 percent in Science.

(Only the highlights) Of the 59 teachers, the AB and BSE graduates constituted the most number.
Twenty-one or 35.59 percent were AB graduates and 31 or 52.54 percent had BSE degrees or a total of
52 or 88.13 percent. Of the majors, 27 or 45.76 percent of the teachers were majors in Science, 25 or
42.37 percent in Mathematics, and three or 5.08 percent in English and four or 6.78 percent in History.

Findings. Findings are the original data, quantitative or otherwise, derived or taken from the original
sources and which are results of questionnaires, interviews, experiments, tests, observations and other
data gathering instruments. Data presented in tables and their textual presentations are examples of
findings. Findings do not directly answer the specific questions asked at the beginning of the
investigation or the explicit hypotheses but the findings provide the bases for making the answers.
Hence, the main functions of the findings are to provide bases for making the conclusions.
Implication, inference, interpretation. These three terms are synonymous if not exactly the same in
meaning. They are used interchangeably. Each is a statement or statements of the possible meaning,
probable causes and probable effects of a situation or condition as revealed by the findings plus a veiled
suggestion to continue the situation if it is good or to adopt some remedial measures to eradicate or
minimize its bad effects. Those who are to be benefitted and those who are going to suffer the bad
effects should also be mentioned.

Implication, inference, or interpretation has at least four elements, namely, condition, cause, effect, and
continuance or remedial measure.

1. Statement of the condition or situation. The condition or situation is stated based upon the
findings, whether satisfactory or unsatisfactory.

2. Probable cause of the condition. Usually, also every a condition has a cause but, there must also
be a logical and valid relationship between the condition and its cause.

3. Probable effects of the condition. Usually, also every condition has an effect, either bad or good.
However, there must also be a logical and valid relationship between the condition and its effect
and this must be clearly given.

4. A veiled suggestion for continuance or remedial measure, if the possible effect is bad. If the
effect of the condition is good, then there must be a hint for the continuance of the existence of
the condition. However, if the effect is deleterious there must be some suggestions for the
adoption of measures aimed at minimizing the harmful effects.

The interpretation of Table 1 and its textual presentation is as follows: All the science teachers were
qualified to teach in the high school as per regulation. Unfortunately, more than half of them were not
science majors and therefore cannot teach science. Taking all other things equal, a teacher with a
science major can teach science better than one with a non-science major. Consequently, it can be
assumed that the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A is weak. As a result, the students
and the whole country will suffer and the consequences will be far-reaching. There is a need to
encourage the teachers who are non-science majors to increase their science units by attending evening
or summer courses or by attending more science seminars.

Graphical Presentation of Data

A graph is a chart representing the quantitative variations or changes of a variable itself, or quantitative
changes of a variable in comparison with those-of another variable or variables in pictorial or
diagrammatic form. :

The quantitative variations or changes in the data may refer to their qualitative, geographical, or
chronological attributes. For instance, if the number of teachers teaching science in the high schools of
Province A is graphed according to their degrees, the graphing is qualitative; if their number is graphed
according to their assignments in the towns where the high schools are located, the graphing is
geographical; and if their number is graphed according to school year, the graphing is chronological.
Purpose of graphing. The purpose of graphing is to present the variations, changes, and relationships of
data in a most attractive, appealing, effective and convincing way.

Advantages of the graphic method. (Bacani, et al., pp. 54-55) According to Bacani, et al. the following are
the advantages of the graphical method: |

1. It attracts attention more effectively than do tables, and, therefore, is less likely to be
overlooked. Readers may skip tables but pause to look at charts.
2. The use of colors and pictorial diagrams makes a list of figures in business reports more
meaningful.
3. It gives a comprehensive view of quantitative data. The wandering of a line exerts a more
powerful effect in the reader’s mind than tabulated data. It shows what is happening and what
is likely to take place.
4. Graphs enable the busy executive of a business concern to grasp the essential facts quickly and
without much trouble. Any relation not seen from the figures themselves is easily discovered
from the graph. Illustrations, including attractive charts and graphs, are now considered by most
businessmen as indispensable accompaniment to good business reports.
5. Their general usefulness lies in the simplicity they add to the presentation of numerical data.

Limitations of graphs. (Bacani, et al., p. 55) If there are advantages there are also disadvantages of the
graph. Some of these are:

1. Graphs do not show as much information at a time as do tables.

2. Graphs do not show data as accurately as the tables do.
3. Charts require more skill, more time, and more expense to prepare than tables.
4. Graphs cannot be quoted in the same way as tabulated data.
5. Graphs can be made only after the data have been tabulated.

Types of graphs or charts. Graphs may be classified into the following types:
1. Bar graphs
a. Single vertical bar graph
b. Single horizontal bar graph
c. Grouped or multiple or composite bar graph
d. Duo-directional or bilateral bar graph
e. Subdivided or component bar graph
f. Histogram

2. Linear graphs
a. Time series or chronological line chart
b. Composite line chart
c. Frequency polygon
d. Ogive
e. Band chart

3. Hundred per cent graphs or charts

a. Subdivided bar or rectangular bar graph
b. Circle or pie graph
 4. Pictograms

5. Statistical maps

6. Ratio charts

Construction of individual graphs. Stated herein are the principles to be followed in the construction of
individual graphs.

1. The bar graph. The bar graph is often used for the graphic presentation of data. It is generally
used to make comparison of simple magnitudes very much more clearly and more distinctly
perceptible to the eye. Each bar is drawn to a height or length equal to the magnitude it
represents as indicated in the scale (Y-axis). The bars are separated from each other by a space
equal to one-half the width of a bar. However, there are no fixed rules that govern the
construction of graphs and the maker may only be guided by aesthetic, proportional, and
symmetrical considerations and for convenience.

Comparison in bar graphs is linear. It is the length of each bar that determines the size of a magnitude it
represents and the relative position of that magnitude in a series of like and related magnitudes.

a. The single vertical bar graph. In the single vertical bar graph, the bars are constructed vertically
and they portray the magnitudes of the categories into which data have been classified.

b. Single horizontal bar graph. In this graph, the bars are constructed horizontally and are used to
compare magnitudes of the different categories into which the data are classified. The
horizontal bar graph is usually used to compare magnitudes of categories.

Construction of graphs.

In constructing graphs, two straight lines are drawn perpendicular to each other, intersecting at a point
called the point of origin and marked 0 (zero).

The horizontal line is called baseline, coordinate, or X-axis. It represents the variables involved or the
classes or categories of the variable involved.

The vertical line is called ordinate or Y-axis. It represents the quantities of the variables or classes or
categories of a variable involved. The Y-axis is divided into unit distances with each unit distance
representing a definite quantity. If one unit distance or unit length represents 4, 2 unit distances
represent 8, 3 unit distances represent 12, etc. This is called the scale.

The distance measured to any point parallel to the X-axis from the Y-axis is called the abscissa of the
point and the distance of that point parallel to the Y-axis from the X-axis is the ordinate of the point. The
abscissa and the ordinate of a point are called the coordinates of the points. Plotting the graph means
locating the meeting point of the abscissa and the ordinate.

Essentials of a graph. The essential parts of a graph are the following:

 1. Number. Charts or graphs are also numbered for reference purposes. The general practice is to
write the number as Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, etc. at the bottom of the graph.
2. Title. The same principles hold in graphs as in tables. The title is usually written above the graph.
3. Scale. The scale indicates the length or height unit that represents a certain amount of the
variable which is the subject of the graph. The scale enables the reader to interpret the
significance of a number of length or height units. Thus, if a length or height unit is equal to 2,
two length or height units equal to 4, 3 length or height units equal 6, etc. The Y-axis represents
the scale.
4. Classification and arrangement. The principles of classification and arrangement are the same in
graphs as in tables.
5. Symmetry of the graph. The whole chart or graph should be about square, otherwise the length
should be a little greater than the height. The chart should be placed on the page in such a way
that the margins at the left and at the right should be about the same, or the margin at the left
is a little wider.
6. Footnote. The footnote, if there is any, should be placed immediately below the graph aligned
with the left side of the graph.
7. Source. The source of data, if there is any, should be written just below the chart at the lower
left immediately below the footnote if there is any, but it should be above the graph number.

Vertical Graph
Example of Horizontal Bar Graph

Example of Grouped Bar Graph

Grouped (Multiple or Composite) Bar Graph. The grouped bar graph is used in comparing two or more
categories of a variable during a specified period or over successive periods of time when the subgroups
have common attributes

Example of Duo-directional or Bilateral Bar Graph

Example of Subdivided (or Component) Bar Graph

Subdivided (or Component) Bar Graph. Subdivided bar graphs are used to show the variations or
changes of the component parts of a whole and the whole itself. Cross-comparison of the proportionate
distribution of the different parts can be made easily.

Example of Histogram

Histogram. A histogram is composed of bars placed side by side whose heights indicate the magnitudes
of their respective classes or categories. It is used with grouped or class frequency.

Linear Graphs. Linear graphs are good devices to show variations of values over successive periods
of time. Changes in the data are indicated by the linear curves.

Advantages of linear graphs or charts. The advantages of the linear graph or chart are the following:
a. The curve shows data as continuous line; hence, it is continuous in its effects.
b. The wandering line of the curve tells the whole story. At a glance one can see just what the
situation is and what is likely to happen.
c. Its preparation requires less time and skill.

Construction. Linear graphs are constructed in much same way as many of other graphs are. A slight
difference lies in the process of locating the intersections of the abscissa representing a class or category
of a variable and the ordinate representing the magnitudes of the classes or categories of the variable.
The intersections of the abscissa and the ordinate are marked by bold dots and then joined successively
by either straight lines or curved lines to show the variations of a variable or the variable in relation to
that of another.

a. Time series linear charts. (single line) Time series linear single line charts depict the variations of
a variable over a period of time. Generally, the abscissa represents the period of time and the Y-
axis represents quantitative values of the variable. The intersections of the X-axis representing
time and Y-axis representing magnitude are located and marked and then joined successively by
 straight or curved lines. The resulting line, a broken straight line or a curved line, shows the
variations of the variable.

b. Time series composite or multilinear charts. These charts are used when comparisons are made
between or among categories of the same variables or variations of two or more variables over
periods of time.

c. Frequency polygon. The frequency polygon is used to graph class or grouped frequency
distributions. The X-axis represents the classes and the Y-axis represents the frequencies of the
classes. In plotting the intersections of the abscissas and ordinates, the midpoints of the classes
are used as abscissas. The linear curve starts from the midpoint of the empty class just before
the class with a frequency and ends at the midpoint of the empty class just after the highest
class with a frequency.
d. The ogive. The ogive is used to graph cumulative frequencies (partial sums of frequencies),
either cumulative frequencies upward, (from lower classes to upper classes) or cumulative
frequencies downward (from upper classes to lower classes). The items graphed may be
absolute frequencies derived frequencies (percent).

e. Band chart. A band chart is a form of line graph of the time series variety. It shows the
proportional variations of the component parts of a whole over a period of time. The percent
equivalents of the components are the ones plotted but absolute values may be used though
rarely. The bands representing the proportional changes may be colored or cross-hatched
 differently to increase the clarity of the variations. In constructing the band chart, the largest
component at the beginning of the period is placed at the bottom, followed by the second
largest component, etc. If percent are used the band chart is a rectangle. If actual values are
used, the upper line boundary of the chart will be irregular.

100% Graphs or Charts. 100% graphs or charts show the comparison of the proportional sizes of
the component parts that make up the whole, the whole being made equivalent to 100%. It is the
percent equivalent of the component parts that are portrayed in the graph. The percent equivalent of
each component part is found by dividing it by the total of the component parts and multiplying the
result by 100%. There are two types or kinds of 100% charts: a) the 100% bar or rectangular chart and b)
the pie chart or circle graph. These are to graph budgets, enrolments, sales, etc.

a. The 100% bar graph or rectangular chart. Usually, the bar is erected vertically and the whole
height is equivalent to 100%. The bar is subdivided into segments whose number is equal to the
number of component parts. The size of each segment is proportional to the percent of the
component part it represents. The segments are arranged according to size with the largest
segment at the bottom. Each segment is labeled by the value and percent it represents, the
percent inside and the value outside.
 b. The Pie Chart or Circle Graph. The circle graph has the same principles and functions as the
rectangular chart. It is also equated to 100% and because circle has 360⁰, 1% is equaled to 3.6⁰
so that 60% must be equal to 216⁰ (3.6x60).

Pictograms. The pictogram or pictograph is used to portray data by means of pictures or symbols.
Since the pictogram cannot portray data accurately, its only purpose is to make the comparison of
magnitudes more vivid and clear. Besides, it is very attractive and never fails to catch attention.