COURSE INTRODUCTION

Introduction

Both developed and developing countries are experiencing social change which is as a result of man’s
deliberate actions, generally classified as developments and omissions generally classified as
underdevelopment. We at the same time have those changes which take place as a result of changes in
nature and which are classified as natural changes. These changes expose man to a number of both natural
and technological risks such as fire, pollution, contamination, droughts, wars, earthquakes and floods. In
as much as there is the emphasis on risk reduction, disasters do occur and they are bound to occur thus
forcing leaders, development managers, and the community members in general to start focusing on
how to recover from these disasters; and especially the recovery immediately after a disaster has struck.
Disaster recovery on the other hand is largely influenced by availability of recovery systems, availability
of resources and social support, and the victim’s sense of responsibility and capacity to recover. The
sensible option that is there is disaster management: Having continuous and integrated multi-sectoral,
multi-disciplinary system of planning and implementing measures aimed at preventing or reducing the
risk to hazards, mitigating the severity of hazards when they impact on vulnerability, emergency
preparedness, a rapid and effective response to disasters and post- disaster recovery and rehabilitation

Why the course

The world today is witnessing an increase in the frequency of disasters and their associated damages on
lives and livelihoods. The increase in disasters is a direct manifestation of the growing vulnerability of the
elements at risk. This situation is often attributed to lack of clear understanding of hazard
dynamics, vulnerability and risk levels. Like any other interventions, key requirements in
disaster interventions include sound policies on when and how to intervene and well established
structures for intervention. This in turn poses the challenge of the extent to which policy makers,
implementers of disaster interventions and the community members in general are disaster-
sensitive and committed to both disaster preparedness and recovery. Commitment is about
persuasion and therefore the number one obligation to effective disaster management is for all
stakeholders at all levels of management to equip themselves with basic knowledge on hazards
and hazard dynamics, vulnerability levels and risks posed by hazards before embarking on the
design of disaster interventions. It is this first level knowledge that can only motivate disaster
managers to seek the next level of knowledge and skills to reduce risks to hazards as a
preventive measure, mitigate the severity of disasters should they occur, effectively respond to
disasters once they occur and to recover from disasters. This course on introduction to disaster
management therefore aims to not only equip learners with knowledge on the best practices on
disaster management but also on the importance of hazard identification and skills on
vulnerability reduction.

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Overall objectives
The main objectives of this course are to:

1. Expose learners to the theory and practice of effective disaster management.

2. Prepare learners to be able to effectively handle risk and vulnerability to disasters.
3. Equip learners with the knowledge of effective emergency management.
4. Provide learners with adequate knowledge for effective disaster preparedness
5. Guide learners on the ethics of disaster management

CONCEPTS AND OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Topic one - Concepts and elements of disaster management

1.1.0 Topic outline

1) Introduction
2) Objectives
3) Meaning of Disaster, hazard, Vulnerability, Disaster Risk, Elements at Risk, Risk
Analysis, Risk Assessment, Disaster Tolerance, Sustainable Development, Post
Traumatic Stress Disorders, Capacity Building, Disaster Emergency, Crisis, Disaster
Management, Disaster Prevention, Disaster Mitigation, Disaster Preparedness, Disaster
Recovery, Disaster Relief, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction.
4) Hazard/disaster classification
5) Causes of vulnerability

1.1.1 Introduction

In this introduction we shall clarify the standard meanings/definitions of commonly used

terminologies in disaster management. We shall also look at the standard classification of
hazards well as analyze the causes of vulnerability.

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1.1.2 Objectives At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

a) Give a standard definition of disaster, hazard, vulnerability,

Disaster risk, Disaster prevention, disaster preparedness, disaster
relief, rehabilitation, reconstruction, Capacity building, disaster
emergency, disaster management, elements at risk Sustainable
development

b) Classify hazard in their various clusters

c) Clarify the root causes of vulnerability and separate them from

the predisposing factors.

1.1.3 Definition of terms

Meaning of a Disaster
The first terminology whose meaning we need to clarify is disaster. And this we start by looking
at some of the formal/book definitions of a disaster as indicated below:
A commonly used definition of a disaster is that it is a serious disruption of the functioning of a
community or a society causing widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses which
exceed the ability of the affected to cope using their own resources. It is an occurrence that causes
damage, ecological destruction, loss of human lives, or deterioration of health and health services on a
scale sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response from outside the affected community. It is a sudden,
calamitous event bringing great damage, loss, destruction and devastation to life and property The
damage caused by disasters is immeasurable and varies with the geographical location, climate and the
type of the earth surface/degree of vulnerability. This influences the mental, socio-economic, political and
cultural state of the affected area (Chawla 2008:1:2).

From the above definition, what is coming out clearly is that for there to be a disaster, there must be a
cause effect function: The impact which is variously referred to as damage, disruption and loss is the
effect while this effect must have been caused by something.

The causes of disaster are technically those conditions which predispose human, material, economy and
the environment to an element which has the potential to destroy. What then do we call the elements that
are potentially destructive and what do we technically call the conditions that predispose us to the
elements? Technically we are talking of hazard and vulnerability.

Meaning of Hazard

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 A hazard therefore can be said to be any element that has the potential to threaten or destroy life and
property. Examples of hazards include: Fires, Floods, earthquakes and droughts. You note that these
are but natural phenomena.

Meaning of Vulnerability

On the other hand, we talk of vulnerability meaning there being a lack of capacity to deal with a
potential threat. The lack of capacity could range from lack of knowledge on hazard dynamics and
behavior, lack of resources to protect oneself or lack of technology.

Technically, then we can say that there is a disaster only and only when the two (hazard and
vulnerability) interact.

This means therefore, that a hazard on its own without vulnerability cannot result into a
disaster neither can vulnerability on its own without a hazard.

Let us now look at definitions of related terminologies.

Disaster Risk

We talk of disaster risk meaning the likelihood of a specific hazard occurring and its probable
consequences on people, property and environment: It is an exposure or chance of loss of lives, persons
injured, property damaged and economic activity disrupted: A probability that a disaster will occur

Risks are expressed as high risk, average risk, low risk or acceptable risk indicating the degree of
probability.

Elements at Risk

Elements at risk are all those elements that have the potential (depending on the level of vulnerability) of
being destroyed by hazards. These include the population, building and civil engineering works,
economic activities, public service, utilities and infrastructure, etc.

Risk Analysis

We talk of risk analysis which basically means the process of identifying important functions and assets
that are critical to community operations with a view to establish the probability of a disruption to those
functions and assets in order to prepare a plan with clear objectives and strategies to eliminate avoidable
risks and minimize impacts of unavoidable risks.

Risk Assessment
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Risk Assessment is basically scenario assessment aimed at contributing to future memory and creating an
understanding of what will happen when the outcome includes forecasts or estimates of community risks
including economic lose and potential causalities or assessments of the impact of secondary or
consequential hazards, such as the spread of fire or release of hazardous materials following an
earthquake.

Disaster Tolerance

Disaster tolerance defines an environment’s ability to withstand major disruptions to systems and related
processes.

Sustainable development

The term sustainable development is used to mean the promotion of sustainable livelihoods and their
protection and recovery during disasters and emergencies.

Sustainable development depends on two major factors: The first priority should be to ensure that people
have continued access to the basics of life. Secondly, resource development must be undertaken using
sound management practices which ensure that resources are not depleted faster than the earth’s ability to
replenish those particular resources.

Post Traumatic Stress Disorders

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, or PTSD, is psychiatric disorder that can occur following the experience or
witnessing of life-threatening events such as military combat, natural disasters, terrorist incidents, serious
accidents, or violent personal assaults like rape

Capacity Building

Capacity building refers to the development, fostering and support of resources and
relationships for monitoring, prevention and management of a phenomenon or phenomena at
individual, organizational, inter- organizational and systems levels

Coping Capacity is the manner in which people and organizations are able to use existing
resources to achieve various beneficial ends during unusual, abnormal and adverse conditions
of a disaster event or process.

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Disaster Emergency

This is an event that has a major impact on the communities and requires quick response using the
available resources.

Whenever it is probable or possible that an incident may escalate in severity to an emergency, the
emergency response team must be assembled.

Crisis

This is a situation that somehow challenges the public’s sense of preparedness, impacting on
the safety, security or integrity of the Government, community/organization.

Disaster Management

This is the continuous and integrated multi-sectoral, multi-disciplinary process of planning and
implementing measures aimed at preventing or reducing the risk to hazards, mitigating the
severity of hazards when they impact on vulnerability, emergency preparedness, rapid and
effective response to disasters and post- disaster recovery and rehabilitation

Disaster Prevention

Disaster prevention include all those activities aimed at lessening the negative impact of hazards on
elements at risk and at the same time putting in place response systems to efficiently and effectively
respond to emergencies

Disaster Mitigation

Mitigation means those structural and non-structural measures undertaken to limit the adverse impact of
natural hazards, environmental degradation and technological hazards.

Disaster Preparedness

Preparedness includes all those activities and measures taken in advance to ensure effective
response to the impact of disasters, including the issuance of timely and effective early
warnings and the temporary removal of people and property from a threatened location.
Public education and training; the focus of a disaster preparedness plan should be to
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anticipate, to the extent possible, the type of requirements needed for action or response to
warnings and a disaster relief operation.

Disaster recovery

By recovery we mean all those activities that are undertaken immediately after a disaster with
the aim of providing relief, returning the community to the pre-disaster period and strengthen
elements at risk in order to withstand future disasters.

Relief

This includes the provision of assistance and/or intervention during or immediately after a
disaster to meet the life preservation and basic subsistence needs of those people affected. It
can be of immediate, short-term or protracted duration.

Recovery

Decisions and actions taken after a disaster with a view to restoring the living conditions of
the stricken community, while encouraging and facilitating necessary adjustments to reduce
disaster risk.

Rehabilitation

Rehabilitation is the process of restoring the basic services necessary for the affected elements
at risk to return to pre-disaster condition.

Reconstruction

This is a complete reorganization thus introducing new modes of organizing the community
and reducing its vulnerability. For example, administrative reforms and altering systems of
livelihood

1.1.4 Hazard/disaster classification

After the above definitions of the commonly used terms in disaster management, it is now clear to you
that disasters occur only and only after an interaction between a hazard and vulnerability. This means

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therefore, that once we get to know the different types of hazards around us then we are able to predict
related disasters in case of vulnerability to those hazards.

Let us now look at the different hazards there are and their related disasters.

The major classifications of hazards/ disaster are:

1. Climate related disasters such as;

a) Floods: The first climate related hazard is flooding. A flood is excessive water flow
usually caused by heavy rain fall.

There are different types of floods such as:

i. Flash floods. Flash floods occur within a few hours after the beginning of heavy
rains. Flash floods may occur at downhill locations even when such places have
not received any rains. This is as a result of heavy rainfall up-hill and excess
water flows to plain areas downhill. In the equatorial region flash floods are
usually associated with;
· Heavy dark clouds
· Severe thunderstorms
· Tropical cyclones
· Localized Heavy rainfall (Episodic rainfall) of up to two hours
The following factors are major contributors to flash floods:
· Torrential down pour
· Dam failure
· River obstructions
· Blocked drainage systems
· Catchment degradation

ii. River /lake floods: These floods occur where water in the river or lake flows
into a flat area. The flatness of the area slows down the flow of the water making
it to spill to the area around the river.

On the other hand, where several rivers drain their waters into a lake, the water level in
that lake raises leading to a flood.

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 iii. Coastal floods: A coastal flood is caused by strong winds blowing to the
mainland. The situation is made worse when the ocean level rises during high
tides.
Factors that increase vulnerability to floods
Vulnerability to floods can be said to be caused by human being activities such as:
 Destroying forests. This leads to less water being held in the catchment areas
resulting to the excess water flowing rapidly to plains.
 Destroying vegetation like pasture. For example overgrazing of animals can
completely deplete pasture. This leads to increased surface water overflow and soil
erosion.
 Constructing houses and roads which cover a large area of land without
proper drainage system. When buildings and roads cover land, they replace
natural vegetation and end up reducing penetration of water into the ground.
 Lack of proper maintenance of the drainage system. When drainage systems are
not properly maintained, they become blocked by dust, debris and overgrown
vegetation.
 Blocking of rivers - is another contributing factor to flooding.
 Destruction of vegetation. This leads to increased surface water overflow and soil
erosion.
 Excess water in the rivers due to heavy rainfall or silt on the rivers can cause
flooding
 Damaged dykes can also cause flooding.
 Heavy storm (storm surge), high tide, a tsunami, or a combination thereof can
cause costal flooding.
Effects
In the event of a flood, everything within the flood plain is at risk of being destroyed
including:

 Flood plain settlers (people)

 Livestock– especially confined livestock

 Buildings

 Food stocks and standing crops

 Infrastructure such as sewer systems, power and water supplies, communication

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 systems, roads and bridges, railways and pipe lines
b) Droughts: The other climate related hazard is drought. A drought is when we go
for a long period without rainfall.

There are three major types of droughts namely:

i. Meteorological drought: A meteorological drought occurs when there is no

enough rainfall to meet domestic water needs.
ii. Agricultural drought: An agricultural drought occurs when there is not
enough water in the soil for a long time and as a result crops do not do well and
animals do not have enough grass to eat. When this drought begins, the agricultural
and livestock sectors are usually the first to be affected because of their dependency
on the water stored in the soils.
iii. Hydrological drought: A hydrological drought occurs when there is not
enough rainfall and as a result water in the rivers, streams, water reservoirs and lake
is not enough to meet people’s needs.

Effects
A drought leads to:
 Crop failure leading to poor harvest.

 Decline in aggregate food supply.

 Increased prices for basic foodstuffs.

 Hunger and famine

 Lack of water for both animals and human beings.

 Lack of pasture leading to loss of livestock.

 Large migration of people and animals.

 Reduced hydroelectric power production

 Lack of raw materials , drop in industrial production, lay down of workers and
loss of family income

 Lack of wood fuel

 Diseases related to lack of water and food.

c) Cyclone: In the list of climatic hazards, we also have cyclones. Cyclones are
huge revolving storms caused by winds blowing around a central area of flow
atmospheric pressure. (Atmospheric pressure is pressure at a particular place, caused
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 by the weight of earth’s pressure).

i. In the Northern hemisphere, cyclones are called hurricanes or typhoons and

their winds blow in an anti-clockwise circle.
ii. In the Southern hemisphere, these tropical storms are known as cyclones, whose
winds blow in a clockwise circle.
Causes
Cyclones develop over warm seas near the Equator. Air heated by the sun rises very
swiftly, which creates areas of very low pressure. As the warm air rises, it becomes
loaded with moisture which condenses into massive thunderclouds. Cool air rushes in
to fill the void that is left, but because of the constant turning of the Earth on its axis,
the air is bent inwards and then spirals upwards with great force. The swirling winds
rotate faster and faster, forming a huge circle which can be up to 2,000 km across. At
the centre of the storm is calm, cloudless area called the eye, where there is no rain,
and the winds are fairly light.
When warm air rises from the seas and condenses into clouds, massive amounts of heat
are released. The result of this mixture of heat and moisture is often a collection of
thunderstorms, from which a tropical storm can develop.
The trigger of most Atlantic hurricanes is an easterly wave, a band of low pressure
moving westwards, which may have begun as an African thunderstorm. Vigorous
thunderstorms and high winds combine to create a cluster of thunderstorms which can
become the seedling for a tropical storm.
Typhoons in the Far East and Cyclones in the Indian Ocean often develop from a
thunderstorm in the equatorial trough.
Long after a cyclone has passed, road and rail transport can still be blocked by
floodwaters, safe lighting of homes and proper refrigeration of food may be impossible
because of failing power supplies. Water often becomes contaminated from dead
animals or rotting food, and people are threatened with diseases like gastroenteritis.

Effects
Cyclones create several dangers for people living around tropical areas. The most
destructive force of a cyclone comes from the fierce winds. These winds are strong
enough to easily topple fences, sheds, trees, power poles and caravans, while hurling
helpless people through the air. Many people are killed when the cyclone's winds
cause buildings to collapse and houses to completely blow away.
A cyclone typically churns up the sea, causing giant waves and surges of water known
as storm surges. The water of a storm surge rushes inland with deadly power, flooding
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 low-lying coastal areas. The rains from cyclones are also heavy enough to cause
serious flooding, especially along river areas.

2. Geological hazards/disasters such as:

a) Earthquakes: An earthquake is a shaking of the ground caused by the sudden breaking

and movement of large sections (tectonic plates) of the earth's rocky outermost crust.
Most earthquakes occur along the fault lines when the plates slide past each other or
collide against each other.

Causes
The earth's outer layer or crust is broken into pieces called tectonic plates which are
constantly moving towards, away from or past each other. An earthquake occurs when
the rocks break and move as a result of stress caused by plate movements. Most
earthquakes occur on the edge of plates, especially where one plate is forced under
another or past another.

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 The effects of an earthquake depend on factors such as the distance from the epicenter
and the local ground conditions. In general it can be said that for locations near the
epicenter, the following effects are evident:
b) T s u n a m i s : A
Magnitude (Richter scale) Description of Effect

Less than 3.4 Usually felt by only a few people near

the epicenter.

3.5 - 4.2 Felt by people who are indoors and

some outdoors; vibrations similar to a
passing truck.

4.3 - 4.8 Felt by many people; windows rattle,

dishes disturbed, standing cars rock

4.9 - 5.4 Felt by everyone; dishes break and

doors swing, unstable objects
overturn.

5.5 - 6.1 Some damage to buildings; plaster

cracks, bricks fall, chimneys damaged

6.2 - 6.9 Much building damage; houses move

on their foundations, chimneys fall,
furniture moves.

7.0 - 7.3 Serious damage to buildings; bridges

twist, walls fracture, many masonry
buildings collapse.

7.4 - 7.9 Causes great damage; most buildings

collapse.

Greater than 8.0 Causes extensive damage; waves seen

on the ground surface, objects thrown
into the air.

earthquake, landslides or volcanic eruptions.

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 c) Volcanic eruption: A volcano is an opening (or rupture) in the earth's surface
allowing hot, molten rock, ash and gases to escape from deep below the surface.
Involving the extrusion of rocks, it tends to form mountains or features like
mountains over a period of time.

Causes
Below the earth's crust, we have melted rock, a big mass of magma. Since the
magma is always building up pressure and the earth is always spinning, it
sometimes causes a crack in the earth. The two sides of the crack may shift. The
magma will burst through the crack. When magma comes out or erupts, it is called
lava. If this crack is in the ocean, an island can be created.

Effects
Explosive volcanic eruptions pose both short-term and long-term hazards. Lava
flows and this can wipe out the flanks of mountainsides. Volcanic ash can blanket
the landscape for miles, and ash clouds can disrupt aircraft travel. On longer term
scales, eruptions can inject massive quantities of ash into the atmosphere, greatly
reducing the solar heating of the earth and potentially interrupting the global food
supply for several years.

d) Landslides: The term landslide is used to describe a geological hazard involving

a variety of mass movement, landforms and processes involving down slope
transport of soil or rock or both under the influence of gravity.

Therefore, a landslide will include a wide range of mass movement such as:
i. Rock falls: A fall is a technical term used to describe a mass of rock or
other material falling or bouncing through the air downward.
ii. Mud slides: A mud slide is a falling off of mass of soil and/or weak rock
down sloppy hill.
iii. Rock topples: A rock topple is a technical term used to describe a rock slanting
forward because it had settled at an insecure angle, balancing itself on a pivotal
point. A topple may not involve much movement and it does not necessarily trigger
a rock fall or rockslide.

iv. Soil lateral spreads: Lateral spreads occur when large blocks of soil spread
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 out horizontally after fracturing off the original base as a result of softening
up. Lateral spreads generally occur on gentle slopes
v. A debris flow: A debris flow is a movement of water containing sand, silt
and lay particles and in some cases rocks and organic matter on a steep
gully.

Causes
Although gravity is one of the reasons for a landslide, there are other factors which
contribute or trigger off landslides. These factors include:
 Erosion caused by rivers, glaciers or ocean waves which create over steeped
slopes
 Heavy rains which weaken rock and soil slopes.
 Earthquakes Cause stress on the slopes which can make the slopes weak.
 Volcanic eruptions which produce loose ash deposits and debris flow can
enhance rainfall.
 Excess weight either from accumulation of rain or , stockpiles, or from man-
made structures which causes stress to weak slopes.
 Improper land use
 Clearing of vegetation
 Roads or railway line passing through a steep escarpment

Effects

 Property such as houses built on steep slopes and the lives of the people occupying
these houses are at risk in the event of a landslide.

 The entire infrastructure is at risk in the event of a landslide

3. Environment related hazards/ disasters such as:

a) Environmental pollution
b) Desertification
c) Deforestation
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 d) Pest infestation

4. Epidemics such as:

a) Water and/or food-borne diseases
b) Person – to person diseases (Contact and respiratory spread)
c) Vector – borne diseases and
d) Complications from wounds

5. Chemical/Industrial accidents

6. Hazards/disasters related to mass movements such as:

a) Riots
b) Panics
c) Mass hysteria
d) Mob justice

7. Wars and civil strife caused by:

a) Armed aggression
b) Insurgency
c) Terrorism and
d) Other actions leading to displacement of persons and refugees

1.1.5 Causes of vulnerability

One important question we ask ourselves in disaster management is whether disaster

victims had the ability to respond to events positively to make them avoid or lessen disaster
effects. In a way we are asking: How vulnerable are the communities that are hit by a
disaster?

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From the definitions above we have said that vulnerability is the long-term factors which
affect the ability of the victims to respond to events or which make them susceptible to
calamities.

For example, the vulnerability incase of a mudslide in an urban area may include many
long-term trends and factors (like overcrowding, sitting of homes on unstable land and use
of poor housing materials) which directly contribute to suffering caused by mudslide.

It could also be due to a factor like lack of government enforcement of building codes thus
affecting the victim’s ability to recover from any serious crisis.
Why are we concerned with vulnerability?
We are concerned with vulnerability because it precedes disasters, contribute to their
severity and impede effective disaster response. Thus, the reason why those involved with
disaster management should fully understand vulnerability. By doing so, they will gain
some understanding of why a disaster happened, its impact and why it affected a particular
group of people.

What causes vulnerability? (The Disaster Crunch Model)

The departure point of the Disaster crunch model is that a disaster happens when and only
when, a hazard impacts on vulnerability. So a natural phenomenon by itself is not a disaster
but an earthquake, or a flood, or a draught. Likewise, a community may be vulnerable to a
disaster for many years, yet without the trigger event there is no disaster. In this case, when
a hazard impacts on a people who are vulnerable to that hazard; then it becomes a disaster
with a wide scale loss of life and damage to property.

The argument here is that trigger events (the hazard) is often blamed for the disaster yet in
many situations the underlying cause is actually the unsafe conditions which made people
vulnerable.
However, a careful assessment often reveals that trigger events and the unsafe conditions
are not in isolation. They in turn are caused by dynamic pressures within the society.
The dynamic pressures include lack of local institutions e.g. health care and other social
services; lack of education and training; lack of ethical standards in public life; population
expansion; urbanization and deforestation.
Further assessment reveals that dynamic pressures are not the roots of the problem.
Beneath these pressures are what is called the underlying causes. These are the
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fundamentals and ideologies on which the society is built. These are the ones that cause
sections of the population to be unsafe and vulnerable. The underlying causes could be in
the form of limited access to resources; social systems (corruption); economic system;
weak institutions.
These underlying causes are by and large a contribution of man.
See Illustrations below.

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Source: Davis &Wall (1992:91-93)

Activity 1.1 1. Using your own words, define the following terms: Disaster, hazard, Vulnerability,
Disaster Risk, Elements at Risk, Risk Analysis, Risk Assessment, Disaster
Tolerance, Sustainable Development, Post Traumatic Stress Disorders, Capacity
Building, Disaster Emergency, Crisis, Disaster Management, Disaster
Prevention, Disaster Mitigation, Disaster Preparedness, Disaster Recovery,
Disaster Relief, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction.

2. Draw a comprehensive list of climatic, geological, Environmental, epidemics hazards,

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 wars and civil strife and those related to mass movements.

3. Define flooding and draw a distinction between flash floods, river/lake floods and coastal
floods.

4. Discuss those factors that increase vulnerability to flooding.

5. Explain the three major types of drought and discuss the effects of drought on society.

6. Explain what a cyclone is and draw a distinction between the Northern hemisphere
cyclones and those of the Southern Hemisphere.

7. Discuss in details the causes of cyclones and their effects.

8. Explain what an earthquake is and discuss both its causes and effect in its various
magnitudes (Richter scales).

9. Differentiate between a tsunami and a volcanic eruption and discuss both the cause and
effects of a volcanic eruption.

10. What is a landslide and what are the various types of landslides.

11. Discuss in details the causes and effects of landslides

12. Use the disaster crunch model to trace the root causes of vulnerability.

1.1.6 Summary In the just concluded lecture of module one we have:

 Defined the following commonly used terms in disaster management:

Disaster, hazard, Vulnerability, Disaster Risk, Elements at Risk, Risk
Analysis, Risk Assessment, Disaster Tolerance, Sustainable
Development, Post Traumatic Stress Disorders, Capacity Building,
Disaster Emergency, Crisis, Disaster Management, Disaster Prevention,
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 Disaster Mitigation, Disaster Preparedness, Disaster Recovery, Disaster
Relief, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction.

 Identified hazards/disasters in their various classifications.

 Defined flooding including flash floods, river/lake floods and coastal

floods.

 Discussed factors that increase vulnerability to floods.

 Identified three major types of droughts, and causes and effects of

droughts.

 Differentiated between Northern and southern hemisphere cyclones

 Discussed the causes and effects of cyclones

 Defined earthquakes and discussed both its causes and effects

 Drawn a distinction between a tsunami and a volcanic eruption.

 Discussed both the causes and effects of volcanic eruption.

 Identified various types of landslides

 Discussed both the causes and effects of landslides.

 Traced the progression of vulnerability.

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 1.1.7 Further  Chawla, P.S. 2008: Disaster: How to avoid Harm. New Delhi: Pearl
readings Books.pp:1-48

 Chawla, P.S. 2008: Natural Hazards and Disaster Management. New

Delhi: Pearl Books.pp;1-15

 Gupta, H.K. 2007: Disaster Management India: Universities Press

(India) Private Limited. pp; 1-19

 William L. Waugh, JR. 2005: Handbook of Disaster Management: An

introduction to Emergency Management. New Delhi: Crest Publishing
House.pp; 49-91

 Hilhorst, Dorothea and Bankof, Greg. 2006: “Mapping Vulnerability”

In Bankoff, Greg, Frerks, Georg and Hilhorst, Dorothea (Eds): Mapping
Vulnerability: Disasters. Development and people. London
Earthscan.pp; 1-10

 Davis, Ian and Wall, Michael (Eds.) 1992: Christian Perspectives on

disaster management Interchurch Relief and Development Alliance.
Middlesex; pp 89-105,

MODULE TWO – DISASTER RISK REDUCTION STRATEGIES

Unit one – Disaster risk reduction menu

2.1.0 Unit outline

1) Introduction
2) Objectives
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 3) Definition of risk
4) Perceptions of risk and risk assessment
5) Risk reduction

2.1.1 Introduction

Reducing risks has been the major concern of disaster managers. However, efforts to reduce risks
have been frustrated leading to increase of vulnerability by the elements at risk. Key to
successful risk reduction is clear knowledge on the perception of risk and well thought out plans
on risk reduction based on the perception. This unit aims at clarifying the different perceptions of
risk, guiding on how risks can be assed and steps to reducing risks.

2.1.2 Objectives At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

a) Explain in precise terms what risk is.

b) Understand clearly the different perspective from which risk is

perceived and the implications of these perceptions.

c) Familiar with the major steps in risk analysis.

d) Conversant with the major steps in reducing risks

2.1.3 Definition of risk

In lecture one we did define risk as the likelihood of a specific Hazard occurring and
its probable consequences for people , property and environment.

We also said that risk can be expressed as high risk, average risk, low risk or
23
 acceptable risk indicating the degree of probability. This means therefore that
between high and average risk, we are talking of risk that is not acceptable. On the
other hand low risk can be seen as risk that is acceptable.

Ideally speaking, all communities and individuals live with some risk from hazards.

When the risk is defined as acceptable, it means there is no urgent need for
government intervention or other agents’ intervention. When it is defined as
unacceptable, it means there is urgent need for small to massive intervention to
mitigate the threat to life and property.

The distinction between acceptable and unacceptable risks is important because in

public policy terms, the level of threat posed by a particular hazard should determine
its priority vis-à-vis other threats and problems.

2.1.4 Perception of risk and risk assessment

Perception of risk is simply the interpretation of risk in which we have three major
perceptions:

1) There are those who see risks as simply the act of God and therefore there is
nothing that can be done to change the situation.
2) And then there are those who see it as purely resulting from man’s actions. They
see risks as the interaction between human behaviour and natural environment.
These are the people who advocate for change of behaviour in order to reduce
risks.
3) Finally, there are those who are on denial of risk existence. This is the category
who will not seek for risk reduction solutions even when they are readily
available.

At the end of it all, the perception of risk plays a big role in shaping the coping strategies
to hazards, influencing mitigation measures and influencing decision-making on human
behavior.

Risk assessment

We all know that prevention is better than cure. Therefore, a detailed assessment of the
risks to the integrity of the community and its property, needs to be undertaken and

24
regularly reviewed as part of the provision of normal security functioning.

After risk assessment has been carried out, disaster recovery planning must be done as a
way of preparing for the very worst of consequences. Adequate preparation requires the
establishment of a reasonably detailed profile of the community and its demand priorities.
The information must be collected and kept up to date so that whatever happens, the
impact on the community is immediately known, together with the priorities for affecting
a response.

The first step followed is to identify risks. Risk identification is but a detailed
understanding of what events have occurred in the past and their effects. This can be
achieved by;

a) Developing catalogues on historic earthquakes, floods, landslides and other

disasters.
b) Develop date and the loss associated with such events.

Step two is that of analyzing risks along the following line.

a) Phenomenon process knowledge.
Here the focus is to explain the mechanisms that cause, create, generate or drive
the hazard phenomenon e.g. what causes earthquakes and what influences the
transmission of their energy through different states. This is underpinned by
information relating to the background climate, environmental, terrain, ecological
and geological aspects of the site that are relevant to hazard studied. This can be
done by hazard sciences e.g. geology.

Though there is little that can be done to eliminate or reduce the severity or
frequency of this phenomenon, a good understanding of what drives them enhances
our ability to forecast or predict their behavior. It is also important to establish and
understand of event probability.

b) Elements at risk and their vulnerability:

This is focused on developing an understanding of the vulnerability of a wide range
of the elements that are at risk within the community e.g. the buildings,
infrastructures and people. This research draws on disciplines as diverse as
geography, engineering, demography economics and psychology by looking at such
areas as;
25
 i. The setting - Climate, soils, vegetation, telecommunication, roads, etc.
ii. Shelter - Building both as homes and places of work.
iii. Sustenance - Water supply, sewage, power etc.
iv. Security -Measured in terms of health, wealth – availability of hospitals,
industries, commercial premises, agricultural land etc.
v. Society - Language, ethnicity, religion, nationality, education, cultural activities,
meeting places etc.

Step three is to provide estimates of community risks including economic loss and
potential causalities or assessments of the impact of secondary or consequential hazards,
such as the spread of fire or release of hazardous materials following an earthquake.

Step four is a comparison of the level of risks found during the assessment process with
previously established risk criteria, so that it can be judged whether the risk is acceptable
or not. The acceptability factor is central to the process of risk prioritization which is the
first step in the allocation of resources to risk mitigation.

2.1.5 Risk reduction

Overall, it can be said that strategies to reduce risk include:

1. A well maintained and appropriate information that is fundamental to risk
assessment.
2. Risk-based planning of settlement, development and key facilities (such as
hospitals).
3. Protection plans for key facilities and lifelines.
4. Cost-effective engineered defines levees (river flooding protection).
5. Appropriate and enforced building and planning codes.
6. Emergency management plans, resources and training based on risk
7. Widespread and ongoing community owners prepare based of risk history, scenario
analysis and an effective risk communication capability.
Activity 2.1

1. Use a suitable example to explain what disaster risk is.

2. Explain the perspectives from your community has been perceiving risk and discuss the
implications of these perspectives

3. Assume a disaster management positions for your country and do a detailed step by step
outline of how you would go about assessing risk.

26
 4. Discuss with examples how you would go about reducing risk in your community if you were
assigned that responsibility

2. 1.6 Summary In the just concluded lecture one of module two we have:

 Defined risk.

 Discussed the different perceptions of risk and their implications.

 Detailed an outline of risk assessment and

 Outlined the major steps in risk reduction.

27
2.1.7 Further readings  Talwar, Arun Kumar. 2009: Flood Disaster Management: New
Delhi, Common Wealth Publishers; pp 61-79

 Schneid, Thomas D. and Collins, Larry. 2000: Disaster Management

and Preparedness: London, Lewis Publisher; pp 1-4, 49-52

 Toigo W.Jon, Disaster Recovery Planning; Prentice Hall, New Jersey; pp 36-
37

 Wallace,Webber Lawrence, The Disaster Recovery Handbook; Prentice Hall-

India, New Delhi pp 29-68

Unit two – Building capacity in disaster management

2.2.0 Unit outline

28
 1) Introduction

2) Objectives

3) Meaning of capacity building

4) Actions for capacity building

2.2.1 Introduction

We can have the latest and greatest technology for disaster management, we can have the best
infrastructure to reduce risks but without the right people in the right places, there will be no
capacity for disaster management. So basically in capacity building, the focus should be on
people and their actions.

2.2.2 Objectives The objective of this section are to ensure that learners;

a) Are able to clarify what capacity building for disaster

management is.

b) Give a detailed account of the actions that need to be taken in

capacity building.

2.2.3 Meaning of capacity building

In module one we defined capacity building as the development, fostering and support of
resources and relationships for monitoring, prevention and management of a phenomenon or
phenomena at individual, organizational, inter- organizational and systems levels.

29
Therefore we can say that capacity building involves three major elements namely;

1. Human resource development: what this means is simply the recognition that
disasters are created by people (refer to the Disaster Crunch Model) and they are
managed by people. Therefore any attempt to manage disaster must aim at having
managers and the community has knowledge on how disasters occur and acquire
knowledge and skills on how to reduce vulnerability to hazards.
2. Organizationalize development: Meaning having functional structure and
systems to manage disasters.
3. Institutional development: Meaning using legal means to institutionalize the set
up systems with specific roles.

2.2.4 Actions for building capacity

1. Institutional development and enhance their capabilities through policy support. Specifically
disaster policy should make provisions for:

 Reviewing and formalizing the institutional mandates.

 Enhance good coordination among these institutions.

2. Develop the mandate. The key questions to be asked at this point are:

 Has the policy identified the institution to be the National Focal Point and its
collaborators?
 Does the policy provide for the development of the institutional mandates and
strengthening of their capacities?
 Does it provide for the reviewing and formalizing of the institutional mandates as need
may arise?

4. Train and transfer technology by;

• Establishing centers to provide appropriate knowledge and skills.
• Equipping the people with the relevant knowledge and skills
• Generating knowledge for action
• Availing relevant technology

5. Mobilize and organize the community.

There is a genuine need to enlist individuals, communities, private firms and nonprofit
organizations in disaster management. It is enough to provide training for those who wish to
be trained, technical assistance to those who ask, and financial support for those who need it.
Community members need to be empowered and connected with the rest of the DM systems.

30
 There concern has always been how to convince the community to get on board. The
following steps are recommended in mobilizing the community for disaster management:

• Creating discontent with the existing conditions of the

community.
There is needed to show the community members what they are and what they should be
if they managed disasters: That is clearly showing them the gap between the two
situations. This way they will be psychologically set to want to get out of the bad state
they are in into the good state. The showing of the gap will create common feelings of
importance for disaster management unless they know what they can be or what their
standard of living should be, they cannot aspire for the higher.

• Focusing discontent.
Discontent must be focused and channelled into organization of the community,
planning and taking action for satisfying their needs. What is meant here is that
discontent must be focused on something specific e.g. stop pollution, fire safety, road
safety etc in order for it to provide motivation for action.

• Widely sharing discontent

The discontent which initiates the community mobilization must be widely shared in
the community.

• Involving community leaders

In organizing communities the grassroots leaders must be involved – both formal (local
government administrators) and informal (opinion leaders and village elders). These
elders should be accepted by major subgroups of the village.

• Having goals and methods of high acceptability

In mobilizing the community the mobilizers must ensure that their methods are highly
acceptable – same as their development goals. Acceptability enhances participation
and ownership. To know whether there is acceptability one should seek to know the
opinion of the community members on the methods and goals.

• Creating effective and active lines of communication.

In community mobilization, there should be effective and active communication
between members themselves and between members and the organizers. All should
know what they are going to do and what is being done and what will be their plan.

• Development of community leadership

There should be arrangement to develop effective community leadership through
training and guidance.

31
 6. Setting a threshold or trigger fund by;
• Having a contingency fund
• Organizing for insurance of critical facilities
• Organizing with the local banks to give support

7. Allocation of national resources to disaster management

There has to be a system put in place to orient, organize, and enable for sound financial
management systems and operations to be able to produce, in a timely manner, accurate
and relevant financial information. Create effective and transparent resource management
systems to effectively and conveniently administer grants to enhance partners’ incident
response capabilities. At the same time engage the private sector to contribute to disaster
preparedness and loss reduction at the provincial, district and local levels.

8. Networking and collaboration by identifying partners, establishing networks and areas of

collaboration and keeping the networks alive. The following are key:
 Collaboratively establish standards for partners’ emergency management
capabilities (Nature of partner and roles).
 Enable regular and continuous assessment of DM systems and its partners’
capabilities to deal with both catastrophic and non-catastrophic hazards.
 Enhance partners’ capabilities by building on existing relationships,
partnerships, incentives, and mutual-aid programs.
 In coordination with partners, develop an integrated training, exercise, and
evaluation program to develop National Focal Point and its partners’
capabilities.
 Guide on the organization, management, and supporting efforts that target
specific, high priority response and recovery operations.
 Develop a single, uniform, after-action reporting process to capture lessons
learned.

Activity 2.2 1. Give details of what capacity building for disaster management entails

2. Assume the role of a disaster manager and outline the activities you would undertake to
build capacity for disaster management

32
2. 2.5 Summary In the just concluded lecture we have:

1. Defined capacity building

2. Outlined the activities to be undertaken in building capacity for disaster

management.

2.2.6 Further readings  Dahama O.P. 1986: Extension and Rural Welfare ,Ram Prasad and
Sons pp 22

 Schneid D Thomas, Collins Larry. 2000: Disaster Management and

Preparedness: London, Lewis Publishers. pp 43-87

 Chawla P.S. 2008: Natural Hazards and Disaster Management: New

Delhi Pearl Books pp 39-43

 Davis, Ian and Wall, Michael (Eds.) 1992: Christian Perspectives on

disaster management Interchurch Relief and Development Alliance.
Middlesex

33
 Unit three – Rehabilitation and reconstruction

2.3.0 Unit outline

1. Introduction

2. Objectives

3. Rehabilitation explained

4. Reconstruction explained

5. Determinants of rehabilitation and reconstruction

6. Justification for rehabilitation and reconstruction

2.3.1 Introduction

After a disaster has struck, there is always need for urgent rehabilitation; in which the affected
community must get back to its pre-disaster period. However, rehabilitation is not enough to
lessen vulnerability. There has to be efforts to strengthen the community in a way of proofing the
elements at risk. Rehabilitation and reconstruction depends on the effectiveness of response to
disasters and lessons learnt from the response apart from the willingness by response teams to
move beyond reactive to proactive management of disasters.

2.3.2 Objectives At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

a) Clarify what rehabilitation means

b) Clarify what reconstruction means

c) Give full details of the determinants of rehabilitation and

reconstruction.

d) Give a full justification for rehabilitation and reconstruction.

34
2.3.3 Rehabilitation explained
Specifically, rehabilitation refers to the actions taken soon after a disaster emergency to enable
basic services to resume functioning, assist disaster survivors restore basics such as repair
dwellings and community facilities, and facilitate the revival of economic activities (including
agriculture). Rehabilitation focuses on enabling the affected populations (families and local
communities) to resume more-or-less normal (pre-disaster) patterns of life.

Rehabilitation may be considered as a transitional phase between:

(i) Immediate relief and
(ii) More major, long-term reconstruction and the pursuit of ongoing development.

Below is an illustration of rehabilitation

Source: UNDP. DMTP (1993)

35
2.3.4 Reconstruction explained
Reconstruction basically aims at changing those conditions previously seen as contributing to
vulnerability.

This includes:
a) The permanent construction or replacement of severely damaged physical structures.
b) Full restoration of all services and local infrastructure and
c) The revitalization of the economy (including agriculture).

Reconstruction must be fully integrated into ongoing long-term development plans, taking
account of future disaster risks. It must also consider the possibilities of reducing those risks by
the incorporation of appropriate mitigation measures. Damaged structures and services may not
necessarily be restored to their previous form or locations. It may include the replacement of any
temporary arrangements established as a part of the emergency response or rehabilitation.

Below is an illustration of reconstruction.

Source: UNDP. DMTP (1993)

36
2.3.5 What determines rehabilitation and reconstruction?
You recall that in module one, we defined rehabilitation as the process of restoring the basic
services necessary for the affected elements at risk to return to pre-disaster condition and
reconstruction as a complete reorganization thus introducing new modes of organizing the
community and reducing its vulnerability. For example, administrative reforms and altering
systems of livelihood. How an organization, a country or community is going to carry out its
rehabilitation and reconstruction is highly determined by the nature of the disaster, degree of
the damage caused, the geographical location of the hazard, elements affected, emerging
secondary hazards, availability of resources and the level of political commitment.

Nature of the disaster

Rehabilitation and reconstruction is disaster specific: meaning, each disaster results in a specific
damage related to it and therefore, different from damages caused by other disasters. This in turn
dictates the planning for rehabilitation and reconstruction.

Degree of the damage caused

In the efforts to respond to disasters, the responders must be guided by the degree of damage
caused. It’s only this way that they can assemble the right response gear. But more so the
process of rehabilitation and reconstruction should be guided by the damage caused. Knowledge
on damage guides on the nature and amount of resources for rehabilitation and reconstruction.

The geographical location of the hazard

Site is important since specific elements are located in specific locales. The location of a hazard
and therefore, the geographical location where the disaster occurred is critical since knowledge
on the location guides the responders to get fast information on the elements that were affected
and therefore, the nature of recovery and reconstruction needed.

Elements affected.
Since rehabilitation and reconstruction involves recovery, repair and proofing of the elements
damaged, it is important that information on the elements affected by a disaster be availed
immediately. This will assist in the planning and resource allocation for rehabilitation and
reconstruction.

Emerging secondary hazards

After disasters, it is always advisable to anticipate secondary hazards and plan accordingly. For
example after an earthquake affecting buildings, planners should anticipate fire and plan
accordingly. Or after flooding, anticipate waterborne disease outbreak and plan accordingly.
Meaning therefore, that rehabilitation and reconstruction must address the secondary hazards too
to avoid chaos.

37
Availability of resources
Disaster recovery requires a good balancing between needs and resources. Needs assessment for
rehabilitation is very important to guide on the resources required. At the same time there is need
to allocated resources for reconstruction therefore, require knowledge on the type and amount of
reconstruction required to be undertaken.

Political commitment
The structure and organization for disaster management are dictated by the political system from
which policy is derived and programs are implemented (Political will). Unlike ordinary troubles,
disasters involve hardships and losses that are public rather than private. So there is need for a
public guideline/policy with integrated, consensual and systematic guidelines on how to deal
with disasters.
The political will has to be pegged on the only options available after a disaster i.e. modifying
the hazard as in cloud seeding; modifying vulnerability as in warning systems and spreading the
shock through insurance and taxation.

2.3.5 The justification for Rehabilitation and reconstruction.

Where disasters are inevitable and have occurred, their impact can be substantially reduced by
adequate preparation, early warning, and swift, decisive responses. Development of policies and
strategies that target the most vulnerable, provided that interventions are co-ordinate, and
sustained beyond the immediate emergency phase is key towards this end. Disaster Management
encompasses all aspects of planning for and responding to disasters.

Sudden disasters can lead to emergency: an unforeseen event that calls for immediate measures
to minimize its adverse consequences. Slow onset disasters result when the ability of people to
support themselves, and sustain their livelihoods, slowly diminishes over time. Such disasters
may also be aggravated by ecological, social, economic and political conditions.
So there is need to:
1. Create standby disaster management team.
Disasters can be terrifying and confusing for the victims. This leads to long term emotional
consequences both for the victims and works. So somebody has to be responsible for the
recovery somebody to plan and implement the recovery process since the onset, disaster
victims requires somebody in charge to assist them.

2. Enhancing community participation

Community participation must be recognized, harnessed and given power. This is so because
healing and recovery are more rapid if the community is fully involved from the beginning.

3. Maintaining the social link

Moving people away from others who share their experience may seem a good thing to do
after a disaster, especially if they have lost their houses, but in the long run is not wise
because they will take longer to recover emotionally than those who stayed with others who
were going through the same experience.
38
 4. Rebuilding broken structures & institutions
This is necessary especially for the development of children. Children develop best in
families and not in large institutions. So, for instance, it is best to use resources on finding,
training, supporting and paying foster parents rather than on building to house orphan
children.

This is the reason why it is maintained that for a successful rehabilitation and reconstruction,
helpers need to be pro-active: they need to take initiative. At the impact phase, people are in
shock and it is not until later that they realize they need help. Help may be to talk to one
individual, to join a group, to meet up with others who are victims. Helpers need to ‘reach out’ to
people and not wait to be asked for help. Some victims will need support for several years.

2. 3.6 Summary In the just concluded lecture one we have:

1. Clarified the difference between rehabilitation and reconstruction.

2. Highlighted the main factors that influence or determine rehabilitation

and reconstruction.

3. Given a justification for rehabilitation and reconstruction.

Activity 2.3 1. Use suitable local examples to illustrate the difference between rehabilitation and
reconstruction.

2. Using specific examples to discuss the various factors that influence disaster
rehabilitation and reconstruction.

3. Give a detailed justification for disaster rehabilitation and reconstruction.

39
 2.3.7 Further readings  Davis, Ian and Wall, Michael 1992 (Eds.) Christian Perspectives on
disaster management Interchurch Relief and Development Alliance.
Middlesex;pp25-36,

 Aysan, Yasemin and Davis, Ian 1993 Rehabilitation and

Reconstruction. UNDP, Disaster Management Training Programme.

Unit four – Vulnerability and capacity assessment

2.4.0 Unit outline

1. Introduction

2. Objectives

3. Meaning and objectives of Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment

4. Information to be included in VCA

5. Emergency assessment

6. Information to be included in emergency assessment

40
 2.4.1 Introduction

A successful vulnerability reduction and disaster recovery will only be possible with the help of
knowledge generated and elaborated on the possible hazards communities are exposed to and the
various levels of vulnerability by the elements at risk. Vulnerability and capacity Assessment is vital
in the development of the best and most appropriate information with which to reduce vulnerability to
specific hazards and their consequences.

2.4.2 Objectives At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

a) Clarify what Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment is and why

the assessment is done

b) Detail the information that is to be collected while doing a VCA

c) Draw a link between VCA and Emergency Assessment

d) Detail the information to be gathered at the different stages of an

emergency

2.4.3 Meaning and objectives of Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment (VCA)

It is a systematic investigation and identification of hazards involving their history, determining

vulnerability and probability, and evaluating the ability there is to respond to a disaster

Objectives

The main objectives for doing a VCA are;

1. Develop information to describe the hazards in a given area

2. Identify the existing capability to respond to a disaster
3. Put in place mechanisms to effectively respond to anticipated disasters

2.4.4 Information to be included in VCA

41
 1. Complete inventory of elements at risk, status of elements and the geographical location
of the element. In module one, we did identify elements at risk as all those elements that
have the potential (depending on the level of vulnerability) of being destroyed by
hazards. These include the population, building and civil engineering works, economic
activities, public service, utilities and infrastructure, etc. So the inventory of population
should include the number in different age categories, disabilities/able bodied, etc who
are in a given geographical location.

2. A complete inventory of hazards, their geographical locations, times when these hazards
impacted on vulnerability turning into disasters, their impact, and possibility of the same
disasters occurring again.

3. Detailed information matching hazards with vulnerability: that is where a hazard is

located, its possibility of impacting on vulnerability and different levels of vulnerability
by different elements at risk.

4. Details of the capacity there is to both reduce the levels of vulnerability and respond to
disasters in case they occur. In assessing capacity the following critical facilities should
be assessed in identifying capability
• Primary facilities
– Emergency Operations Center (EOC)
– Police and Fire departments
– Hospitals
– Key roads and bridges
– Stores of needed emergency supplies
– Evacuation routes
Secondary

• Schools
• Nursing homes
• Hotels
• Hostels
• Hazardous materials facilities
• Water treatment plants

The aim is to identify the capacity there is in these facilities to lessen vulnerability and handle
emergencies.

2.4.5 Emergency Assessment

Closely related to VCA is emergency assessment which is basically the process of determining
the impact which a hazard has had on a society, the needs and priorities for immediate
emergency measures to save and sustain the lives of survivors, the resources available and the
42
possibilities for facilitating and expediting longer-term recovery and development. As pointed
out above, VCA aims at both lessening vulnerability and enabling effective response to disasters.
Therefore, thorough VCA systems should be put in place to effectively respond to disasters.
Effectiveness in turn will highly depend on the assessment done after the impact as a way of
giving direction to response.

2.4.6 Information to be included in emergency assessment.

The specific information to be included in emergency assessment includes:

Warning Phase

1. Information detailing the extent to which affected populations are taking measures to
protect lives and facilities from expected hazard impact
2. Information on activate arrangements there are in the preparedness plan regarding the
implementation of assessment.
Emergency Phase

During the emergency phase there is need for information

1. Confirming the reported emergency and estimating the overall magnitude of the damage
2. Identifying, characterizing and quantifying “elements at risk” in the disaster
3. Defining and prioritizing the actions and resources needed to reduce immediate risks
4. Identifying local response capacity, including organizational, medical and logistic
resources
5. Detailing the anticipated future serious problems

Rehabilitation Phase

During the rehabilitation phase, information should center around;

1. Identification of the priorities of the affected people

2. Identification of the policies of the government with regard to post-disaster assistance
3. Estimates of the additional support required from national and international sources for
relief and recovery
4. The outcome and effectiveness of continuing relief and rehabilitation measures

Recovery Phase

During the recovery phase there is need for information on;

43
 1. Estimates of the damage caused to economically significant resources and its
implications for development policy
2. The impact of the disaster on current development programs
3. The new development opportunities created by the disaster

Activity 2.4

1. Explain what Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment is and why the assessment is
done.

2. Give a detailed account of the information to be collected while doing a

Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment.

3. Draw a link between Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment and Emergency

Assessment and give a detailed account of the information to be collected in the
different stages of Emergency Assessment.

2. 4.7 Summary In the just concluded lecture one we have:

1. Clarified what Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment is and the reason

why the assessment is done.

2. Given details of the information to be included in a Vulnerability and

Capacity Assessment report.

3. Indicated the link between Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment.

4. Given details of the information to be included in an Emergency

Assessment report.

2.4.8 Further readings  Hilhorst, Dorothea and Bankof, Greg. 2006: “Mapping Vulnerability”
44
 In Bankoff, Greg, Frerks, Georg and Hilhorst, Dorothea (Eds):
Mapping Vulnerability: Disasters. Development and people. London
Earthscan.pp; pp 1-9, 183-193

Unit five – Contingency planning

2.5.0 Unit outline

1. Introduction

2. Objectives

3. Meaning of contingency planning

4. Fundamental elements of contingency plans

5. Broad contingency plan guiding principles for social recovery

6. Things to remember about contingency plans

2.5.1 Introduction

A common myth about disaster management is that organizations can build perfect systems and
put in place perfect structures for all hazards all time at any place. The truth is that the last plan
an organization made to responding to disasters might lack the key element that is critical to
responding now. So when we are talking of contingency plans we mean dynamic and flexible
plans to address hazard dynamics. We are talking of plans that are continually assessed and
tested to ascertain that they are able at least to minimize that impact of hazards on vulnerability.

45
2.5.2 Objectives At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

a) Explain fully what a contingency plan is and the objectives for

contingency planning

b) Articulate the fundamental components of contingency plans

c) Explain the broad contingency guiding principles for social

recovery

d) Expound on key things to remember about contingency plans

2.5.3 Contingency plan explained

A contingency plan is a forward plan in which scenarios and objectives are agreed, managerial
and technical actions defined and potential response systems put in place in order to prevent or
better respond to an emergency. Contingency plans are there to provide all elements at risk with
a planned response to emergency situations that will protect the elements or /and lessen the
impact of a disaster on them. Thus the specific objectives for contingency action plans are to:

1) Pre-plan the coordination of necessary actions by the management, staff, users of the
space and the community members should there be an emergency.
2) Identify conditions which could lead to an emergency in a given space
3) Provide structures and necessary organization for timely notification of an emergency
and evacuation procedures (EWS)

2.5.4 Fundamental components of contingency plans

1. Detecting emergencies
One of the fundamental functions of contingency plans is to enable the detection of
emergencies. They should guide in forecasting and preparing in anticipation of potential
emergency conditions of each space with human activities. However, it should be noted
that the forecasting should be hazard specific. Meaning each detected or possible hazard
(e.g. fire, toxic compressed gasses, and terrorism e.t.c.) should have its unique
contingency plan. At the same time contingency plans should be site specific. Meaning
that hazards vary with sites and therefore there should be contingency plans fit for
different sites ( e.g. fire in a small building, fire in an industry, fire in a home e.t.c.).

46
 2. Reporting emergencies
Contingency plans should provide detailed information on how to report emergencies
should they occur. For example, whom to contact, numbers to call, steps to be taken to
protect oneself etc.

3. Emergency evacuation procedures

Every space where there is a human activity must have emergency escape procedures and
route assignment developed and displayed.
This should be a schematic (diagram) of the space (e.g. building) layout showing and
describing
a. Escape routes
b. Where to assemble at a pre-designated safe location

Note that special considerations must be given for evacuation of handicapped individuals.

2. Employees conducting critical functions

Employees must be designated and properly trained to carry out those critical processes and
operations during emergencies e.g.
– Switching off power
– Clearing escape routes
– Giving directions e.t.c.
–
3. Accounting for persons

There should be a system of accounting for all persons after emergency evacuation e.g. a roll
call at the designated safe area.

4. Contact persons for information about emergency

The plan should list the names, titles, department and phone number of individuals who may
be contacted for information about the plan.

2.5.5 Broad contingency plan guiding principles for social recovery

1) Creation of standby disaster management team.

Disasters can be terrifying and confusing for the victims. This leads to long term emotional
consequences both for the victims and works. So somebody has to be responsible for the
recovery somebody to plan and implement the recovery process since the onset, disaster victims
requires somebody in charge to assist them.

47
 2) Enhancing community participation
Community participation must be recognized, harnessed and given power. This is so because
healing and recovery are more rapid if the community is fully involved from the beginning.

3) Maintaining the social link

Moving people away from others who share their experience may seem a good thing to do after a
disaster, especially if they have lost their houses, but in the long run is not wise because they will
take longer to recover emotionally than those who stayed with others who were going through
the same experience.

4) Rebuilding broken structures & institutions

This is necessary especially for the development of children. Children develop best in families
and not in large institutions. So, for instance, it is best to use resources on finding, training,
supporting and paying foster parents rather than on building to house orphan children.

2.5.6 Things to remember about contingency planning

• It is a dynamic process, focused on preparation and flexibility.

• Should be integrated into on-going operational planning activities.

• Should be able to provide useful input to managers, programming staff and emergency
officers.

• Should be an integral part of all agencies preparedness activities.

Activity 2.5 1. Give a detailed explanation of what a contingency plan is and discuss the major objectives
for contingency planning.

2. Discuss the major contingency plan components you would consider if you were charged
with the responsibility of coming up with a contingency plan for your organization.

3. Discuss the guiding principles for social recovery.

4. What are the things you must remember about a contingency plan?

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 2. 5.7 Summary We have just come to the end of unit five of module 2 and in this lecture we:

1. Have given the meaning and objectives of contingency planning.

2. Discussed the fundamental components of contingency plans

3. Discussed the guiding principles for social recovery and

4. Highlighted on the major things to remember in contingency planning.

2.5.8 Further readings  Toigo W.Jon, Disaster Recovery Planning; Prentice Hall, New Jersey; pp

 Schneid, Thomas D. and Collins, Larry. 2000: Disaster Management

and Preparedness: London, Lewis Publisher; pp 43-46

 Wallace,Webber Lawrence, The Disaster Recovery Handbook; Prentice Hall-

India, New Delhi pp 3-27

 Talwar, Arun Kumar. 2009: Flood Disaster Management: New

Delhi, Common wealth publishers; pp 216-243

Unit six – Leadership and community mobilization in disaster management

2.6.0 Unit outline

1. Introduction
49
3 Objectives

4 Meaning of Community-Based disaster management

5 Meaning of community mobilization

6 Meaning of community participation

7 Ingredients of participation

8 Community leadership and motivation

9 Leadership approaches

10 Leadership and group formation

11 Common leadership problems

2.6.1 Introduction

Sound disaster management should stem from widespread community influence and where
members are involved in determining their priorities for addressing disaster related issues. There
is need therefore, for the community members to develop decision-making processes and to
commit to courses of action together. This will enable those who are entrusted with leadership
roles to act on the community’s behalf with confidence. Community involvement in disaster
management is about empowerment and true participation through communications, knowledge
exchange, decision-making, education, and the application of agreed upon courses of action.

Community involvement means the involvement of the community members in organizing

meetings and conducting searches within a community to identify problems, identify assets,
locate resources, analyze local power structures, assess human needs, and investigate other
concerns that comprise the community’s unique characteristics. Community involvement goes
beyond informing the community members of what is good and what is evil, it goes beyond
delivering services that a disaster manager think community members need to providing

50
opportunities to improve their social conditions in a sustainable way. It finally must empower the
community members to be able to solve their problems on their own.

2.6.2 Objectives At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

a) To clarify what community based disaster management,

community mobilization and community participation mean.

b) To guide on the process of empowering the community members

to participate in disaster management

c) Articulate the ingredients of community participation.

d) Explain who a community leader is and his/her qualifications.

e) Fully explain the major roles a community leader should play in

mobilizing and organizing community members.

f) To guide on motivating community members to participate.

g) Draw a distinction between different leadership approaches, the

reasons for adopting any one of them and the likely effects.

h) Guide on the process of group formation and maintenance.

i) Guide on common leadership problems and possible solutions.

2.6.3 Meaning of Community-Based disaster management

Community – based disaster management is a process in which community members take on the
responsibility of initiating and sustaining their own disaster management plans. It implies the use
of locally available resources, community’s full participation in decision making for planning,
organizing, implementing, monitoring and evaluation. This means therefore, that the community

51
members have to be mobilized first before they organize to participate in the management of
disasters.

2.6.4 Community mobilization

Community mobilization is the process of gearing the community into action. It is getting the
community vision into disaster preparedness and the community voice into disaster management.
Community mobilization must ensure community input into the preparedness plan at every level
and that the community is engaged fully at every stage, to express opinions and concerns.

The rationale for community mobilization is that for every disaster, usually the community is the
first responder. They provide manpower and material needs in the first 48 hours of disaster.
Therefore, there is need to develop a population that is alert, informed, aware and ready. It is
important to have agreed, coordinated arrangements for disaster prevention, preparedness,
response and recovery between disaster management organizations and the community.

2.6.5 Community participation

By community participation we mean a mutual learning experience involving the

community, their local resources, external agents, and outside resources. It means a
process of active involvement of the members of the community and their other resources
for their own good. The main objectives for involving the community in disaster
management include:

• To increase the development of broad community- based partnerships focused on dealing

with disasters.

• To increase public awareness of and support for disaster management at local level.

• To increase the capacity of diverse communities to deal with disasters

• To pool local resources for disaster mitigation, preparedness, prevention, response and
recovery

Obviously, the advantages for involving the community in disaster management include:

• It provides for rich sources of information from the community on types of hazards,
frequency of their occurrence and severity.

• This arrangement creates disaster awareness and preparedness among community

members through mutual sharing of information.
52
 • It enhances community bonding towards common goals.

• It enhances ownership of responsibilities and activities in disaster management.

• The arrangement ensure preparedness plan’s conformity with local values, beliefs, ideals
and expectations since the plans were done with the community involvement who ensures
they do not conflict with their values, beliefs, ideals and expectations

• It improves on early warning and response as the systems and information are familiar
with the community members.

• It provides for an opportunity for the community to give best advice on the system of
leadership to adopt

• It is a rich source of knowledge of existing local resources

2.6.6 Community Empowerment through participation

Empowerment will include obtaining the basic but inaccessible opportunities for the community
either directly or through the help of non-marginalized others who share their own access to
these opportunities. It also includes actively stopping attempts to deny those opportunities. On
the other hand, empowering can be through encouraging, and developing the skills for, self-
sufficiency, with a focus on eliminating the future need for charity or welfare in the individuals
of the group. The basic principles for community empowerment include:

• People are the primary ingredients of development including disaster management

• We must recognize people’s knowledge and expertise

• The total community is included

• People must feel empowered to control their own destinies

• People’s skills and abilities must be developed through participation

• The role of education and training is recognized

Ingredients of empowerment

A combination of the following capabilities makes empowerment possible;

 Having decision-making power of one’s own

53
  Having access to information and resources for taking proper decisions

 Having a range of options from which one can make choices

 Ability to exercise assertiveness in collective decision making

 Having positive thinking on the ability to make change.

 Ability to learn skills for improving one’s personal or group power.

 Ability to change others’ perceptions by democratic means.

 Involving in growth process and change that is never ending and self-initiating

 Increasing one’s positive self-image and overcoming stigma

2.6.7 Community Leadership and motivation

Who is a community leader and what is expected of him/her?

 A leader in community development is one who should be knowledgeable enough in the
following community areas:
 The roles of the groups and community members and agencies or institutions(role
taking and role playing)
 Beliefs and values that guide behavior of all ages in the community.
 Interests, needs, expectations, aspirations of community members.
 Economic and environmental conditions of community.
 A leader is the one who has the necessary skills for community development and
therefore he/she is expected to;
 Be gentle to people not one who coerces people to act.
 Be an effective speaker
 Be persuasive and not always commanding
 Be able to collect and use information
 Assist members to solve problems
 Organize members for tasks.
54
  One who is well behaved;
 Be honest
 Be committed
 Be a role model
 Be approachable
 Be hardworking

Responsibilities of a community leader

1. Facilitate decision making by the group
2. Encouraging members to contribute in skills, materials and suggestions
3. Make constructive criticism aiming at improving the groups.
4. Act on decisions made by the members
5. Resolve conflicts
6. Identify group decisions and activities and not individual decisions, through guided
co- ordination.

Motivation

Motivation can be defined as “the extent to which persistent effort is directed toward a goal”
(Campbell, Dunnette, Lawler &Weick).

Effort: The first aspect of motivation refers to the amount of effort being applied
to the job. This effort must be defined in relation to its appropriateness to
the objectives being pursued. One may, for example, apply tremendous
effort to inappropriate tasks that do not contribute to the achievement of
the stated goals.

Persistence: The second characteristic relates to the willingness of the individual to

stay with a task until it is complete. For example, an important task that
gets accomplished with effort but allows the person to rest on their laurels
for an extended period does not display persistence.
55
Direction: Is the effort directed towards the organization’s goals or related to the
individual’s self-interest? Direction is therefore measured in terms of how
persistent effort is applied in relation to the goals being pursued.

Goals: There are two different kinds of goals being pursued simultaneously.
They are individual goals and organizational goals which may produce
quite different results if they are not compatible.

2.6.8 Leadership approaches

Human motivation, conformity and compliance highly depend on approaches used for them to do
so. Community members also respond differently depending on the approach used to make them
do so. Community leaders have four major option in terms of approaches to make members of
the community conform, comply and to motivate them. The approaches are:
Dominating Leadership – gives no chance in decision-making.

Participative (involving) leadership – shares his/her power with members of the group. Allow
members to participate in decision-making.

Commanding leadership – The leader makes all the decisions and announces them to the group
members.

Passive leadership – A leader who has no influence.

Adopting a suitable approach

Depending on the prevailing circumstances, a community worker or leader may adopt any of the
four approaches. What therefore should be considered in adopting a leadership style is:

 The objectives of the group – what they want to accomplish

 How long the group has been in existence.

56
  The type of leader they are used to
 Skills and experiences of members

So that:
a) During emergencies, the commanding approach is the best to enforce compliance with
orders.
b) When there is need to appeal for community involvement, the participatory approach is
best.
c) Where members lack experience, the leader might be forced to use the dominating
approach.

The bottom line is that one has to know the implications of each of the approaches to be able to
know when they are best applied

57
 IMPLICATIONS OF LEADERSHIP APPROACH

TYPE REASONS FOR ADOPTING LIKELY EFFECTS

Dominating 1. Leader has a high opinion of 1. Conflicts

his/her abilities
Other members are resentful or
Antagonistic to the leader’s views and
suggestions.

2. Leader seeks personal power and 2. Discouragement

influence
Enthusiasm of others to Contribute is
lessened.

3. Encouraged by traditions and a 3. Dependency

group’s Insistence for this type of
leadership. Group tends to become dependent

Commanding 1. Emergency situations when 1. Conflict

something Needs to be done urgently.
Complaints and resentments

2. Members willing to do essential 2. Kills initiative

tasks they consider not beneficial to
them. No growth of initiative

3. Imposed leadership not accepted by 3. Non-participation

majority.
Passive disinterested followers.

Participative. 1. Leader has confidence in the ability 1. High participation and boost of
of members the group morale.

2. The need to build support 2. More contributions of views and

involvement and participation of feelings.
members

3. Need to build commitment 3. Shared satisfaction of opposition.

Success

4. Fear of blame incase of failure 4. Growth of group of members’

ability

5. Need to share roles and tasks. 5. Commitment and support

Improvement

6. Improve group members’ relations.

58
Passive. 1. Leaders’ lack self-confidence. 1. Group activities might lack.

2. Leader’s lack skills or experience 2. Infighting among aspiring leaders

3. Many strong group members 3. Decisions are not taken quickly

4. Leader lack interest

2.6.9 Leadership and group formation

The following steps are followed in the mobilization and organizing community groups to work:

Discover the groups.

In discovering the groups, the community leader needs to talk to group members, individually or
as groups. The leader needs to reach for the members and not wait for the members to reach for
him/her. The talking to members is meant for understanding;

i. Community needs that bring people together.

ii. Problems bothering most of the members
iii. Common interest e.g. sports, income generating activities, clubs etc.
iv. A task that need to be completed immediately.
v. Individual aspirations and expectations of benefits which members hope they will gain by
becoming members of the group.
vi. The proportion of people who share similar interest.
vii. The available resource and how they could be accessed.

Organize the members.

The second thing to do is to organize the members. This will include;

i. Calling the members to share views on the objectives of the group and agree on their
goals(what they want to accomplish). Arranging objectives in order of priority according
to what needs to be done immediately or effects most members.

59
 ii. Finding out individual’s interests and expectations and gauge how widely they are shared
by others.
iii. Finding out who is who; their potential and skills, their community roles and occupations
and what each can do to contribute to group.
iv. Helping members to organize themselves on how they will select leaders and assign roles
to individuals.
v. Helping members to decide on the activities they wish to be gauged in and the steps of
implementing those activities.
vi. Discussing the information, finances, materials, and assistance required as well as the
ways of obtaining the requirements.
vii. Distributing responsibilities (who will do what, how and when?)
viii. Deciding how and when to monitor the implementation of tasks to make sure they are
implemented as planned.

Maintaining and improving group spirits

This would include;

i. Involving every member in all discussions and activities.

ii. Sharing all the available information
iii. Encouraging open communication and giving of feedback
iv. Clearly explaining the common norms and acceptable standards behavior for the well
being of the group.
v. Agreeing on processes of decision making, resolving conflicts and solving problems.
vi. Building members morale and motivate members to participate in the activities.
vii. Encouraging members to identify with the group and feel they belong.(it is group or
activity not the leaders).
viii. Recognizing the potential skills and knowledge of members and their ability to contribute
these to help the group achieve its objectives.
ix. Paying attention to complaints and make attempts to deal with them, e.g. by giving
reassurances, explain facts sparing time to discuss issues with those involved
60
2.6.10 Common leadership problems

As community leader you need to know the common problems faced by groups in your area. The major
problems experienced in leading groups could be divided into three categories as shown in the table
below. Some suggestions are given on how the group and their leader could attempt to deal with the
problems.

PROBLEM SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS

a) Personal i. Accepting too many The leader could delegate or share responsibilities. He
responsibilities could identify potential leaders and train them to take over
problems of the some leaders responsibilities.
leader.
ii. His needs for status The leader should:
and recognition
 Consider what other people feel
 Accept other peoples’ capabilities and need for
status.
 Avoid showing off.
iii. Identifying with The leader should serve all groups equally and avoid
groups e.g. associating only with people who share his age, or status
denominations, classes beliefs or have characteristics similar to his/hers
economic,
education.

iv. Personal interests He/she should volunteer to serve the community without
e.g. gains or benefits such considering personal gains.
as promotion

v. Trying to be better He/she has to identify and accept capabilities of others

than others. and give them a chance to prove they can do.

b) Problems of members i. Competition for The over-eager members should be encouraged to give
attention
others a chance to participate

ii. Competition for Benefits should be distributed according to abilities and

benefits e.g Materials, contributions.
status, financial
The leader should train and encourage weak members to
utilize their potentialities.

iii. Social political Know the people you work with and understand the
influences.
External forces you work with. Find out who supports
wh
o.

Adopt a neutral position when two sides conflict.

Activity 2.6 1. Give detailed explanations of what the following terminologies mean;
61
 a) Community-based disaster management

b) Community mobilization

c) Community participation

2. Discuss the objectives of and the benefits for involving the community members in
disaster management.

3. Explain what community empowerment entails and discuss the main ingredients for
community empowerment.

4. Explain in details who a community leader is, his/her roles and what motivation entails.

5. Discuss the major community leadership approaches, the reasons for adopting any one of
them and the possible consequences for each approach

6. Assume the role of a community leader and give details of the steps you would follow in
forming and maintaining community groups.

7. Discuss the major leadership problems and give suggestions on how you would go about
overcoming these problems.

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2. 6.11 Summary In the just concluded lecture we have:

a) Clarified what community based disaster management, community

mobilization and community participation are.

b) Given details of community empowerment.

c) Discussed the ingredients of community participation.

d) Explained who a community leader is and his/her qualifications.

e) Explained the major roles a community leader should play in mobilizing

and organizing community members.

f) Given guidelines on motivating community members to participate.

g) Drawn a distinction between different leadership approaches, the reasons

for adopting any one of them and the likely effects.

h) Discussed the process of group formation and maintenance.

i) Discussed the common leadership problems and possible solutions to

these problems.

2.6.12 Further
readings

Unit seven – Disaster management and sustainable development

63
2.7.0 Unit outline

1. Introduction

3 Objectives

4 Meaning of sustainable development

5 Meaning of sustainable livelihood

6 Impact of disasters on development

7 Disasters and vulnerability

8 Disasters as opportunities for development

2.7.1 Introduction

Disaster management aims to reduce, or avoid the potential losses from hazards, assure prompt
and appropriate assistance to victims of disaster, and achieve rapid and effective recovery.

Therefore, a comprehensive disaster management includes the shaping of public policies and
plans that either modify the causes of disasters or mitigate their effects on people, property, and
infrastructure. This way, disaster management can contribute to reducing its negative impacts on
development activities thus facilitating the achievement of sustainable development.

Developmental considerations contribute to all aspects of the disaster management cycle. One of
the main goals of disaster management, and one of its strongest links with development, is the
promotion of sustainable livelihoods and their protection and recovery during disasters and
emergencies. Where this goal is achieved, people have a greater capacity to deal with disasters
and their recovery is more rapid and long lasting. In a development oriented disaster
management approach, the objectives are to reduce hazards, prevent disasters, and prepare for
emergencies.

64
2.7.2 Objectives It is expected that at the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

a) Clarify the terms sustainable development and sustainable

livelihood.

b) Specify the impact of disasters on development

c) Discuss the interplay between development and vulnerability

d) Explain fully the benefits derived from disasters

2.7.3 Sustainable development.

Sustainable development refers to a pattern of resource use that aims at meeting human needs
while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but in
the indefinite future. In other words, it is development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

The sustainable development concept is based on the assumption that communities need to
manage three types of capital namely; Economic, Social and Natural. These types of capital
may be non-substitutable and whose consumptions might be irreversible. For example natural
capital cannot necessarily be substituted by economic capital. On the other hand, while it is
possible to find ways to replace some natural resources, it is much more unlikely to replace eco-
system services, such as the protection provided by the ozone layer.

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two
key concepts:

65
 • The concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which
overriding priority should be given; and

• The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the
environment's ability to meet present and future needs."

2.7.4 Sustainable livelihood

Livelihood means “capabilities, assets and activities required to secure a living”. A livelihood is
sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses & shocks as well as maintain its
capabilities both now & in the future while at the same time not undermining the natural resource
base.

2.7.5 The impact of disasters on development

Disasters can significantly impede the effectiveness of development resource allocation. The
damage is done in many ways and the impacts can be as complex as the economy itself.
However, a broad picture of the mechanisms of disruption can be gained by reviewing four
categories of impact and using the review information to carry out mitigation measures.

• Loss of resources

There is need to do an interdisciplinary of all hazards review in orders to ascertain the

community resources that are likely to occur in case of a disaster. This information is meant
to guide on the mitigation measures to be put in places to minimize losses.

• Interruption of programs and switching of crucial resources to other, shorter-term needs

Disasters can seriously disrupt ongoing development programs, sometimes leading to

deviation of resources to respond to emergencies and address short term needs. As
development work is going on, there is need therefore to project those situations where
development work might be threatened with a view to coming up with contingency plans
including resources as a way of keeping development going on uninterrupted as well as
responding to emergencies.

• The negative impacts on investment climates

Development is about investments. However, stability in investments highly depends on

proper management of hazards and risks.

• Disruption of the non-formal sector

66
 It is a known fact that the informal sector has its share of contribution to development.
Unfortunately not all disaster management plans and activities are directed towards
protecting this sector from hazard thus making the informal sector vulnerable. It is
therefore, advisable that in all disaster management plans and activities the formal sector
should be fully accounted for.

2.7.6 Development and vulnerability

Development can either increase or decrease vulnerability. Underdevelopment predisposes a

population to the adverse consequences of natural and other hazards. At the same time, however,
the development process, itself, may increase vulnerability to disasters. Some of the
underdevelopment indicators that increase vulnerability include:

• Lack of resources

• Low or no education

• Lack of food

• Poor infrastructure

On the other hand, development programmes which mitigate against disaster are a sure way
of decreasing vulnerability. Mitigation can either be structural mitigation which includes
measures to reduce the economic and social impact of hazard agents and involve construction
programs such as dykes and dams (which have the potential of breaking and therefore
leading to flush floods) or non-structural mitigation which simply means coming up with
policies and practices to guide on land-use (which might lead to landlessness and
displacement).

2.7.7 Disaster as opportunities for development.

Disasters do provide an opportunity for development by:

• First, after disasters have struck there arises an opportunity to highlight particular areas of
vulnerability, for example where serious loss of life has occurred, or where the economic
damage is disproportionate to the strength of the impact. These in return can lead to the
directing of resources to the affected areas for mitigation.

• Second, international assistance given after disasters may partially compensate for
economic losses, and assist in reconstruction.

67
Activity 2.7 1. Give detailed meanings of sustainable development and sustainable livelihood

2. Discuss fully the impact of disasters on development

3. Discuss the interrelationship between vulnerability and development at the same time
clarifying the opportunities that are there in disasters.

2. 7.8 Summary In this lecture on disasters and sustainable development we have:

a) Clarified what sustainable development and sustainable livelihood mean.

b) Discussed the impact of disasters on development

c) Discussed the interplay between development and vulnerability.

d) Explained the benefits derived from disasters

2.7.9 Further readings RanadeS.Prabha,(2006), Natural Disasters Management and Preparedness;The

68
 Icfai University Press, Idia pp23-38.

69
 MODULE THREE - EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT

Unit one – Goals and principles of emergency management

3.1.0 Unit outline

1. Introduction

2. Objective

3. Meaning and classifications of emergencies

4. Meaning and guiding principles in emergency management

5. The roles and responsibilities of an emergency manager

3.1.1 Introduction

Where disasters are inevitable and have occurred, their impact can be substantially reduced by
adequate preparation, early warning, and swift, decisive responses. Development of policies and
strategies that target the most vulnerable, provided that interventions are co-ordinated and
sustained beyond the immediate emergency phase is key towards this end. Disaster Management
encompasses all aspects of planning for and responding to disasters.

3.1.2 Objectives It is expected that at the end of this lecture, you should:

a) Be able to articulate what an emergency is and do a classification

of emergencies.

b) Explain what emergency management entails

c) Be familiar with the principles that guide emergency management

d) Be able to articulate the roles and responsibilities of an

emergency manager

70
3.1.3: Meaning and classifications of emergencies

Meaning of Emergency

An emergency is any situation in which the life or well-being of a population will be threatened
unless immediate and appropriate action is taken, and which demands an extraordinary response
and exceptional measures.

Classification of emergencies

Emergency situations can be classified into two major categories namely:

1. Personal Emergencies which include;

 Serious assaults
 Armed offenders
 Bomb threat
 Death or serious injury
 Intruder
 Medical emergency
 Missing child
2. Physical Emergencies which include;

 Chemical spill
 Earthquake
 Fire
 Flooding
 Gas leak
 Power failure
 Storm
 Volcanic eruption and ash fall

3.1.4 Meaning and guiding principles of emergency management

Meaning of emergency management

Emergency management can be defined as an organized analysis, planning, decision making and
assignment of resources to mitigate, prepare for respond to and recover from the effects of
hazards.

71
It can therefore be said that the major goals of emergency management are to save lives, prevent
injuries and protect property and environment.

Guiding Principles of emergency management

An overall emergency management requires among other things;

a) A well defined emergency management team and its roles

b) A well defined mechanism for staffing, notification and activation of emergency
operations.
c) Well developed timelines and flowcharts identifying the sequence of tasks.
All these must be guided by emergency principles as indicated below:

1. Evaluate EM measures to achieve the best in ensuring safety in a given location

From time to time – Where are we in EM and what is it we can do to improve the situation?

2. EM measures must be compatible with the protection of natural and cultural resources
e.g. Damming of a flooding river – are you going to interfere with the eco-system and deny
people their source of livelihood.

3. E M Measures (prior to the disaster event) for natural hazards must be compatible with E
M measures for technological hazards and vice versa

 Consider this
 Damming that will increasing the likelihood of bursting and killing people down
stream
 Not damming and letting the people die of flush floods
4. Emergency managers should be Non-partisan in all their operations
EM is about saving lives, preventing injuries and protecting property and environment
Regardless of age, race, gender, political affiliation, religious affiliation or economic
class.

3.1.4 Emergency manager roles and responsibilities

An emergency manager is expected to play the following specific roles:
1. Provide effective emergency planning and procedures to ensure the safety of
community members
2. Review the adequacy of the Emergency Response Plan annually
3. Ensure that the Plan is regularly tested (Drills)
4. Maintain contact with support groups
5. Participate in training exercises
6. Provide leadership during an emergency
7. Prepare policies for emergency management
72
 8. Develop and coordinate in-service training for staff
9. Arrange for the purchase, storage and maintenance of emergency supplies and
equipment
10. Develop disseminate and update emergency toolkit which will include
 Emergency management checklist
 Site maps
 Emergency contacts
 Assisting persons with special needs
 First aid
 Emergency information for visitors
 Evaluation of guidelines for emergency response
 Hazard specific response toolkit

Activity 3.1 1. Use a suitable example to illustrate what an emergency is and do a standard classification
of emergencies.

2. Explain what emergency management is and discuss in details the guiding principles of
emergency management.

3. Imagine you were an emergency manager for your organizations and discuss in details
what your roles would be.

3.1.5 Summary In this lecture on goals and principles of emergency management we have:

1. Explained and classified emergencies

2. Explained what emergency management entails and its aims.

3. Discussed the guiding principles of emergency management.

4. Explained the roles and responsibilities of an emergency manager.

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 3.1.6 Further readings 

Unit two – Disasters and public health

74
3.2.0 Unit outline

1. Preparedness and response for emergency health relief workers

2. The main Communicable Diseases
3. Factors influencing the Impact of communicable Diseases in an emergency
4. Characteristics of diseases of greatest concern in disasters
5. Impact of disaster on public health Infrastructure
6. Response to Prevention Interventions
7. Public Health and Disaster Preparedness
8. Prevention and Mitigation
9. Intervention cost, cost effectiveness and economic benefits

3.2.1 Introduction

Public health provides critical services to support clinical care activities in disasters and other
complex emergency situations. The goal of emergency health is to prevent epidemics and
improve deteriorating health conditions among the population affected. The highest priority
should be directed towards diseases that could potentially cause excess mortality and morbidity
due to the disaster.

Massive casualties that occur are because of the direct impact of the disaster mostly due to
drowning or severe trauma from debris in case of earthquakes. Numerous people are injured and
are in need of medical care or surgical attention from health facilities that are often unprepared,
damaged or destroyed, as was the case in Bam, Iran, in 2003. Many survivors may be displaced due to
damage or destruction of dwellings and massive disruption of infrastructure throughout the affected
region. Losses that occur may be in form of direct damage and indirect consequences of lives and
disabilities. The other loss is that of infrastructure and supplies and loss or disruption in the delivery of
health care, both curative and preventive.

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3.2.2 Objectives
It is expected that at the end of this lecture you should be able to:
 To provide an overview of issues relevant to preparedness and
response for emergency health relief workers
 To classify communicable diseases in relation to emergencies.
 To review characteristics of diseases of greatest concern in
disasters
 To understand the impacts of disaster on Public health and
medical responses concerning casualties, deceased, risks of
disease, shelter, water/sanitation, vector control, nutrition,
mental health, social disruption and other effects in different
phases.
 To understand the Interventions required from Response to
Prevention and preparedness.

3.2.3 Preparedness and response for emergency health relief workers

Epidemiology and surveillance concerns in Disaster Management

Disease surveillance systems must be established as soon as possible

There is need to identify key resources such as

 local physicians, nurses, health workers

 functioning health facilities such as hospitals/clinics

 medical supplies must be immediately available

 access to victims

 Roads, waterways, telecommunications, etc.

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Pre-impact epidemiologic information should include
o baseline (expected) frequencies and distributions of disease (incidence,
prevalence, and mortality)
o known risks

o immunization coverage

o awareness/education level in community

Remember to establish and distribute protocols on

o laboratory procedures
o case definitions

o case management

o frequency and method of reporting

o thresholds for every disease with epidemic potential above which a response must
be initiated (epidemic threshold)

Incase of need for rapid health assessments

o It should be conducted as soon as possible
o purpose is to assess immediate impact/health needs

o critical to directing timely decisions and planning

o rely on pre-impact information

 demographic, geographical, environmental, health facilities and services,

transportation routes, security

o information from key informants

o visual inspection of the affected area

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Rapid epidemiologic assessments
o planned and completed as soon as possible following initial assessments
o building on the information already acquired

o provide more detailed analysis of ongoing threats and facilitate monitoring of

response and recovery

o required additional resources and multiple skills and expertise

o a valuable tool that has been used in a number of post-disaster settings

Surveillance and assessment systems

o need to be tailored to whatever means available
o if there is widespread disruption and displacement, information networks should
include a variety of sources to be effective

o crucial to have the capacity to initiate field investigations immediately to verify

potential outbreaks

o laboratory protocols, case definitions, and case management protocols must be

agreed upon and distributed to all catchment areas

Frequency and method of reporting

o usually telephone alert system
o established as a matter of protocol at the outset

o should have necessary resources and personnel in place to ensure effective

monitoring

o establishment of thresholds for every disease with epidemic potential above

which a response must be initiated (epidemic threshold) should be established

Challenges in implementation
 must be understood and communicated to ensure effort will meet expectations
 considerations for planning/implementation
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 o compromises between what is collected and how it is to be analyzed

o competing priorities for same information

o limitations of resources

o lack of available information required to produce meaningful estimates

o lack of standardization of collection/reporting protocols

3.2.4 The main classification of Communicable Diseases

In emergencies, diseases are classified according to the way they are transmitted.
1. Diseases transmitted by contact
a. Scabies
b. Trachoma
c. Conjunctivitis
d. Mycosis
2. Sexually transmitted diseases
a. Gonorrhea
b. Syphilis
c. AIDS
3. Vector transmitted diseases
a. Malaria
b. Recurrent fevers
c. Trypanosomiasis
d. Yellow fever
e. Onchocerciasis
f. Schistosomiasis
4. Diseases transmitted through Fecal matter
a. Non specific diarrheal diseases
b. Cholera
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 c. Amoebiasis and gardiasis
d. Bacillary dysentery
e. Hepatitis
f. Typhoid
g. Ascariasis
h. Ancylostomiasis (hookworm disease)
5. Diseases transmitted through the air
a. Acute respiratory infections
b. Tuberculosis
c. Measles
d. Meningitis
e. Whooping cough

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3.2.5 Factors influencing the Impact of communicable Diseases in an emergency

The epidemics that develop in disaster situations are essentially a function of the large
concentrations of displaced people or refugees living together in camps where living conditions
are particularly hazardous. Natural disasters that do not entail mass population movements do not
increase epidemics. The risk factors are as follows:

1. Presence of the new pathogen Agent

Population migration may introduce a different strain from the one normally found in that
particular environment.

2. Susceptibility of the population

A population’s susceptibility to disease is reflected at two levels: the population’s immunity and
the individual’s immunity.

3. Increased population
Overcrowding and deterioration of hygiene conditions contribute to an increase to disease
transmission.

4. Deterioration of Health services

Deterioration of health service such as no vaccination given, vector control programs deteriorate
and little or no care is provided for the sick affects disease transmission.

Coping with communicable diseases in emergencies

 Natural Disease cycle as applied to communicable diseases
The classic model of the natural history of a disease comprises several stages:
a. Risk exposure factors
b. Population’s manifestations of the disease
c. Clinical manifestation of the disease
d. Progression of the disease

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 e. Return to a non diseased state
 Levels of intervention
a. Intervention at the source: this takes the control of the transmission by use of
physical, hygienic and chemical control methods.
b. Intervention to modify immune status: the pathogenic agent is targeted if an
effective vaccine exists and reinforcing the body’s natural defenses such as
maintaining a satisfactory nutritional status.
c. Intervention at the biological stages: This intervention is rather limited in
emergency situations
d. Intervention at the clinical stage: this is the most familiar level of intervention to
medical personnel.
e. Intervention in the aftermath of a disease: This when action is taken to
rehabilitate patients suffering after-effects of communicable diseases -for
example treatment of paralysis, or malnutrition.
 Intervention strategies: Such as environmental sanitation, feeding and nutrition and
therapeutic system to look after the sick individuals requiring outpatient or hospital
care. The intervention strategy can be oriented in the vertical approach (a health teams
takes charge of one particular disease) and the horizontal approach(a health teams takes
charge of a group of communicable diseases)

3.2.6 Characteristics of diseases of greatest concern in disasters

Disasters related to natural events may affect the transmission of preexisting infectious diseases.
Catastrophic incidences of infectious diseases seem to be confined to famine and conflicts that
have resulted in the total failure of the health system. In the short term, an increased number of
hospital visits and admissions from common diarrhoeal diseases, acute respiratory infections,
dermatitis and other causes should be expected following most disasters.

In the medium term, heavy rainfalls may affect the transmission of the vector borne diseases.
Following an initial reduction as mosquito-breeding sites wash away, residual waters may
contribute to an explosive rise in vector reservoir, which may led to epidemic recrudescence of
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malaria or dengue when the breakdown of the normal control programs occurs. Outbreaks of
leptospirosis and hepatitis A occurred in flooding conditions and have been reported in Latin
America and Africa.

The health sector bears a significant share of economic burden that may occur due to the delayed
impact on transmission and control of endemic diseases and the burden of disabilities
(amputation, burns or chronic delayed effects of chemical and radiological exposure. Disasters
must be seen in a systematic manner. What affects the economy will affect the health sector and
vise versa. (Natural disaster management pg 35-36)

Meningococcal meningitis

The most common bacterial pathogen causing epidemic meningitis in most countries is the
meningococcus, Neisseria meningitidis. Meningococcal meningitis is characterized by sudden
onset with fever, intense headache, stiff neck, occasional vomiting and irritability. A purpuric
rash is a feature of meningococcaemia. Epidemic meningitis has been recognized as serious
public health problem for almost 200 years. The main source of the infection is nasopharyngeal
carriers. The infection is usually transmitted from person to person in aerosols in crowded places.
Rural-to-urban migration and overcrowding in poorly designed and constructed buildings in
camps and slums can contribute to transmission. The disease can be treated effectively with
appropriate antimicrobial and, with rapid treatment; the case-fatality in an epidemic is usually
between 5% and 15%.

In emergency-affected populations, however, particularly in overcrowded situations, the

threshold for action is lower and the decision to implement a vaccination campaign must be
taken locally in consultation with the relevant authorities, such as WHO or the Ministry of
Health. Microbiological confirmation should be sought as a matter of urgency, but this should
not delay the start of a vaccination campaign.

Meningococcal meningitis A and C can be prevented by vaccination. The vaccine is effective

within 8-14 days. Some 90% of recipients over 18-24 months of age seroconvert and are

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protected against the disease. Vaccine-induced immunity lasts about 5 years in adults and older
children, while younger children are protected for approximately 2 years.

Water-borne diseases

Diarrhoeal diseases

Diarrhea can be a major contributor to overall morbidity and mortality in a disaster due to large-
scale disruption of infrastructure, compromised water quality, poor sanitation, massive
displacement of population into temporary crowded shelters, common sources of food and water
subject to cross contamination. In camp situations, diarrhoeal diseases have accounted for more
than 40% of deaths in the acute phase of the emergency. Over 80% of deaths are among children
under 2 years of age.

The prevention of diarrhoeal diseases depends on the provision and use of safe water, adequate
sanitation and health education and adequate water supply is essential to protect health and is
one of the highest priorities for camp planners. A supply of adequate quantities of water
(reasonably clean if possible) in emergency situations is more important than a supply of small
quantities of microbiologically pure water.

Cholera

Cholera spreads rapidly and there is high mortality across all age groups. Major global threat and
epidemic threat is constant in developing countries throughout the year. Recognition and
response is imperative during acute post-disaster phase to prevent epidemic emergence of
antibiotic-resistant strains of Vibrio cholera complicate efforts in some regions and should be
considered in preparedness planning.

Cholera is an acute bacterial enteric disease caused by the Gram-negative bacillus Vibrio
cholerae. Vibrio cholerae produces a powerful enterotoxin that causes profuse watery diarrhoea
by a secretory mechanism. Infection results from ingestion of organisms in food and water, or
directly from person to person by the faecal-oral route. Acute carriers, including those with
asymptomatic or mild disease, are important in the maintenance and transmission of cholera. It is
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asymptomatic in more than 90% of cases. Early detection of cholera is important to ensure
prompt treatment and reduction of environmental contamination.

In emergencies, systematic administration of antimicrobials is justified only for severe cases and
in situations where bed occupancy, patient turnover or stocks of intravenous fluids are expected
to reach critical levels in respect of case management capacity.

Dysentery

Bacillary dysentery is caused by Shigella. Fecal-oral transmission from contaminated food/water

is the main mode of transmission. One needs to suspect bacillary dysentery if bloody diarrhea is
present in the stool. There is need for particular concern (along with cholera) due to ease of
transmission, rapid spread is experienced in crowded conditions, and immediate life-threatening
conditions guidelines on managing outbreak available from dysentery.

The disease is most severe in young children, the elderly and the malnourished. Displaced
populations are at high risk in situations of overcrowding, poor sanitation and limited access to
safe water. In an outbreak, up to one-third of the population at risk may be infected.
Transmission occurs through contaminated food and water and from person to person. The
disease is highly contagious - the infective dose is only 10-100 organisms. Treatment is with
antimicrobials, which decrease the severity and reduce the duration of illness. Without prompt,
effective treatment, the case-fatality rate can be as high as 10%.

Acute Respiratory Infections

There is increased risk for pneumonia due to overcrowding, susceptibility, malnourishment and
poor ventilation in temporary shelters. Many acute infections involve upper respiratory system;
mild and self-limiting. Lower respiratory infections (bronchitis, pneumonia) are generally more
severe and require hospitalization. Acute respiratory infections account for up to 20% of all
deaths in children less than 5 years of age, with majority being due to pneumonia. This may
account for a major portion of overall morbidity depending on the region affected and

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Characteristics of displaced population and temporary dwellings. Early recognition and
management of acute respiratory infections are keys to avoiding an outbreak.

Measles

Measles remains a major cause of childhood mortality in developing countries. This disease is
one of the most serious health problems encountered in emergency situations and has been
reported as a leading cause of mortality in children in many recent emergencies. One of the
important risk factors for measles transmission is overcrowding.

Prevention of measles in emergency situations has two major components: routine vaccination
and measles outbreak response. The disease can be prevented by the administration of measles
vaccine. Some 95% of individuals vaccinated when over 9 months old gain lifelong immunity.

Mass vaccination is a priority in emergency situations where people are displaced, there is
disruption of normal services, there are crowded or unsanitary conditions and/or where there is
widespread malnutrition, regardless of whether a single case of measles has been reported or not.
A measles vaccination campaign should begin as soon as necessary when human resources,
vaccine, cold chain equipment and other supplies are available.

Measles vaccination should not be delayed until other vaccines become available or until cases
of measles have been reported (if cases are reported the campaign should begin within 72 hours
of the first report). Vaccination is also a priority in refugee populations from countries with high
vaccination rates, as studies have shown that large outbreaks of measles can occur even if
vaccine coverage exceeds 80%. It is important to remember that measles is a highly contagious
disease requiring 96% coverage for herd immunity to be established.

The emergency-affected population must be vaccinated during the first days of the emergency
and all new arrivals should be vaccinated. The target age group depends on the vaccine coverage
in the country of origin of the affected population. The optimal age group to vaccinate for
measles is 6 months through 14 years of age if possible, with a minimum acceptable age range of
6 months through 4 years of age. The target age group for vaccination must be chosen based on

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vaccine availability, funding, human resources and local measles epidemiology. A measles
control plan should be developed and implemented as rapidly as possible while ensuring high
quality in coverage, cold chain/ logistics, and vaccination safety. Children aged between 6 and 9
months should be revaccinated as soon as they reach 9 months of age.

Measles vaccination should be accompanied by vitamin A distribution in children aged 6

months to 5 years to decrease mortality and prevent complications.

The WHO / UNICEF global measles elimination strategy recommends that a second opportunity
for measles revaccination should be offered to all children from 9 months through 14 years, with
a minimum interval of one month between the 2 doses.

Tetanus

Tetanus occurs due to collapsing structures and falling debris. Earthquakes and tsunamis inflict
numerous crash injuries, fractures, and serious wounds. Tetanus is expected when immunization
coverage is low or non-existent. All those injured and non-immunized should receive prompt
surgical and medical care of contaminated open wound. Tetanus immunization and/or
immunoglobulin should be given depending on vaccination history and seriousness of the wound
infection.

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Vector-Borne diseases

The major biological vectors are mosquitoes, sand flies, triatomine bugs, tsetse flies, black flies,
ticks, fleas, lice, mites. Important carrier reservoirs or intermediary hosts are synanthropic flies,
snails and rodents.

The diseases most commonly spread by vectors are malaria, filariasis, dengue fever, yellow
fever, leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, sleeping sickness, oncho-cerciasis, borreliosis, typhus, and
plague. Major diseases transmitted by intermediate hosts or carriers are schistosomiasis,
diarrhoeal diseases and trachoma.

Malaria

Malaria is associated with serious public health emergencies with little warning. The likelihood
of epidemic is high when the disaster occurs in malaria-endemic area where public health
infrastructure is disrupted and highly vulnerable population exists. Malaria occurs usually 4-8
weeks after initial impact and may exit several weeks duration before peak occurs.

Effective control is possible in early stages if timely response in implementing control measures
is undertaken. Morbidity and mortality is reduced with early diagnosis and treatment. If
diagnosis is delayed, treatment is based solely on clinical history without demonstration of
parasites. The important considerations for planning include emergence of anti-malarial
resistance and increased transmission potential due to expanding range of vector habitats.

HIV/AIDS

Risk factors for increased HIV transmission in emergencies

In emergency situations, population movement often causes breakdown in family and social ties,
and erodes traditional values and coping strategies. This can result in higher-risk sexual
behaviour, which increases the risk of the spread of HIV.

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In high-incidence regions, refugees from areas where HIV is uncommon may find themselves
exposed to a higher HIV risk, which, together with little prior knowledge of HIV risks and
prevention, will increase their vulnerability to infection.

Groups with differing levels of HIV awareness, and differing rates of infection, are often placed
together in temporary locations such as refugee camps, where there is a greater than normal
potential for sexual contact. Without adequate medical services STIs, if left untreated in either
partner, greatly increase the risk of acquiring HIV.

Important materials for HIV prevention, particularly condoms, are likely to be lacking in an
emergency situation. Refugees and internally displaced persons are often physically and socially
powerless, with women and children in particular at risk of sexual coercion, abuse or rape.

Sexual violence carries a higher risk of infection because the person violated cannot protect
herself or himself from unsafe sex, and because the virus can be transmitted more easily if body
tissues are torn during violent sex.

Exchange of sexual favours for basic needs, such as money, shelter, security, etc., is common in
or around refugee camps, and inevitably involves both the refugee and the host community. Both
sex workers and clients are at risk of HIV infection if unprotected sex is practiced. In the typical
conditions of an emergency, it is highly likely that drug injectors will be sharing needles, a
practice that carries a very high risk of HIV transmission if one of the people sharing is infected.

Transfusion with HIV-infected blood is a highly efficient means of transmitting the virus. In
emergency situations, when regular transfusion services have broken down, it is particularly
difficult to ensure blood safety. Children in refugee settings may have little to occupy
themselves, which may lead them to experiment with sex earlier than children in other situations.

Awareness and life skills education, especially for young people, to ensure that all people are
well informed of what does and does not constitute a mode of transmission; of how and where to
acquire free condoms and medical attention if necessary; and of basic hygiene.

Tuberculosis
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Tuberculosis (TB) is a disease most commonly affecting the lungs, but also other organs. The
bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes it. The M. tuberculosis complex includes M.
tuberculosis and M. africanum, primarily from humans, and M. bovis, primarily from cattle.

M. tuberculosis and M. africanum are transmitted by exposure to the bacilli in airborne droplet
nuclei produced by people with pulmonary or laryngeal tuberculosis during expiratory efforts,
such as coughing and sneezing.

Bovine TB results from exposure to tuberculosis cattle, usually by ingestion of unpasteurized

milk or dairy products, and sometimes by airborne spread to farmers and animal handlers. The
incubation period is about 2-10 weeks; latent infections may persist throughout a person’s life.

In the acute phase of an emergency, when mortality rates are high owing to acute respiratory
infections, malnutrition, diarrhoeal diseases and malaria (where prevalent), TB control is not a
priority. A TB control program should not be implemented until crude mortality rates are below
1 per 10 000 population per day. It is crucial that there is some stability in the population, as all
patients commencing TB treatment must complete the full 6- or 8-month treatment course. If
there are high rates of treatment defaulters, there is a high risk of development of multi drug-
resistant TB.

Nevertheless, TB is a particularly important disease in long-term emergencies where refugees or

internally displaced persons are in camps or overcrowded communities for long periods. In these
conditions, people are at particularly high risk of developing TB owing to overcrowding,
malnutrition and high HIV seroprevalence. In Kenya in 1993, the incidence of new infectious TB
patients in camps was four times the rate in the local population. In two camps in Sudan in 1990,
over one-third of all adult deaths were due to TB.

The priority is the diagnosis and treatment of smear-positive infectious cases of TB. To ensure
the appropriate treatment and cure of TB patients, strict implementation of the DOTS strategy is
important.

3.2.7 Impact of disaster on public health Infrastructure

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Damage to housing, schools, channels of communication, industry, and so on contributes to the
health burden. However, the following analysis focuses on the health infrastructure such as
health care facilities including health centers, hospitals, laboratories and blood banks and
drinking water and sanitation infrastructure.

Damage to hospitals and Health Installations

In the past two decades, damage to approximately 260 hospitals and 2,600 health centers resulted
in interruption of services at direct cost of US$1.2 billion in Latin America and Caribbean. In
1985 earthquake in central Mexico, 5,829 beds were destroyed or evacuated, at a direct cost of
US$550 million. Hurricane Gilbert damaged 24 of the 26 hospitals in Jamaica, and the EL
Salvador earthquake resulted in the loss of 2,000 beds -40% of the country’s hospital capacity.

The health burden is therefore linked to the loss of medical care, control of communicable
diseases and other public health programs suffer from loss of laboratory support and diagnostic
capabilities of hospitals. Experience shows that damaged health infrastructure recovers at a
slower pace than infrastructure in other service sectors, such as trade, roads, telecommunication
and even housing. Two years after the earthquake of 2001 in El Salvador, several key hospitals
remained vacated or services transferred to unsuitable temporary facilities.

Damage to Water supply and Sewage systems

The primary goal of water and sewage systems is to safeguard the public health of the
population. For that reason, these systems are considered part of the health infrastructure. In the
past 30 years in Latin America and Caribbean alone, an estimated 400 urban water supply
systems and 1,300 rural systems (in addition to 25,000 wells and 120,000 latrines) were severely
damaged, at an estimated cost of almost US$ 1 billion a major setback of efforts to expand
coverage and improve those services.

In severe flooding, the sudden interruption of these basic services coincides with the direct effect
on the transmission of waterborne and vectorborne diseases. In the case of earthquakes, the
number of people who are adversely affected by water shortage may far exceed those injured or

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suffering direct material loss. The Water authorities should harmonise their short-tem objective,
which are oriented almost to increasing the coverage of these services, with the long-term
objectives of reducing vulnerability to extreme natural hazards. (Natural Disaster management
pg 39)

3.2.8 Response to Prevention Interventions

In a matter of weeks or days, the concerns of both population and authorities shift from search,
rescue and trauma care to the rehabilitation of infrastructure (temporary restoration of basic
services and reconstruction).

Response and Rehabilitation

Immediate emergency response is provided under highly political and emotional climate. The
international community, are eager to demonstrate its solidarity or to exercise its “right of
humanitarian intervention”, by taking its own relief on the basis of the belief that local health
services are unwilling or unable to respond. Donations of useless medical supplies and
medicines and the belated arrival of medical or fact-finding teams add to stress of local staff
members who may be personally affected by disaster. The responsibilities of the national and or
the local health authorities are significant in the following:

1. Assessment of the health situations

The country’s health Ministry is expected to assess the health situation. To influence the course
of humanitarian response, this assessment must be rapid and, therefore, simple, transparent in
collaboration with the main actors – nongovernmental organizations and donors, and technical
credibility. Immediately following the disaster, the in put of World Health Organization (WHO)
as a lead agency in health matters is activated to support in needs assessments.

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 2. Mass causality treatment

Hospital capacity may be considerably reduced by actual damage to the facility or often
unnecessary but hard to reverse evacuation following disasters. Triage of patients is required in
order to first treat those likely to benefit most, rather than the terminally injured or those whose
care can be delayed. Effectiveness of immediate care will depend on local preparedness before
the disaster, not on far away resources.

3. Strengthened Surveillance, Prevention and control of communicable diseases

Anticipated massive outbreaks generally do not occur because the surveillance, prevention and
control of communicable diseases are strengthened. Early warning requires flexible and simple
syndrome based monitoring in temporary settlements and health centers, with information
collected not only by the official health service but also by the medical humanitarian
organizations. There is need to work in consultation with NGO’s. In disaster situations, the key
is to quickly resume, strengthen and better monitor the routine control programs other than
resorting to new and expensive control measures. There is no need for hurriedly disposal of
corpses through mass burial or unceremoniously incineration. Strengthening national routine
immunization especially in temporary settlements is encouraged.

4. Environmental Health

Typical interventions in the aftermath of disasters include strengthening the monitoring and
surveillance of water quality, vector control, excreta disposal, solid waste management, health
education, and food safety. The first priority is to provide sufficient water; quality can be
addressed later. Sufficient water of low quality is better than very little water of high quality.
During the rapid assessment of a proposed site it is essential to protect existing water sources
from possible contamination.

Food shortages and malnutrition are common features of emergency situations. Ensuring that the
food and nutritional needs of an emergency-affected population are met is often the principal
component of the humanitarian response to an emergency. When the nutritional needs of a
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population are not met, this may result in protein-energy malnutrition and micronutrient
deficiencies such as iron-deficiency anaemia, pellagra, scurvy and vitamin A deficiency. There is
also a marked increase in the incidence of communicable diseases, especially among vulnerable
groups such as infants and young children, and these contribute further to the deterioration of
their nutritional status.

Solid waste, if not properly disposed of, acts as a breeding site for flies, cockroaches and rats. A
system for the safe storage, collection and disposal of waste must be implemented in the earliest
stages of an emergency. Consultation with the emergency-affected population is very important,
as they may already be motivated to carry out some of the necessary tasks without outside
intervention, and may also want to use their waste in a constructive way (e.g. in compost
production).

Health education and hygiene promotion efforts could target populations in shelters, temporary
camps collective kitchens or prepared food distribution centers

5. Transparent Management of Donations and supplies

The flow of assistance to the intended beneficiaries will be improved if donations and supplies
are managed in transparency during emergency. Unsolicited and often inappropriate medical
donations compete with valuable relief supplies for scarce logistical resources. Good governance
is critical, and effective logistics cannot be improvised following a disaster.

6. Coordination of the humanitarian health effort

Coordination of the humanitarian health is essential to maximize the benefits of the response
effort and ensure its compatibility with the public health development priorities of the affected
country. Effective coordination in the health sector must do the following:

 Be comprehensive and include all external health sector

 Be based on mutual respect rather than regulatory authority alone. Dialogue and
consultation are more effective than enforcement.

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  Benefit all parties, starting with the victims. It should aim to support and facilitate
the activities of other parties.

 Be evidence-based and transparent. Information is made to be shared and used,

not jealously guarded.

Coordination cannot be improvised in the aftermath of a disaster. Preparedness before the

occurrence of the hazard is essential

Standard Activities: Tools

 Rapid assessment of communicable disease problems in an emergency

 Immunization
o Indications for an immunization program
o Implementation of an immunization program
o Evaluation of an immunization program
 Chemoprophylaxis: It prevents the appearance of clinical symptoms, but not the biological
invasion. The appropriateness is limited by the following factors
o The right choice of drug
o Length of use of the drug
o The proper use of the drug
o The distribution of the drug
 Therapeutic Approaches
o Mass treatment
o Short treatment versus long treatment
 Health education

Health education is not limited to communicable diseases but it is useful lead-in. The community
must understand well the risk involved in communicable diseases. In emergencies, relief workers
rarely have much influence over the causes of the crisis.

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3.2.9. Public Health and Disaster Preparedness

Effective response by National health authorities should be available. Disaster preparedness is

primarily a matter of building institutional capacity and human resources, not one of investing
heavily in advanced technology and equipment. Building local coping capacity is one of the most
cost effective ways to improve the quality of the national response and the external interventions.

Disaster preparedness must involve the following:

 Identifying vulnerability to natural or other hazards. The health sector should seek
information and collaborate with other sectors and institutions that have the primary
responsibility for collecting and analyzing this information.
 Building simple and realistic health scenarios of possible and probable occurrence.
Building and sustaining a culture of fear based on unrealistic worse case scenarios
may serve the corporate interests of the disaster community but not the interests of the
public at large.

 Initiating a participative process among the main actors to develop a basic plan that
outlines the responsibilities of each actor in the health sector. The process of
identifying possible overlaps or gaps and building a consensus not the paper plan
itself is essential.

 Maintaining a close collaboration with these main actors. A good coordinator is one
who appreciates and adapts to the strengths and weaknesses of other institutions.

 Sensitising and training the first health responders and managers to face the special
challenges of responding to disasters. Participation of external actors (UN agencies,
donors or NGOs) in designing and implementing the training is critical. The
incorporation of disaster management in the academic curriculum of medical,
nursing, and public schools should complement the on-the-job training programs of
the ministry of health, UN agencies, and NGOs.

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3.2.10 Prevention and Mitigation

Prevention is better than cure is a slogan that was invented by the health sector but the sector has
been slow in to adopt the concept of preventing deaths and injuries from disasters through
mitigation of its own facilities. As is unfortunately often the case, political action is often
triggered only by a major disaster. The level of protection required for each health installation
must be negotiated:

 from life protection, which prevents an immediate structural collapse to permit the
evacuation of the people,
 to investment protection, which minimized the economic losses,

 to operational protection, which guarantees the suitability of services under any extreme
circumstances.

Reducing the physical vulnerability of infrastructure can take place in three different occasions:

 When reconstructing the infrastructure destroyed by a disaster. The risk awareness is high
at this time, political will is present and resources are available
 When planning new infrastructure. Reducing vulnerability is most cost effective and
political acceptance. Full resistance to any damage is prohibitively expensive.

 Strengthening of the existing facilities. Several developing countries to protect their most
critical health facilities have adopted this most expensive measure. In the earthquake in
Colombia in 1999, partial retrofitting of the main hospital is credited for saving the
installation. The cost was great.

Mitigation of Damage to Hospitals

Mitigation does not pretend to eliminate all possible damage from hazards but aims to ensure the
continuing operation of the health facility at a level previously defined by the health authority.

Hospital mitigation interventions fall into three categories:

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  Functional mitigation to ensure that the necessary supporting infrastructure services
permit continuing operation; water, electricity, road access, communication etc. Routine
maintenance is key here.
 Nonstructural mitigation to reduce losses and health injuries from failing or moving
objects. Measures include for example, proper anchoring of equipment for earthquakes

 Structural mitigation to ensure the safety of the structure itself and this includes columns,
beams and load bearing walls.

Mitigation of damage to water systems

Water supply systems are geographically extensive and thus are exposed to different types of
hazards. The search for technical solutions is more complex, given the diversity of the water
systems components and health authorities do not have jurisdiction over the construction or
operation of those services owned or administered by many local authorities.

Short disruption of water services may have serious and direct implications for health for
individuals, the operation of health services and the community at large through its impact on
business.

The health sector should therefore coordinate with the institutions in charge of construction and
operation of water services to promote reduction of the vulnerability of existing systems. The
health sector should also ensure that health aspects and mitigation of damage be included in the
regulatory framework and operating procedures of water and sanitation services.

Protection of water supply is feasible in developing countries. For example, the Costa Rican
Institute of Aqueducts and Sewage Systems reduced the vulnerability of one of the main
aqueducts of the country, the Orosi Aqueduct. Over 10 years, Costa Rica invested almost US$1.5
million in studies and reinforcements, an amount equivalent to 2.3 percent of the total cost of the
aqueduct. This investment would prevent a loss of nearly US$7.3 million in direct damage alone.

3.2.11 Intervention cost, cost effectiveness and economic benefits

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Emergency health interventions are more costly and less effective than time tested health
activities. Improvisation and rush inevitably come with a high price. The preferential use of
expatriate health professionals, the emergency procurement and airlifting of food, water and
supplies that often are available locally or that remain in storage for long periods of time and the
tendency to adopt dramatic measures contribute to making disaster relief one of the least cost
effective health activities.

Search and Rescue

Few developing countries have established the technical capacity to search for and attend to
victims trapped in confined spaces in the event of the collapse of multistory buildings. Industrial
nations routinely dispatch search and rescue (SAR) teams. Costs are high and effectiveness is
reduced by delayed arrival and quickly diminishing returns.

For example; following the 1988 earthquake in Armenia, in the former Soviet Union, the U.S.
SAR team extracted alive only two victims at a cost of over US$50,000. In Turkey in 1999,
relatives and neighbours salvaged 98 percent of the 50,000 people pulled alive from the rubble.
Therefore an alternative solution consist of investing the resources in building the capacity of
local and regional SAR teams as the only effective means in hours and training local hospitals to
dispatch their emergency medical services to the disaster site.

Field hospitals

The limited lifesaving usefulness of foreign field hospitals has been discouraged. Again, the
lessons learnt from the Ban earthquake are clear. The international community spent an
estimated US$10.5 million to dispatch approximately 10 mobile hospitals, 3 which arrived from
three to five days after the impact, long after the last casualty had been evacuated to other Iranian
provinces.

Local hospitals are marginalized and discredited for their lack of technology and sophistication
but must cope once the external facility leaves. The cost of mobilizing a mobile hospital for a
few weeks often exceeds US$1 million, funds that would be more productive in the construction

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and equipping of a simple but sturdy temporary facility. In the case of Bam, Iran, the cost of
rebuilding the entire primary and secondary health care facilities and teaching institutions was
estimated by the government of Iran to be US$10.75 million, an amount very similar to that
expended for the dispatch of field hospitals from the international community.

In-kind donations

Unsolicited donations of inappropriate medical supplies not only are of limited use, but also
often cause serious logistic, economic, and political problems in the recipient country. Recipient
countries collectively share part of the reasonability by not clearly indicating what they do not
want to receive and by not wanting to receive and by not speaking out once inappropriate items
arrive.

Disease prevention and control

Post disaster interventions in surveillance and control of communicable diseases should focus on
strengthening existing programs. Improvised mass immunizations instead of improved sanitation
and public awareness and vector control by aerial spraying or fogging instead of breeding site
reduction or waste disposal are just two examples of wasteful managerial decisions.

Shelter

Family size tents may be expensive and do not last long, while establishing large settlements is
easy but difficult to sustain and nearly impossible to terminate. They come with their own
sanitation problems and social shortcomings such as lack of privacy, loss of family identity and
loss of empowerment. Distributing construction materials is more cost effective and tailored to
the needs and priorities of end users.

Cash assistance

The immediate lifesaving needs can be addressed only locally with exiting resources and
capacity. No cash contribution will meet those immediate other needs. Although the social
benefits of prevention and risk management are more evident in the health sector than in others,
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further studies are needed to provide decision makers with quantified parameters of the
economic benefits brought about by investment in risk management and disaster reduction.

Resource Mobilization

Funding for preparedness and response programs follows rules and procedures that are distinct
from those applicable to development projects. From a ministry of health point of view,
competition for disaster resources is with other sectors or humanitarian organization, not within
the sector as it would be, for instance with Malaria or tuberculosis control projects.

Funding for preparedness

“By strengthening our public health planning for natural disasters and disease outbreaks, we will
be in a better position to care for our populations, regardless of the type of hazard that confronts
our health departments”. This message, addressed to the public health community in the United
States, is even more pertinent for developing countries. The capacity of the ministries of health
to secure directly non-reimbursable funding depends on the following:

 The existence of an established disaster program within the ministry, demonstrating a

long-term commitment to health disaster preparedness.
 An ongoing dialogue with local representatives of donors and their prior involvement in
disaster-related activities or meetings of the health sector

 A realistic projection of concrete activities, taking into consideration the efforts of

others, especially NGOs.

 Technical endorsement and support of WHO and other UN agencies.

Resources for emergency Response

Funding is channeled mostly through humanitarian NGOs, the Red Cross systems, or multilateral
organizations, rather than through national governments. The priority of health authorities is to

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identify the health needs that are to be covered adequately by those agencies benefiting from
donations.

Funding for reconstruction

This is multisectoral and is often coordinated by international funding institution (global or

regional), together with consortium of large donor countries. The health sector will commit with
other social priorities and the productive sectors in an arena where the health burden does not
carry the same weight as economic factors.

Funding for mitigation of damage

Protecting the national capital investment of the health sector is primarily the responsibility of
the country at risk. The health sector will benefit from close contacts with financial institutions,
the ministry of foreign affairs and other national ministries (Natural disaster management page
48 to 50)

Health education and community participation

Health education and community participation in interventions play a key role in communicable
disease prevention and control.

Some areas where health education and community participation can be beneficial:

 Improving recognition of severe disease by the population

 Improving health-seeking behaviour

 Promotion of early and appropriate use of ORS in treatment of diarrhoeal disease

 Promotion of vector control programmes e.g. use of ITNs

 Promotion of hygiene/hand-washing for prevention of diarrhoeal disease

 Promotion of safe water use and storage

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  Promotion of appropriate sanitation

 Promotion of environment management to prevent degradation and vector reproduction

 Active case finding in outbreaks

 Communicable disease surveillance system

 Data collection for mortality and population statistics

 Community mobilization for vaccination campaigns/vaccination

Principles of effective community participation in complex emergencies:

Have knowledge of displaced or refugee, and host population communities:

- social structure,
- vulnerable groups,

- members of formal organizations,

- members of semi-formal organizations such as schools, faith-based organizations,

social organizations,

- community leaders or spokespeople,

- family/kin networks,

- roles within community,

- customs and practices, e.g. belief against giving water to sick children (use of
colouring to make water look like medicine to render it culturally acceptable), use
of chaddars as top-sheets for sleeping (can impregnate with permethrin for
prevention of mosquito bites).

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  Identify community concerns and priorities.

 Use community members to collect data.

 Involve community in implementation of activities, e.g. surveillance of deaths, case-

finding, health education, sanitation and environmental improvement.

 Ensure effective communication between population, host communities, government and

agencies involved in response.

Volunteer collaboration

Volunteers should be from the community in which they work, even in emergencies. They
should work with their elders, leaders and local health staff (health workers and traditional birth
attendants). Volunteers should know the traditional beliefs about diseases and know what
priority health problems the community wants to solve. They should also know what other
groups are doing in their community about priority health problems, know the families, and visit
them regularly to provide key messages.

Volunteers are part-time and need to reorganize themselves in order to accomplish their
designated tasks. Community action where groups of volunteers work at the same time

1. Identify Key steps in the planning of a vaccination campaign is an emergency

Activity 3.2 situation

2. Define the Key components in the prevention of diarrhoeal diseases

3. Diseases spread by mosquitoes like malaria and their treatment and prevention

4. Define the process proposed to begin health education in the context of

communicable disease

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3.2.12 Summary Public health provides critical services to support clinical care activities in
disasters and other complex emergencies. This series is a timely review of issues
relevant to preparation, response, and successful completion of the challenging
missions associated with public health disaster relief.

The goal of a public health response to disasters is to respond rapidly, minimize

the impact on health, and facilitate activities that can be sustained throughout the
recovery period. While numerous resources and personnel in response to a large
scale disaster come from international aid organizations and volunteers, it is
important to note that immediately following a sudden disaster such as a tsunami
or earthquake, most lives are saved by the courage and resourcefulness of friends
and neighbors.

Preparedness efforts need to take into account the capacity of community

resilience and develop ways to strengthen the ability to recover from the full
spectrum of the adversities and build on this to ensure a return to an even better
life than before.

Immediate concern is rapid detection and response to address existing health

needs and prevent epidemics. Factors that also play key roles in controlling
communicable diseases in disaster setting:
 Provision of clean water
 Adequate sanitation
 Health education
 Vector control
 Adequate nutrition
 Adequate personal hygiene

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  Vaccinations
 Proper placement of shelters

Emergency response is aimed at mitigating adverse health effects. To do this one

requires;
 Multidisciplinary approach employing a broad range of expertise
 Identification and attention to those in need of immediate threat
 Multidisciplinary effort forms framework for recovery
 Requires ongoing preparedness planning, education, and training efforts

Closing Comments

Resilience of the local people is a key asset in recovering from all adversities –
physical, social, and economic
Efforts should be made to strengthen community resilience in order to ensure a
better future for those affected

Goal: Translate lessons learned into better preparedness, response, and recovery
for the next disaster certain to follow.

Prevention/Control Measures:

Cholera, Hepatitis A and Typhoid: hand washing, proper handling of

water/food and sewage disposal; vaccination for Hep A
Malaria: mosquito control, insecticide-treated nets, bedding, clothing
Dengue, Yellow fever: mosquito control, Isolation of cases, mass vaccination
Pneumonia: isolation; proper nutrition; if cause is Streptococcus, polyvalent
vaccine to high risk populations
Measles: rapid mass vaccination within 72 hours of initial case report (priority
to high risk groups if limited supply); Vitamin A in children 6 months to 5 years
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 of age to prevent complications and reduce mortality
Meningitis: rapid mass vaccination
Tetanus: thorough wound cleaning, tetanus vaccine

Surveillance and assessment systems need to be tailored to whatever means are

available during the immediate post-impact period and evolve to more and more
sophistication and coverage as infrastructure and resources improve.

Information networks should include a variety of sources ranging from

communications with local health providers to rumors from untrained observers
in order to be effective. The capacity to initiate field investigations immediately
in order to verify all potential outbreaks is crucial.

3.2.13 Further 1. Perrin Pierre() Hand Book on War and Public Health pp 7 - 187
readings
2. Talwar A. Kumar,Juneja (2009) Natural Disaster Management
Common Wealth publishers pp 27 to 52,107-188

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Unit three – Incident Management (the case of fire) ***

Unit four – Building a disaster triage

3.4.0 Unit outline

2. Introduction

3. Objectives

4. Organizing surgical triage in the field

5. Rules of Surgical Triage

3.4.1 Introduction

When there is a flood of causalities, triage is the means of determining the order in which they
will be evacuated to the surgical unit and the order in which they will be operated on. In this
respect, two important points must be noted:

One, triage in the field must be carried out be experienced personnel, so that the real emergencies
are evacuated first.

Two pitfalls must be avoided here. First, no cases requiring emergency care should be delayed
(triage sensitivity). Second, non-urgent cases should not be evacuated, since they congest the
surgical unit (triage specificity).

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3.4.2 Objectives It is expected that at the end of this lecture, you should:

a) Be able to explain in details what a triage is.

b) Explain fully how disaster victims are sorted out for treatment.

c) Be able to observe the rules governing the building of a disaster

triage.

3.4.3 Organizing surgical triage in the field

Triage must be a continuous process

Initially, some of the wounded may be in stable condition, leading the triage team to postpone
their evacuation to the surgical unit in favor of more urgent cases may deteriorate, necessitating
their immediate evacuation.

Practically speaking, this means that:

 In the triage area, those casualties who have already been classified should be re-examined
periodically;
 In the hospital, those casualties initially set aside as not requiring immediate surgery should
also be re-examined regularly

There are a number of different methods for classifying the injured; the following system is
given here as an example.

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Group T1 Lightly injured, able to manage for them.

Lightly injured, requiring assessment and

Group T2
treatment which can be provided on the
sport or in the emergency room.

Injured requiring assessment and surgical

Group T3
intervention. They can be subdivided into:

 Priority 1: cases requiring resuscitation

and emergency treatment.
 Priority 2: cases requiring early surgery
 Priority 3: cases requiring less urgent
surgery
Wounded who will not survive their
Group T4
injuries.

Safety

The sport chosen to sort the injured in the field should be reasonably safe.

Human resources
Triage is above all a decision-making process which demands experience on the part of those
who assume this responsibility. The head of the team must not only be experienced, but must
also exert a moral authority over the rest of the team so that his or her decisions will not be
challenged. The decisions as to who does what should not be made in the field; all procedures
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and responsibilities should have been defined in advance in a contingency plan for receiving
large numbers of casualties.

Material resources

Material resources are usually commensurate with the skill level of the triage team. They also
depend on the remoteness of the scene of action and the conditions of evacuation (duration, types
of transport, etc) equipment should be ready in advance so that triage teams lose no time during
the emergency.

The injured should be 'labeled' with standardized cards which are prepared in advance and
familiar to all personnel, including the surgical unit.

Communication

The establishment of a reliable channel of communication between the sport where the first
triage is made and the surgical unit is indispensable in order to:

 Announce the arrival of casualties, their number, and the type of injuries;
 Find out how many casualties the hospital is unable to care for them. Where several
surgical units are available, the wounded can be channeled to one or another
according to the material capacities of each.

3.4.4. Rules of Surgical Triage

1. It must be carried out by competent and experienced personnel.
2. The most experienced person should be in complete control of the triage process.
3. Each member of the team should be responsible for a specific task.
4. Triage should conform to a system of categorization familiar to all the health-care personnel.
5. Triage is a continuous process; in the field, during evacuation, and at the hospital.
6. Measures should be taken to insure the safety of the wounded and the health-care personnel
carrying out the triage.

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 7. The establishment of radio communications between the field and the facility of referral is
essential to the success of the triage operation.

Activity 3.1 1. Justify why a triage should be continuous.

2. Identify the categories of the injured that should be located at different levels of a triage.

3. In practicing a triage what are the safety, human resources, material resources and
communications requirements that should be observed?

4. Discuss the rules to be observed during a triage.

3.4.5. Summary In this lecture on building a disaster triage we have:

1. Discussed in details the general considerations in disaster triage practice.

2. Identified the categories of victims to be included in different triage groups

3. Highlighted on the rules to be observed during a triage.

3.4.6 Further readings 1. Perrin Pierre Hand Book on War and Public Health
International Committee of Red Cross Geneva pp 7 - 187 ,227

2. Dr. Boer de Jan (…..) Order in Chaos Free University

Hospital Netherlands.

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Unit five – First Aid **

MODULE FOUR- DISASTER PREPAREDNESS

Unit one – Disaster management models

4.1.0 Unit outline

1. Introduction

2. Objective

3. The rationale of having a model

4. The emerging models

5. Centralization Vs. decentralization of management

6. Principles of developing a disaster management model

4.1.1. Introduction

Disaster management system is shaped by a range of social, economic, political and even

cultural factors. The structure and organization for disaster management are dictated by the
political system from which policy is derived and programs are implemented (Political will).
Unlike ordinary troubles, disasters involve hardships and losses that are public rather than
private. So there is need for a public guideline/policy with integrated, consensual and
systematic guidelines on how to deal with disasters. This means therefore, that there has to be
a mechanism in place institutional structures and linkages (both formal and informal) for the
operation of the disaster management system. These structures and linkages differ from
country to country depending on the political structures in place.

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4.1.2 Objectives It is expected that at the end of this lecture, you should:

a) Be able to justify the need for a disaster management model.

b) Explain fully the emerging the popular emerging models for

disaster management.

c) Be able to explain the disadvantages and advantages of either

centralizing or decentralizing of disaster management models.

d) Articulate the principles of developing a disaster management

model.

4.1.3 The rationale of having a model

The overall justification for having a disaster management models is to establish by law a
disaster management body/board. The aim is to have an institutional structure and institutional
linkages with a formal system of disaster management and to have necessary support for
operations e.g. preparedness plan or strategy.

4.1.4 The emerging models

The emerging national models for disaster management fall into four main categories:

1. Category one is where the national disaster management office (NDMO) is located in the
office of the Chief Executive.

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 2. Category two is where the National Disaster Management Office (NDMO) is located in a
line ministry.

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 3. Category three is where there is no single NDMO but certain ministries have their own
disaster units or departments.

4. Category four is where an independent Authority is established to manage disaster.

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 4.1.5 Centralization Vs. decentralization of management

The major concern to date is that of how centralized or decentralized disaster

management should be. While is fact that decentralization might result in cases where
there are grassroots organizations/institutions with no capacity and experience than their
central counterparts, it is also true that highly centralized system a source delays and
failures.
Considerations in this case should be whether a country or organization wants a disaster
management agency which is a “command-and-control type” of organization or a
coordinative organization. Though the command-and-control type is popular especially
where Incident Command Systems are preferred, there is an increasing trend towards
more coordinative roles given that authority and responsibility are often ambiguous in
disaster operations. All that matters here is that a disaster management system should be;
 Adaptable to a broad range of disasters and emergencies
 Adaptable to new technologies
 Adaptable to small and large disasters.
 Based on common structures, terminologies, and procedures.
 Implementable with minimal disruption to existing procedures
 Simple to learn, use, and maintain (Irwin 1989: 137)

4.1.6 Principles of developing a disaster management model

Development of a disaster management model should be based on the following
management principles:
 Agency Autonomy
To ensure that the system does not violate the jurisdictional responsibilities of individual
agencies
 Management by Objectives
To ensure that there is a clear set of realistic operational objectives and that they are
communicated to all involved.

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  Unit Integrity
To ensure that agency or unit personnel are kept together, so that accurate records can be
kept concerning work time and communication will be more effective
 Functional Clarity
To ensure that tasks are clear.
 Functional support
 Support is provided by;
1. An operations section responsible for implementing directives, tactical decision
making and adapting plans to circumstances.
2. A finance section responsible for record keeping and for managing the financial aspects
of the operations.
3. A logistics section responsible for assuring that necessary human and material
resources are secured and
4. A planning section responsible for monitoring resource status and developing strategies
and plans to achieve objectives.
 Flexibility of organizations
According to current management theory, organizations with unstable task environments
need to be much more flexible so that they can adapt to circumstances. Disasters, by their
very nature create an unstable work environment for the affected and emergency response
organizations. As a result, emergency plans are only rarely implemented without change.

To ensure flexibility systems set up for disaster management ought to be:

 More structurally fluid, developing ad hoc structures (e.g. Task groups) to

accomplish specific tasks.
 More organizationally flexible, assigning employees with complementary
knowledge, skills. And competencies to teams and task groups

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  Less hierarchical giving work groups greater autonomy and assigning leadership
responsibilities on the basis of specific technical skills or personality traits rather
than rank in the organization.
 More participative and consensus-based, encouraging open communications,
shared decision making, and nondirective leadership.

Activity 4. 1 1. Give the rationale of a disaster management model and discuss fully the emerging
models for disaster management.

2. Discuss the major considerations for either centralizing or decentralizing disaster

management systems.

3. Explain the management principles that should guide the setting up of a disaster
management model.

4. Discuss the major considerations to ensuring flexibility of disaster management systems.

4.1.7 Summary In the just ending lecture we have:

1. Justified the need for a disaster management model.

2. Discussed the emerging models for disaster management

3. Discussed the major considerations for either centralizing or

decentralizing disaster management systems.

4. Discussed the management principles that should guide the setting up of

disaster management models.

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4. Further readings

 Schneid, Thomas D. and Collins, Larry. 2000: Disaster Management

and Preparedness: London, Lewis Publisher; pp entire

 Ranade S. Prabha(ed) (2006): Natural Disasters Management and

Preparedness The Icfai University Press, Punjagutta pp 175-234

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Unit Two – Early Warning Systems

4.2.0. Unit outline

1. Meaning of Early Warning Systems

2. Factors making Early Warning Systems dynamic

3. The myth of a multi hazard Early Warning System

4. Users of Early Warning Systems

5. Making Early Warning Effective

4.2.1 Introduction

For timely surveillance and notification of an impending disaster, early warning systems are a
must. The purpose of the Early Warning System is to prepare for disaster by collecting
information on hazards, elements at risk and vulnerability. The systems enables disaster
managers to make timely interventions based on the information collected and at the same time
source for timely and relevant aid for interventions

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4.2.2. Objectives It is expected that at the end of this lecture, you should:

a) Be able to define Early warning systems

b) Explain fully the factors that make EWS dynamic.

c) Be able to clarify the myth surrounding an all hazard Early Warning

Systems.

d) Correctly identify the users of EWS

e) Explain fully the steps to making Early Warning Systems effective.

4.2.3 The formal UN definition of EWS

"The provision of timely and effective information, through identifying institutions,

that allow individuals exposed to a hazard to take action to avoid or reduce their risk
and prepare for effective response"

Consider these questions:

 How early is early?

 What constitutes a warning (monitoring, trend extrapolation, prediction, forecast)?

 What is meant by a system (formal, informal; quantitative)?

 What are the levels of warning (outlook, watch, warning, and alert)?

4.2.4 Factors that make EWS dynamic include:

 Different perspectives on what an early warning system is based on different

perspectives of hazards and levels of vulnerability

 Changing societal demands and expectation of EWSs over time

 Hazard characteristics that can change over time

 Imprecise and often conflicting uses of terminology related to EWS. For example,
while certain indicators observed by one person might suggest that a warning is
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 warranted, another person using different indicators might not believe that a warning is
warranted.

4.2.5 The myth of a multi hazard Early Warning System

It is not possible to have a multi hazard of a generic warning system because all
hazards are not the same.

This is so because there are six characteristics of hazards that affect one or more of the
basic components of a warning system

 Prediction

 Detection

 Certainty

 Lead time

 Duration

 Visibility

Predictability

Predictability relates to the ability to predict or forecast the impact of a hazard With
respect to magnitude, location, and timing

 How many elements of what kind will it affect?

 Where?

 When?

Detectability

 Detectability refers to the ability to confirm the prediction that impacts are going to
occur.

 How do we confirm that specific injuries will occur, specific damage will be
caused?

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Certainty

 Certainty is the level of confidence that predictions and detections will be accurate
and not result in false alarms.

 Accuracy will differ from hazard to hazard and community levels of vulnerability

CONSIDER THIS

How certain are we that there will be another drought in Kenya as compared to there
being a volcanic eruption next year?

Lead time

 Lead time is the amount of time between prediction/detection and the impact of the
hazard.

 The difference in hazards coupled with levels of vulnerability results in the hazards
having different lead times.

Duration of impact

 Duration of impact is the time between the beginning and ending of impacts in
which warning information can be disseminated.

 Think of the difference of duration of impact in the case of a flush flood as

compared to a drought leading to famine.

Visibility

 Visibility is the degree to which the hazard physically manifests itself so that it can
be seen or otherwise sensed.

 Compare seismological hazards with purely weather related hazards.

4.2.6 User of Early Warning Systems

 To start with we have the at-risk populations.

 Government officials that are responsible for responding to the warnings are other
users.

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  Then there are other EWS stakeholders who include organizations outside the
affected country such as;

 The international donor community that is called on to assist the affected

region with funds and expertise

 NGOs

 The private sector

4.2.7 Making Early Warning Systems effective

To be effective, early warning systems must be people-centered and must integrate four
elements;

(i) A knowledge of the risks faced

(ii) A technical monitoring and warning service

(iii) The dissemination of meaningful warnings to those at risk and

(iv) Public awareness and preparedness to act.

Failure in any one of these elements can mean failure of the whole early warning
system. Therefore, the minimum requirement for an effective EWS will include:

(vi) Continuity in operations:

An EWS must operate continually even in those cases where disasters are not regular So
long as there is a hazard and risk identified, EW must be issued.

(vii) Timely warnings

EWS must endeavor to provide enough lead time for those at risk to decide whether and
how to react.

(vi) Transparency

By this we mean EWS being open to the media and public as one of the ways to
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 minimize the potential for political influence on the various stages of early warning.

(vii) Human capacity

The success of EWS highly depends on the availability of appropriate staff with the
expertise commensurate to the hazard(s) of concern.

Activity 4.2 a) Explain what constitutes Early warning systems

b) Discuss with examples the factors that make EWS dynamic.

c) Explain in details why an all hazard Early Warning Systems is not possible.

d) Correctly identify the users of EWS and discuss the steps to making Early Warning
Systems effective.

4.2. 8 Summary In the lecture on Early Warning Systems we have:

a) Defined Early warning systems

b) Done a detailed discussion of the factors that make EWS dynamic.

c) Clarified why an all hazard Early Warning Systems can not work.

d) Identify the users of EWS

e) Discussed the steps to making Early Warning Systems effective.

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4.2.9 Further readings

Unit three – Counseling/Psychological care ***

Unit four– Disaster recovery

4.4.0 Unit outline

1. Introduction

2. The role of research in disaster recovery

3. Principles of disaster recovery

4.4.1 Introduction

In as much as we might mitigate and try to prevent disasters, they are bound to occur anyway.
One way to ensure continuity after disaster is to have recovery plans and resources to set
business going on after a disaster. This is the reason why recovery from disaster is always
considered an integral part of disaster management. Disaster recovery is the process, policies and
procedures related to preparing for recovery or continuation of technology infrastructure critical
to an organization after a disaster.

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4.4.2 Objectives It is expected that at the end of this lecture, you should:

a) Fully comprehend the role of research in disaster recovery.

b) Have full knowledge of the guiding principles in disaster recovery.

4.4.3 The role of research in disaster recovery

Disaster recovery initiatives need to be grounded in thorough knowledge of social organizations

and production systems.

1. First and foremost research information for disaster recovery initiatives should be available on
such issues as Social organizations and structures. This is so because it is through the basic
social structures and organizations such as the family and other forms of voluntary non-kinship
organizations that life in any community is carried out.

The reason for such research is that people in a local community may not always see a local
problem as the outsider sees it and any efforts to assist them may be resented.

This is the reason why it is believed that in such cases, the recovery assistant is disadvantaged
because he/she does not know how the local people regard their traditional practices which might
be violated at the time of assistance. This is the main reason why it is recommended that the
traditional forces of any community need to be studied and understood for successful assistance.

2. Secondly, environmental assessment is necessary to provide planners and those involved

in rehabilitation and reconstruction with a better understanding of recovery strengths and
limitations. Information need to be generated informing on the
• Climate variations.

• Vegetation.

• Soils of communities.

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This will help the planners to come up with plans based on the community’s strengths and
weaknesses of recovery.

3. Third, a thorough methodology should be developed to assess the vulnerability of both

the community groups and property. This leads to an assessment of people and property’s
exposure to disaster agents. This assessment can be accomplished by distinguishing each
group’s ability to recover from disruptions due to disasters.

4. The fourth research information is in relation to evaluation after disasters. It is imperative

that assistance programs identify, plan, implement, monitor and later evaluate the impact
of their assistance packages. The stress here is on evaluation with an aim of separating
those forms of assistance provided to separate groups in a community according to their
vulnerability. For example survey should be taken to determine the number of dwellings
destroyed and the extent of recovery through their assistance.

5. Fifth, also in the line of evaluation are surveys intended to identify the urgency and pace
of recovery? Surveys should be undertaken which considers the proportion of survivors
with access to emergency assistance provided by their relatives and other agencies.

6. Sixth is the participation of the local people. In disaster recovery assistance, every effort
should be made to ensure local input into the assessment and planning. In this regard the
community’s capability of coping mechanisms to provide assistance e.g. the feasibility
and likelihood of survivors making their own emergency shelter needs to be assessed.
Why we are saying so is that in some cases, one is likely to find out that the community’s
capacity outweighs the potential assistance given by outsiders.

7. Seventh, is the acknowledgement that both governmental and non-governmental

organizations in recovery assistance have their own agencies? This should be understood
and assessed critically. The aim is to harmonize recovery assistance.

8. Eighth, for effective recovery, the recovery team needs a clear understanding of the
phenomenon with which they have to deal. These include knowledge on hazards such as
fire, floods, earthquakes etc. this will enable the recovery strategies and actions that better
achieve their goals and maximize public safety.

9. Lastly successful recovery also requires there be an understanding of the nature and
location of emergencies.

4.4.4 Broad guiding principles of disaster recovery

1. Creation of standby disaster management team.

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 • Disasters can be terrifying and confusing for the victims. This leads to long term
emotional consequences both for the victims and disaster workers. So somebody has to
be responsible for the recovery, somebody has to plan and implement the recovery
process since from the onset, disaster victims requires somebody in charge to assist them.

2. Enhancing community participation

• Community participation must be recognized, harnessed and given power. This is so

because healing and recovery are more rapid if the community is fully involved from the
beginning.

3. Maintaining the social link

• Moving people away from others who share their experience may seem a good thing to
do after a disaster, especially if they have lost their houses, but in the long run is not wise
because they will take longer to recover emotionally than those who stayed with others
who were going through the same experience.

4. Rebuilding broken structures & institutions

• This is necessary especially for the development of children. Children develop best in
families and not in large institutions. So, for instance, it is best to use resources on
finding, training, supporting and paying foster parents rather than on building to house
orphan children.

Activity 4.4. 5 1. Give a full justification as to why research is a must in disaster recovery.

2. Discuss the guiding principle in disaster recovery.

4. 4.6 Summary In the just ended lecture on disaster recovery we have:

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 1. Given a full justification as why research is a must in disaster recovery

2. Discussed the broad guiding principle in disaster recovery.

4.4.7 Further readings

MODULE FIVE- ETHICAL ISSUES IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

5.10. Outline

1. Giving false hope

2. Decision making

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 3. Ethics and intervention strategies

4. Violation of International Humanitarian Law

5. Selection of Intervention Programs

5.1.1 Introduction

Disaster management can have adverse effects on the people and the environment, causing
serious problems to the community and society in general. This is the reason why there should be
ethics to control the management of disasters. These by and large are unwritten standards and
principles, which are left to the disaster manager to accept or reject.

According to the Webster’s New World Dictionary, ethical is “conforming to the standards of
conduct of a given profession or groups”

Disaster managers are a professional group and which therefore makes disaster management a
profession which should have set standards or guidelines of conduct. Below are the general
guidelines concerning the ethics of disaster management.

5.1.2 Objectives The main objective of this lecture is to ensure that you understand fully
the ethical consideration in the issues listed below:

1. Giving false hope

2. Decision making

3. Ethics and intervention strategies

4. Violation of International Humanitarian Law

5. Selection of Intervention Programs

5.1.3 Giving false hope

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Before any efforts are made to recover disaster victims, there is to be an assessment of the nature
and impact of the disaster. The assessment is a must to assist in planning the recovery strategies.
Obvious is the fact that the arrival of an assessment team arouses hope of assistance in the
victims. The reality is that an agency will only intervene if the problem identified corresponds to
the mandate of the agency implementing the assessment. However, agencies must be able to
respond to urgent problems in the course of assessment.

An ethical problem arises when agencies carry out surveys without having the intention or the
means of intervening later. This can be analyzed from two points of view;
 · The needs of the victim.
 · The potential of local services.
Victims needs.

As a general rule, any recovery efforts must first focus on vital needs of the victims: Needs that
must be met first if the victims are to survive.
 · Access to food
 · Access to health-care services
 · Access to water etc.
Potential of local services

According to the International Humanitarian Law, victims' needs should be met by the national
authorities. There are however, problems associated with this law which include:
• All the affected having access to essential services
• Satisfaction of local quality of services

5.1.4 Decision making

In practice, deciding whether or not to intervene is not as simple as might be supposed from the
basic concept, which is to intervene if local services are not able to cover the victims' vital needs.
To facilitate the decision-making process, situations can be classified according to various
combinations of two basic criteria:
1) Whether the victims’ needs are vital and
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2) The potential of the local services.

The situation that the humanitarian agency is likely to encounter includes:

 A situation where assessment reveals vital needs that are not being met, although the
local services have the potential to take care of the victims.
In this situation the intervening agency should find out whether this inconsistency is due
to discrimination, lack of organization, or a refusal to accept the responsibilities imposed
by international humanitarian law. This will help facilitate decision-making.
 A situation where vital needs are covered, but local services are inadequate; this
inadequacy may affect only non-vital needs.
In this case what should be considered is whether international relief should provide non-vital
needs.

 The other situation is where vital needs are not met and the local services are not able to
cope with the situation.
 In this case, international aid is necessary.
5.1.6 Ethics and intervention strategies

This involves the selection of priorities and goals for intervention (normative strategy).
Normative strategy is different from tactics or the order in which the activities of an intervention
program will be carried out. The ethnical problems involved in normative strategy include:
 Support or replacement of local services
 Violation of humanitarian law
 Selection of intervention programs

Support or replacement of local services

Support or replacement of local services becomes unavoidable where there is no local facility to
take care of the victims. Support or replacement might involve building hospital to treat the
victims, building shelter etc.

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Where such facilities are not functioning satisfactorily, then the humanitarian agencies give
themselves the 'right' to take over the facilities to improve their performance, reorganize their
management performance, reorganize their management etc.

Consider these;

1) What should be the policy concerning a medical facility that has the human but not the
material resources to assist the victims, and which refuses to assist people from a particular
group?
2) What should be the policy concerning a civilian population whose vital needs are not covered
and who are suffering from extortion by an armed group?

Policy concerning a medical facility that has the human but not the material resources to assist
the victims, and which refuses to assist people from a particular group

Four options have been suggested:

 Assist the facility, since the aid supplied will be used to assist at least part of the
population - although this amount to discrimination.
 Negotiate until the facility agrees to accept all victims without discrimination, then assist
it - realizing, however, that if the facility refuses, the population will be deprived of
necessary care.
 Assist the facility in spite of everything, and negotiate to obtain access for all. Although
if the means of pressuring the authorities will be lost, the aid will help at least part of the
population.
 Accept discrimination and find another solution for the excluded group for example,
providing a new facility for it.

Policy concerning a civilian population whose vital needs are not covered and who are suffering
from extortion by an armed group.
The suggestions are:
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  Withhold assistance in order to protest the treatment noted out to the civilian population.
This amounts to delivering a death sentence against the civilians, who will lack food,
medical care and other necessities, so that in fact it is the victims and not those
responsible for the extortion who are penalized.
 Intervene without comment. This may improve the material situation of the civilian
population (unless material aid is diverted by the armed group), but will not improve the
victims' security.
 Assist the population concerned and exert pressure on the leader of the armed group or
the regional authorities. This is the most sensible approach, but presents the risk of
hardening the authorities' stance vis - a vis the humanitarian organizations, which may
ultimately be denied access to the victims.

5.1.7 Violation of International Humanitarian Law

When there is violation of International Humanitarian Law during a disaster, agencies have a
choice of two options:
 Appealing to international public opinion.
 Employ discretion in bilateral negotiations with the responsible authorities.

 The first strategy is meant to alert governments and the international community in
general to the difficulties humanitarian agencies face in the normal performance of their
work. The danger of this strategy is that it can harden the attitude of the authorities
responsible for blocking access to the victims. This may affect other vulnerable groups
who already benefit from the presence of humanitarian agencies.

 The second strategy consists in betting on the success of bilateral negotiations with the
authorities responsible for the violations of international humanitarian law to persuade
them to change their attitude towards the victims.
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 However, this option has its limits. Accordingly, when negotiations lead to nowhere and
international humanitarian law is repeatedly violated, it is reasonable to change strategy.

5.1.8 Selection of Intervention Programs:

In planning a program for a given situation, humanitarian agencies may be tempted to make
choices not on the basis of the victims' most urgent problems, but according to their media and/or
political impact. Thus, a humanitarian organization may be tempted to select 'good' programs -
that is, programs that do not involve complicated logistics, that present little risk of political
involvement, and that make a big splash in the media.

The most typical example is probably the choice between nutrition rehabilitation programs and
food distribution programs. Institutions where there is no food, it must be kept in mind that
setting up a nutrition rehabilitation program unsupported by food distributions will not contribute
to a general improvement in the victims' living conditions. For the media, the fact that the
malnourished are being treated is enough to show the outside world that something is being done
and, consequently, that the problem is in the process of being solved

Activity 5. 1 1. Discuss how you would go about ensuring disaster victim’s are met after disaster
assessment.

2. Assist in advising humanitarian organizations to make better decisions on

intervening in cases where local services are not able to cover the victims' vital
needs.

3. Give a detailed guidance on the steps to take in case of violation of International

Humanitarian Law

4. Discuss in details the ethics governing the choice of intervention programs.

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 Despite these obstacles, however, every emergency aid program must include some reference to
a long-term solution - even if it consists in nothing more than delegating the responsibility to
specialized agencies.

The solutions commonly proposed are not truly long-term solutions, since they are usually in the
form of rehabilitation programs designed to restore facilities to their former state. This is not
genuine development.

5.1.9 Summary In the just ended lecture on ethical issues in disaster management we have looked
at the ethical considerations on:

1. Giving false hope

2. Decision making

3. Intervention strategies

4. Violation of International Humanitarian Law

5. Selection of Intervention Programs

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4. Further readings

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