Duration Perception vs. Perception Duration
Duration Perception vs. Perception Duration
com/time
Commentary
Lachlan Kent*
School of Health and Life Sciences, Federation University Australia
Received 30 April 2018; accepted 24 July 2018
Abstract
Duration perception is not the same as perception duration. Time is an object of perception in its
own right and is qualitatively different to exteroceptive or interoceptive perception of concrete ob-
jects or sensations originating within the self. In reviewing evidence for and against the experienced
moment, White (2017, Psychol. Bull., 143, 735–756) proposed a model of global integration of infor-
mation dense envelopes of integration. This is a valuable addition to the literature because it suppos-
es that, like Tononi’s (2004, BMC Neurosci., 5, 42) Integrated Information Theory, consciousness is
an integral step above perception of objects or the self. Consciousness includes the perception of ab-
stract contents such as time, space, and magnitude, as well as post-perceptual contents drawn from
memory. The present review takes this logic a step further and sketches a potential neurobiological
pathway through the salience, default mode, and central executive networks that culminates in a
candidate model of how duration perception and consciousness arises. Global integration is viewed
as a process of Bayesian Prediction Error Minimisation according to a model put forward by Hohwy,
Paton and Palmer (2016, Phenomenol. Cogn. Sci., 15, 315–335) called ‘distrusting the present’. The
proposed model also expresses global integration as an intermediate stage between perception and
memory that spans an approximate one second duration, an analogue of Wittmann’s (2011, Front.
Integr. Neurosci., 5, 66) experienced moment.
Keywords
Time perception, duration perception, time experience, default mode network, working memory,
consciousness, integrated information, depression
1. Introduction
Given that the object of perception is tangible and concrete, exteroceptive
perception of objects and interoceptive perception of the self are relatively
well-understood and conceptually distinct. Perception of abstract objects is,
unfortunately, comparatively fraught and easily conflated with the other two. The
perception of duration, although potentially indistinct from other abstractions of
magnitude such as space and number (Bueti & Walsh, 2009), is one example of
an abstract perceptual domain often confused with its inverse operation, i.e., the
duration of perception(s). The two are markedly distinct and utilise different neu-
ral networks but are sometimes hard to differentiate theoretically and empirically.
This paper is an attempt to clarify where and when references are made to the
perception of duration versus the duration of perceptions, and in doing so aims to
sketch a model of duration perception related to Bayesian Prediction Error Mini-
misation (PEM) and major brain networks associated with consciousness.
Of critical importance is the relationship between perception and conscious
experience. While consciousness is difficult to define absolutely, a sufficient defi-
nition to distinguish it from perception is one provided by Chalmers (1996) which
states that consciousness is the phenomenal experience which a hypothetical
zombie, who acts like a conscious being in every other way, lacks internally or sub-
jectively. More realistically, an analogous situation is one where a sleepwalker can
perceive and respond to their environment in sensible ways without being con-
scious. This distinction is critical if we are to understand the difference between
duration perception and duration of perceptions. It also relates to Tononi et al.’s
(2016) axioms of conscious experience as unitary, specific and definite. Percep-
tion of objects is multimodal, not unitary, and so the temporal characteristics of
those perceptions do not constitute conscious experience. A sleepwalker may be
able to perceive sounds, visions, textures and balance but, by combining Chalm-
ers’ (1996) and Tononi et al.’s (2016) definitions, their perceptions do not become
phenomenally unitary, specific and definite and so they remain unconscious. The
present paper will argue that, while a sleepwalker’s perceptions of concrete ob-
jects may be adequately timed, they may not perceive abstractions like time itself.
Tononi et al. (2016) also stipulated that the neural correlates of consciousness
should be “consistent with estimates of the timescale of experience” (p. 453), but
there is uncertainty as to what that timescale actually is. Tononi et al. (2016) re-
mained agnostic whereas Tononi (2004) originally allowed between a few tens
of milliseconds up to a few seconds. White (2017) argued more recently against
a duration called the experienced moment or subjective present, which Wittmann
(2011), Pöppel (1989) and others define as an interval of around 2– 3 s within
which conscious phenomenal experience takes place. White (2017) concluded
that the evidence from perception studies does not support the existence of an
experienced moment defined by duration, proposing instead that envelopes of in-
tegration vary according to the sensory modality and the amount of information
contained in a percept. The envelopes are therefore independent of duration and,
accordingly, the 2–3 s experienced moment is not defined.
It is true that the White (2017) review shows that experiments investigating
the duration of perception do not support an experienced moment. However,
Timing & Time Perception (2018) DOI: 10.1163/22134468-20181135 3
the review does not address the key distinction alluded to above. Instead, White
(2017) casts doubt on whether duration perception “is even relevant to the issue
of temporal integration in the construction of a ‘subjective present’” (p. 738). This
is a problem because White also asserts that there is a critical interval for duration
perception between 1–1.5 s meaning that, if it were deemed relevant to temporal
integration, then the experienced moment would be defined by a critical duration.
It is understandable how White (2017) came to this conclusion. In a later sec-
tion, he acknowledged that the “review deliberately avoided the issue of con-
sciousness” which otherwise could “make full sense of an envelope of integration
or ‘subjective present’” (p. 750). Without consciousness, a critical feature of the
experienced moment is lacking and the distinction between the perception of du-
ration versus duration of perceptions is obscured.
The real problem though is that the review does not in fact avoid the central
issue of consciousness. It refers to critical aspects of Chalmers’ (1996) and Tononi
et al.’s (2016) definitions in reference to global integration of locally integrated
products of modular perception. Global integration is Tononi et al.’s (2016) axiom
of conscious integration by another name, especially since “windows of temporal
integration are defined in terms of information density” (p. 735). Tononi (2004)
proposed the Integrated Information Theory (IIT) of consciousness over a decade
prior, and so the following comment by White (2017) is hard to interpret in any
way other than as a reference to previous definitions of consciousness:
Although, as in the case of speech perception, a good deal is known about local integration
(where, for present purposes, the whole of speech processing is local in the sense of being dis-
tinct from, say, visual layout processing or the kinaesthetic body map), there has been little if
any research on the integration of different local processing outputs into a globally integrated
representation, the envelope of integration as a whole. (p. 750)
As for the extent to which Chalmers (1996) conflates experience and conscious-
ness, in the index of his seminal book, The Conscious Mind, the entry under
“Experience” merely says “See Consciousness” (p. 408). The same entry is also
placed under “Subjective experience” (p. 413). Experience, subjective experience
and consciousness are synonymous according to Chalmers (1996) and so, by
4 L. Kent / Timing & Time Perception (2018)
Later, when discussing global integration, White (2017) clarifies the term “post-
perceptual” by stating that the subjective present “straddles the boundary (to the
extent that there is one) between perception and memory, or between percep-
tual processing and post-perceptual cognitive processing” (p. 750). So, that only
begs the question: If perceptions and memory are the temporally short and long
contents of consciousness, and consciousness is synonymous with subjective ex-
perience (Chalmers, 1996), how could they be contained temporally by anything
besides the experienced moment? Further to this, if Tononi et al. (2016) require
that the spatio-temporal grain of consciousness be “consistent with estimates of
the timescale of experience” (p. 453), then the experienced moment has to be
consistent with global perception, not local perceptions across various modalities.
That begs a further question: What is global perception and how does it
relate to experience/consciousness and time? There is a simple answer: global
perception is analogous to duration perception. Time is not just a property of
perceptions, it is an object of perception itself. The White (2017) review and oth-
ers by the same author (White, 2018) acknowledge that temporal integration
synchronises local perceptions by cancelling out latency effects. Synchrony is a
temporal property of local perception but global perception deals with duration
and change, not static synchronous moments. The main difference between syn-
chrony and duration is that time is a property of local perceptions whereas global
perception is a property of time. As proposed by Wittmann (2011):
Whereas the duration of the functional moment is not perceived, an experienced moment
relates to the experience of an extended now. According to this conception, the experienced
moment has duration. (p. 4, italics in original)
is meant by the difference between the duration of perception(s) and the per-
ception of duration. White (2017) also acknowledges that global integration
“deals with the outputs of multiple processes operating on the suprasecond scale”
(p. 750), but laments that “there has been little if any research on the integration
of different local processing outputs into a globally integrated representation, the
envelope of integration as a whole” (p. 750). However, according to the view that
duration perception is analogous to global/conscious integration of local percep-
tions, the vast and varied time perception literature represents the precise type
of research that White (2017) views as lacking. His assertion (p. 738) that time
perception studies show a critical duration between 1–1.5 s proposes that there
may yet be a critical window of experienced time within which conscious experi-
ence takes place, i.e., the experienced moment. But, as White (2017) rightly points
out, it is not sufficient to merely state that time experience/perception and global
perceptual integration are synonymous. Empirical evidence must be put forward.
As such, the rest of the current paper will be devoted to substantiating the claim.
in process whereas memory contents are typically integrated more slowly. This
agrees with current estimates of the time scale of peak neural activity for con-
sciousness of visual perceptions between 200–250 ms (Koch et al., 2016). The
assumption is that memory contents become conscious via the same process of
global integration but at the opposite end of the time scale around 1.25 s.
The next question is: What exactly is the process of global integration and how
does it relate to duration perception? The short answer is that we do not yet know
but one proposal to be explored is that global integration is synonymous with
Hohwy et al.’s (2016) Bayesian prediction error minimisation (PEM) paradigm
called “distrusting the present”. If, as Hohwy (2013) and others propose, the brain
is fundamentally a hypothesis testing machine, then the aim is to keep errors of
predictive inference to a minimum. When prediction is likely to be accurate, for
example in familiar and moderately challenging contexts, inferences are made
thick and fast and time flows freely. However, when prediction is likely to be inac-
curate or error is more critical, such as during unpredictable emergency situations
or overly predictable boring situations, predictions are made more sparingly and
time slows down (dilates). It is the rate of updating from one predictive inference
to the next that determines the rate of perceived duration. (Hohwy et al., 2016)
In terms of the one-second window of duration outlined above, a threatening
emergency situation is assumed to make sensory-perceptual information more
salient and so the window is accelerated towards the millisecond range. It has
been known for decades that duration is commonly perceived to slow down or
dilate in an emergency because arousal spikes with adrenaline and people report
perceiving things in slow motion (Leonov & Lebedev, 1968). In an emergency,
people notice nearly every detail of things happening around them and the effect
of perceiving more change has been demonstrated experimentally to dilate dura-
tion (Herbst et al., 2013).
However, dilation of duration also occurs at the opposite extreme when people
are bored and events in the world really are occurring slowly (Zakay, 2014). In an
analogous way, people who are depressed also tend to experience duration dila-
tion regardless of the situation (Thönes & Oberfeld, 2015). With respect to the
one second duration window above, these situations are assumed to bias men-
tal activity towards memory processes in the seconds range, and depression has
been shown to cause deficits in both autobiographical (Brewin, Reynolds, & Tata,
1999; Dalgleish et al., 2007; Gibbs & Rude, 2004; Söderlund et al., 2014; Williams
& Scott, 1988; Williams et al., 2000, 2007) and working memory (Christopher &
MacDonald, 2005; Joormann & Gotlib, 2008; Rose & Ebmeier, 2006).
So there are two routes to duration dilation with seemingly opposite valence
of arousal but the same level of attention to duration. In high arousal emergen-
cy conditions, duration of perceptions is salient because there is time pressure
but in low arousal boring conditions, duration of time is salient because there
is no time pressure. Attentional effects on time perception are well-understood
Timing & Time Perception (2018) DOI: 10.1163/22134468-20181135 7
(Zakay & Block, 1996) and have been shown to affect time perception in depres-
sion (Sévigny et al., 2003). More attention paid to task makes duration accelerate
but more attention to time makes duration dilate (Zakay & Block, 1995). Arousal
and attention therefore have independent or semi-independent influences on du-
ration perception (Gable & Poole, 2012; Gil & Droit-Volet, 2012; Mella et al., 2011;
Yarrow et al., 2004).
This reinforces the notion that duration is an object of perception and not just
a property of object perception. Attention to duration when bored or depressed
is, according to Hohwy (2012), an attempt to make predictions about time from
prior experience. Prior experience is embodied in the predictive coding of auto-
biographical memory and so the rate of perceived duration in the Bayesian PEM
model called ‘distrusting the present’ is driven by processes that combine features
of attention, prediction, autobiographical memory, and duration (Hohwy et al.,
2016).
Fortunately, a region of the brain called the default mode network (DMN) has
been shown to underpin all of these functions: 1) DMN connectivity predicts
sustained attention abilities (Bonnelle et al., 2011); 2) the DMN integrates past
experiences in order to plan for the future (Buckner et al., 2008); 3) DMN activ-
ity supports autobiographical memory and prospection (i.e., expectations for the
future); and 4) DMN variability has been shown to lead to temporal awareness
(Lloyd, 2012). Two specific brain regions are of interest: 1) the inferior parietal
lobule is one of the main nodes of the DMN (Buckner et al., 2008); 2) the adja-
cent superior parietal lobule is responsible for representing abstract magnitudes
of time, space and number (Bueti & Walsh, 2009); and 3) both are part of the pos-
terior cortical “hot zone” currently identified as one of the most likely neural cor-
relates of highly perceptual conscious experiences (Koch et al., 2016). This area
contrasts with medial frontal cortex, also part of the DMN, which is thought to
be responsible for highly thought-like conscious experiences (Siclari et al., 2014).
It has also been shown that DMN connectivity reflects the level of consciousness
of non-communicative brain-damaged patients (Vanhaudenhuyse et al., 2009)
and so there is suggestive evidence that duration and consciousness both revolve
around DMN activity.
It is therefore highly likely that all three are interconnected and distinct from
the two other major brain networks, the salience and central executive net-
works, that have been separately linked to perception and working memory,
respectively. The salience and central executive networks complement the de-
fault network both in terms of function and their time scale of operation under
Wittmann’s (2011) tripartite model (Bressler & Menon, 2010; Cao et al., 2016;
Sridharan et al., 2008). Key nodes of salience network have been hypothesised
to generate rapid ‘emotional moments’ of approximately 125 ms that align with
Wittmann’s (2011) functional moments (Craig, 2009a, b). For longer time scales,
the central executive network is a higher-order function of working memory
8 L. Kent / Timing & Time Perception (2018)
(Baddeley, 2012) which, unlike the DMN, is active when processing task-related
information. Central executive working memory processes are thus assumed to
relate to Wittmann’s (2011) mental presence over extended time scales up to per-
haps 100 s.
The model proposed here to account for duration perception therefore
contrasts: 1) the first timescale up to 200 ms of the salience network that synchro-
nises perceptual data into functional moments (Craig, 2009a): 2) the second tim-
escale between 200 and 1250 ms of the DMN that leads to the global perception
and conscious experience of duration; and 3) the third timescale up to 100 s of
the central executive network’s working memory processing of mental presence
(Wittmann, 2011). The various components of each stage are illustrated in Fig. 1.
The trajectory of informational flow within Fig. 1 is then illustrated in
Fig. 2 and elaborated as follows: 1) multimodal exteroceptive sensory data is
received from asynchronous sources; 2) the internal interoceptive, autonomic,
and cardiovascular rhythms of the anterior insular (Craig, 2009a, b) and
cortico-striatal-thalamic oscillators (Allman & Meck, 2012) of the salience net-
work then synchronise incoming multimodal sensory information within the
first 125–200 ms; 3) the homeostatic and motivational salience of the incom-
ing perceptual data for the “sentient self” is then determined by the anterior
Figure 1. Schematic of three time scales of perception (functional moments), consciousness and
duration perception (the experienced moment), and working memory (mental presence), their
major brain networks and other corollaries.
Timing & Time Perception (2018) DOI: 10.1163/22134468-20181135 9
Figure 2. Informational flow through functional moments, the experienced moment and mental
presence, culminating in consciousness in the experienced moment as an analogue or corollary of
duration perception.
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