(

( ' CHOICE OF TYPE OF DAM

(

(
A number of factors have to be considered in choosing a particular type of dam. These include
safety, economy,topography of dam site, geology of foundations, hydrologic and hydraulic factors,
availability of materials of construction and climate. These are discussed as follows:

(a) Saf,etv is the prime consideration which may have to override other considerations,as the failure
of dan being of catastrophic nature cannot be permitted. Safety of a dam site is with respect to the
( foundation and other characteristics of the given site. Thus, a solid gravity concrete dam is
considered to be the safest provided good strong foundations and narrow each of the river valley are·.
available.
(
(b) Economv is next in order of consideration. The economic analysis must be based on the least
(
cost of comparison of the dam types considering the overall capitalized cost of construction and
(
·maintenance discounted over the time period of analysis.

(c) Topography of dam site is another important consideration. Thus for a dam site having a narrow
canyon but strong abutments with good rocks, an..aWl_dam would be suitable while for a site having ·
good bed rock but weak abutments, a gUlld.!y dam would be advisable.
J
(d) Geologv of (oundatiQJJ. If the geology of foundation is such that good rocks are not availabl.e,
the site is not suitable for having gravity type dam. Further if good rock is available at considerable
distance below the surface, an earth dam would be more suitable and economical particularly if a
dam of great height is required.

(e) ll;u/rological and hvdraulic factocs. If tht: Jam sitt: invul vt:s ri vt:r Jivt:rsion,it may be necessary
to construct a tunnel or diversion channel to convey the entire flow during dam construction for
which good overburden rock (suitable geologic and topographic) must be found to locate solid
concrete dam. The requirement of spillway at suitable location in the case of an earth dam is an
important consideration as it is not safe to allow large quantity of flood waters to spill directly over
the embankment howsoever well paved it may be ·

(f) Available construction material. If the materials of construction can be found convenient to the
site, the dam would cast less due to low cost of transportation. Thus, the easy availability of some
type of earth material or soil would suggest the use of earth dam.

(g) Climatic conditions also influence the choice of dam type. In places having extreme cold
conditions, since concrete spills with alternate freezing and thawing, arch and buttress dams with
thin concrete sections would not be found suitable.

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SELECTION OF DAM SITE

The selection of dam site is made on consideration of several factors as enunciated below:

(a) Character of foundations. Good foundations should be available at rpoderate deptb in order to
have safety of structure and economy of construction. '

(b) Topowaahv. The dam site should be located in a narrow valley Fig.l . .Smaller the length of
dam, lesser would be its CQSt. Further the river valley should IIi!iJ upstream from its site to provide
large reservoir capacity for a given height.

Fig.,f Dam site in narrow valley

(c) Hvdrological factors ..These include run off in the catchment and sediment characteristics of the
river water. The catchment upstream of the dam site should enable constant and assured supplies of
run off. Besides, the river water should not have large sediment load which could cause slit
deposit ion in the reservoir and thereby decrease its effective storage.

(d)£pil/wav capacitv.. A proper spillway site needs to be located in the body ofthe dam or adjunct
to it to dis post o'rf excess flood water. This is qf prime consideration for an earth dam.

(e) Availability of materials of construction. Bulk of material required for construction of dam
should be available in the close vicinity of the site so as to minimize construction cost.

(f) Y alue of land submerged. The value of land property likely to be submerged by dam
construction should be less than the benefits accruing from the project as to make it economically
viable.

(g) Easv. accessibilitv. o[ site. The dam site should be easily accessible by road and/or by rail to
enable easy transportation of heavy construction materials and machinery. ·

(h) Living facilities. The damsite should offer good housing facilities and living conditions for the
technical personnel and workmen so as to attract best output effort. The place must have a healthy
climate.

SITE INVESTIGATIONS '·

)
 !' ~
(

Before taking up the design and construction of the dam, it is necessary to carry out investigations
to determine the most suitable dam site. Such investigations are broadly classifieds as(l)
Reconnaissance survey (2) Preliminary investigations and (3) Final investigations. These are
discussed as follows:

( ' Reconnaissance Survey

This is general survey which is carried out to determine the feasibility of the project, topographical
r.' features of the area and the possible sites availabl~ for locating the proposed dam. The survey is
carried out visually without the use of precise surveying instruments.

Preliminary Investigations

These are needed to determine the most suitable and economic site out of all of the several sites
selected by reconnaise survey and are based on the gathering of reliable technical data which would
enable preliminary design and estimates of the cost of construction. Preliminary investigations are
made under the following categories.

(a). Engineering surveys and topographical mapping. Engineering surveys are carried out with
precise surveying instruments which include plane table survey, triangulation survey, area and
photographic surveys. The primary objective is to prepare topographic map of the area which
should ' enable to determine the precise location of the dam site, the water spread of the
re~en ·oir and its storage capacity and the arrangement of the lines of communications,
higlrways and rail roads for movement of material of construction, heavy machinery and
eq uipmen ts.

(b) Geological Investieations. These are carried out to determine the water-tightness of the
reservoir basin, nature of rock formation and depth of overburden, characteristic rock features like
I )
seams, faults and fissures and the quality of materials in overburden or of the bed rock. The
investigations are carried out in two sta es (i){surface exploratj{)ji) and mapping of the general
features and (ii) !Jb-surface exploratioiilcarried out through open pits, tunneling or drilling in
the sides and bottom of the valley.

(c) Available materials of constructiOJ,. The investigation of the available construction materials
viz., earth, gravel, coarse and fine aggregates provides useful information in selecting the .type of
dam viz:, earth dam, concrete dam.

(d)Jfvdrological surveJ!. This includes such hydrological information as would enable to determine
the .water storage faciliti sr~ at the dam site. These include pattern of rainfall, run off in the
catchment, general slope of the terrain, quality and rate of silt inflow, etc. !

' I
Final Investigations
On completing preliminary investigations of the several sites and obtaining the related
technical data and cost estimates, it becomes necessary to select one of the sites for final detailed
' )

I ,

I J

' )

'}

)
C'
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(
(
invt!stigations so that we can prepare the detailed designs of the structural elements of the dam and ·
l arrive at precise estimates of the construction cost. It may be pointed out that by this process it is
( possible to eliminate unnecessary cost of detailed investigations incurred at the preliminary stage on
a site. As for example, for a dam site which might have unfavorable sub-surface conditions,
( requiring it to be finally rejected and replaced by another more favorable dam site, there is little
justificatioq to incur the cost of detailed investigations at the preliminary stage.
{

() Final investigations involve consideration of the following major points of the project.

(i) Relative merits and demerits of two or more dam sites to select finally lone site.

(ii) Character of foundation at the sites with respect to dam safety and cost.

(iii) Type of dam to be constructed.

(iv) Accurate assessment of the estimated cost ofthe project.

(v) Design details of the dam structure.

(vi) Final location of the dam and its ancillary units viz., power house, coffer dam, communication
lines - roads and railways, site of construction material, etc.
(.>

( )

( )

'-.)
r 1 .1

( FORCES ACTING ON GRAVITY DAMS

(

Forces that act on a gravity dam (Fig.l) are due to:

• Water Pressure(Hydrostatic)
• Uplift Pressure
• Earthquake Acceleration
• Silt Pressure
• Wave Pressure
• Ice Pressure

>>Self Weight (W) counters the forces listed above.

Wtzve Pressure Dittgrtllll

.1bil Water

k 4HJ
371"
t
,Silt 1/~ ·r-adynamic: Head Wut~r 1
Pressure Pressure Pre!;~·ure ~I
Diagram Diagram Diagram ~

Fig.l Forces on Gravity Dams

Force due to hydrostatic Pressure :

Force due to hydrostatic Pressure is the major external force on a gravity dam. The intensity of
pressure from zero at the water surface to the maximum (r H) at the base. The force due to this

pressure is given by rf:, acting at H/3 from the base. In fig.l the forces 11 and l?! are due to
hydrostatic pressure. These are horizontal components of the hydrostatic force due to head
water(upstream side) and tailwater(downstream side) ofthe dam.

The forces marked as I§} and IEJ

are the ~bt of water held over the inclined faces of the dam ori · .
the upper slope and downslope respectively. these are vertical components of the hydrostatic force ·
on the two faces mentioned.
)

)
(

~== O.$oO)H 2.
Modified slope
for design
Actual U/S
variation curve slope of dam
(

h
BodyofDam
~~~

hl/2

Then,{P e = 0.555 a.y.Ihl, and acts at .(4H/3nJ from the base (a= 0.1-0.2).
( '
(Horizontal inertia force= W/g.(a.g) /

Force due ,to Silt Pressure:

Silt gets deposited against the upstream face of the clam. If 'h 5 ' is the height of the silt deposited,
then the force exerted by the silt (by Rankine's formula):

Psll = !y h;ka, 3
acting at hs from base,
2 3
where K= the coefficient of active earth pressure silt

N = 1-sin¢
IV . Neg Iec t·rng co h es1on
. )
1+sm¢
Ys = submerged unit
,
weight of silt.
fJ = A11gle of internal friction of soil.

In the absence of reliable data on silt type that would be deposited, U.S.B.R. recommendations may
be adopted .

.'

)
r

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(

Total horizontal force due to silt pressure= 180h;

Total vertical force due to silt pressure= 46Dh;

In most of the gravity dams, silt pressure is neglected.

Wave Pressure:
Waves are generated on the reservoir surface because of the wind blowing over it. Wave pressure
depends on the height of the wave developed. Wave height may be calculated from the following
( )
formula given by D.A. Molitor :

hw = 0.032-JVY + 0.763- 0.271ifi for F< 32 km

I, ) hw = 0.03 2-JV,F for F> 32 km
l
hw = height of waves in meters, between trough and crest
V = wind velocity in km per hour
F = fetch or straight length of water expanse, in krn.

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\

Unobstructed Crest
)
'"''UVe pressure distribution

( I
~
4/3 bw
(' ) 2/3 h w
Still \Vater Jevel

j~~ltw I hw __l __ _
~ . l/3 hw
..:f..--

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( Fig Wave Pressure.

.( The Pressure intensity due to waves is given by :

(
1 Pw = 2.4r~(t I m 2 )
where : Pw is the maximum unit pressure which occurs attl/8)h~}neters above still water
( ~urface. The pressure distribution is curvilinear.

Howev'er, for designer purposes, the pressure distribution may be assumed to be represented by a
tria~g le of height eq ual to (513)hw.

Hence the total pressure Pw is given by :

Pw = (2.4hw) * (l/2)(5/3)hw = 2rh.} (t I ~)

and this acts at a distance Of (3/8)hw above the reservoir surface, as shown in above Fig.

Ice thrust at reservoir level :

Varies from 25 to 150 t/m 2, depending on temperature variations.

Average value= 50 t/m 2 acts along the length ofthe dam.

H..- :5.,J,/ e•s+Li~ <tC"-el>.fQ,~ oA : o(h-= 0. I -0 • 2. r

VeJ-k oJ e...rthjusk ..ccekJ.i oA : rX v =0 .I%,
~In /h0-.1) Jo:h()4l$ :
llJ hori5•JJ !:~= lue -k 9~ f~ : A~a ~£._
T.kJ ~ k k 4:, 8l1t fresEIUUi!', : 400 k 'I.-
Tee.- -U,rost J reseMiC \~uJ '. 2.5 =~5 f/I'M e_
~~ ta-b s s(j-bfrm2..
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 Force due to Uplift Pressure : U
(
water that seeps through the gores, cracks and fissures of the foundation material and water that
seeps through the dam body to the bottom through the joints between the body of the dam and.
the foundation t the base, exert an up.J.ifi..J2ressure on the base of the dam. ~The force (U) due to this
( )
acts against the weight of the dam and thus contributes to destabilizing the dam.
( )
According to the recommendation of the USBR, the uplift pressure intensifies at the heel( upward
c slope) and the toe( downward slope) are taken to be equal to the respective hydrostatic pressures.
A linear variation of the uplift pressure is assumed between the heel and the toe. Drainage
(') galleries can be provided(fig.l) to relieve the uplift pressure. In such a case, the uplift pressure
( diagram gets modified as shown in fig. I.

( )
Earthquake Forces :

Horizo;;1tal acceleration (ahJ.J O.l- 0.2 i.l ~ffi 2b<·'-o.t!

Vertical acceleration (ayl...;.IQI:'gl

.Eflect of Vertical acceleration. :

Upward : Effective weight of dam increases and stresses developed will increase.

Downward: Reduces effective weight- reduces stability.

f Net effective weight of the dam= W- W/g(av.g) J ::::: W~ r:/.v 'ltJ

Effict o(Horizontal acceleration :

Hydrodynamic Force : The Hydrodynamic Pressure variation may be assumed to be Parabolic.

(

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(
STABILITY ANALYSIS
(

The stability of a gravity dam can be approximately and easily analyzed by two dimensional
(
stability analysis and more precisely by three dimensional methods such as slab analogy method
or Finite Element analysis or by experimental studies on models.

Gravity Method or Two Dimensional Stability Analysis

The preliminary analysis of all gravity dams can be made easily by isolating a typical cross-section
of the dam of unit width. This section is assumed to behave indep~fdently of the adjoining
sections.In other words, the dam is considered to be made of a number of cantilevers of unit
width each, which act independently of each other.This assumption of independent functioning
of each section disregards the bea111 action in the da111 us a ll'ho!e.

If the vertical transverse joints of the dam are not grouted or keyed together, this assumption is
nearly true. Hence, for wide U-shaped valleys, where transverse joints are not generally grouted,
this assumption is nearly satisfied.But for narrow V-shaped valleys, where the transverse joints
are generally keyed together and entire length of the dam acts monolithically as a single body,
this assumption may involve appreciable errors. In such case, preliminary designs may be done
by gravity method and precise final designs may be carried out by one of the three
dimensional methods.

Assumptions

The various assumptions made in two dimensional analysis of gravity dams arc summarized below.

i) The dam is considered to be composed ofa n un1il c r nl"ct ll ti k \l-r::., each ofwhich is li!illthick
and each ofwhich acts i nd c: Jt' rl d c u l of th e o t hc 1:.

ii) No loads are transferred to the abutements by means of beam action.

iii) The foundation and the dam behave as a single unit; the joint being perfect.

iv) The materials in the foundation and body ofthe dam are isotro pic and homogenous.

v) The s~ developed in the foundation and body of the dam are withirjlesHJlimits.
vi) No movcmc!Jts ofJoundations are caused due to transfer of loads.
I

vii) Small openings made in the body of the dam do not affect the general distribution of stresses
. ~nd they only produce local effects as per ~t. Venant's urinci plCL.

)
(

(
PROCEDURE :Two dimensional analysis can be carried out analytically or graphically.

( Analvtical Method:

( The stability of the dam can be analyzed in the following steps :

i) Consider unit length of the dam

I

t
ii) Workout the magnitude and directions of all the vertical forces acting on the dam and their
algebraic sum i.e. LV.

iii) Similarly, work out all the horizontal forces and their algebraic sum i.e. LH.

iv) Determine the lever arm of all these forces about the toe.

v) Determine the moments of all these forces about the toe and find the algebraic sum of all these
moments, i.e., iM. .
'
I
vi) Find out the location of the resultant force by determining its distance from the toe

- 'M
X= L.,;
LV
vii) Find out the eccentricity (e) of the resultant (R) using

B
e=--x
2
It must be less than B/6 in order to ensure that no tension is developed anywhere in the dam.

viii) Determine the vertical stresses at the toe and the heel using

( )

llEEL''

pvl

pv1

Fig.2 Normal stress distribution on dam foundation.

Vertical stress distribution :

rv~/ pvkJ ~a-~::: ¥ [H~J < 4ooo kN/1rt12_ (sfJ

fv t.J/ pv k :::- o-mUm '"' ¥ [i1 -itJ { 49)) kN 1 r~t-J . rm_ L
 )

( )

r )

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)
( A~IIVLkrl~ = -LV
6
1..

(
Pv=~V[1+~]
(
n.b. : Sometimes stresses are found by ignoring uplift.

ix)' Determine the maximum normal stresses i.e. principal stresses at the toe and the heei.They
('
should not exceed the maximum allowable valucs.Thc crushing strength of concrete varies '. ·
() between tso to 3oo t/m 2 ~,e.- Asm l\J 3ooo I<N /M -l 40cO kN /rm!-
Q._

x) Determine the factor ofsafety against overturning as equal to:

( I

2.: stabilising moments(+) 2-3

L disturbing moments(-)
+ve sign is used for anticlockwise moments and -ve sign used for clockwise moments.

Factor of Safety against Overturning = 2 - 3.

c I

xi) Determine the factor of safety against sliding, using :

>

Pl.:V
Sliding factor= l;H
I
I> 1
\ I

J1: coejjlcient 4/i"iction hetween two sw:fctces.

For high dams, the shear strength of the joints is also to be taken into account as resisting the
horizontal force of sliding.

Shear friction factor =P 2.: V + bq

LH 3 to 5
b : width of the joint at the level considered.

J1: coefficient o.ffriction bei1Veen two surfaces.

Sliding factor must be greater than unity

S.F.F. must be greater than 3 to 5.

n.b. : Note that the analysis should be carried out for reservoir full case as well as for reservoir
empty case.

Modes of Failure and Criteria for Structural Stability of Gravity Dams

A gravity dam may fail in the following ways :

I )

.)

. )
;

)
(

c
1. By Overturning
(

( 2. By Crushing

( 3. By development of tension. causing ultimate failure by crushing

4. By shear failure called sliding

Overt
( If the resultant of all the forces acting on a dam at any of its sections, passes outside the toe, the
dam shall rotate and overturn about the toe.

Factor of safety against overturning= Righting moments (anticlockwise)@ toe

Overturning mom ents (clockwise) @toe
Factor of safety generally varies between @andQ}

Compression or Crushing :

4 dam may fail by the failur ~ of its mate rials, i.e., the compressive stress produced may exceed
the allowable stresses, and the dam material may get crushed.

The vertical stress distribution at tlu! base is given by

u=LV±My
B I
· IV :LV.e
( ) 0" max
mm
= 8 · ± (82/6)

(')
)
or u I max =
min
!'"V
B
[1 ± 6e]
B
( 1
c : h.: centric ily of the resultant j(m:e 'R' from the center of the base width.

2.: V : Total vertical force

B : Base width

The maximum stress i.e. amax will be produced on the end which is nearer to the resultant, as
shown in fig.

Negative value of O"m;11 indicates tension at the appropriate end.

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C~NVO')Jr) "'Lls
~WI a"f. "t"'- f~ : s

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CO'l-'O'l-~·~ 1&'6 ~\ (o·v -J -s)J- == OH
. 00 0 ~ ) f
-;J
: W/Or J
.
h ~1 "

) @'1-?'f'? - ~ C~-s~r/ == ~ :~~"No

~ (~'!-?'~ J l J - g ~ ::. '8 : V"i'to;J ~·~-t ON 0

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~ H ) H
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( ~l a,1111x excl!cds III C' allrnw th!e UJ/IIfll'essive stress, dam may fail by crushing.
(
Tension:

(
Masonry and concrete gravity dams are designed for no tension condition because these materials
are weak in tension. However, for achieving economy in designs of very high gravity dams, ..
certain amount of tension inay be permitted under severest loading conditions. The maximum
permissible tensile stress under severest loadings, may be taken as 5 kg/cm 2·

Effect p~oduced by tension cracks :

x If a crack develops at the ~eelj the crack width loses contact with the foundation and becomes
ineffective.This reduces base widlh B of the dam resulting in increased.[Snax)!t toe.

x The uplifi pressure diagram also gets mod(fied due to tension crack formation. This increased
uplift causes the resultant to §.!!.if! more towards the tpe. This will further increase the
compressive stress at toe and lengthen the crack due to further tension development at the
heel. The process continues; the effective base width goes on reducing and the compressive
stress at the toe goes on increasing; Finally /eadint.: to failure l~f'tlle toe by direct comwession.

In order to ensure that no tension is developed anywhere,

Since rrmox = ~V [ 1+ ~]
mm
_2:V [1-6e]
O"min- B B

For limin = o)

~v[ 1 -~J=o
,
(
6e ·
or1--=0
B

o+=: ]
Hence the llwxin l/(m \'rilttc of eccc'nfricizr tlt11r c an he p N mitrl'd o11 eitlil'r \ide ~~ft/i(' r..:coter is
erj u u !to B/ 6.

Sliding or Shear failure :

Shear failure of dam will occur when (he net horizontal force above any plane in the dam or at
the base of the dam exceeds the frictional resistance developed at that level.
l )

u
()

' )

I \

( )

I I

( I

' )

)
)

)
(

(.

(
.E V: algebraic sum of all the vertical forces whether upward or downward.

( f-1: coejficient of.friction between two surfaces.

(
For no sliding condition, the external horizontal forces (L:H) must be less than the shear
resistance ).l.L: V.

In low dams, the safety against sliding is checked only for friction. But in high dams, · for
economical and precise designs, the shear strength of the joint must also be considered.

If shear strength of joints is also considered, the ~j1ear fi·iction {(Let or (S. F. F.) becomes,

/l~o
Shear friction factor= f1'2: V +~f)
2:H
B : width of the dam at the joint.

q : Average shear strength of the joint.

The value of(j}generally variesjjomJW/i!!lff:l1! In order to increase the shear stre ngth 'q' at
the base, measures are taken to ensure a better bond between the dam base and rock
foundation.For this purpose,foundation is stepped at the base (as shown in Fig.).

f ~ o.C5 1\) O.'fS .

f:-lc.- j fl j.J overM:y : .Z -3

j.d""f sf? ~PSI- skL'tl : . >1
SJ.;:j;cJ,onj~.r : / 3 -l:o S .
Cf~~-1jj(idt"" ldweeA -luJJ 'JJ(~ f' 0. (f) -b, 0.is
 ·'

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)
(

PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND SHEAR STRESSES

\. Arc the maximum normal compressive stresses the maximum stresses which occur in the dam
structure?

No. The maximum stresses occur normally on the inclined planes normal to the face of
The dam .
To evaluate the maximum stresses, consider an elementary triangular section ABC at the heel or toe
of the dam section such that the s_tress intensities are assumed uniform on the different faces. In
Fig.3, the triangular section ABC is shown atlhe toe of the dam where stresses would be maximum
under reservoir full condition. ·

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Bf-fl-flll-fl_f_t A

I dt. •I
p. (pv*db)

Fig.3 Elementary triangular section

Which arc the Principal Planes?

Since water pressure acts normal to the face AB and there are no shear stresses
produced on this plane, the downstream face AB of the dam is the principal plane. Further,
since Qrincipal planes are mutually at right angle$, the face BC of the triangular section
is also a principal plane. Both the principal planes AB and BC have principal stresses
acting normal on them.

AB, BC : Princ ~;Jal planes - no shear stress acting along these planes.
p' :normal water pressure on plane AB
cr : Normal Stress acting on plane BC
t : Shear stress acting along plane AC
Pv= Vertical pressure on face AC

Consider unit length of the dam and resolve all the forces in the vertical direction.

p' * ds * sina + cr * dr * cosa = Pv • db

But,

ds . dr
- = s1na:- =cos a
db 'db
 )

)
)

) > ~.52 •WJ/N~ 0£-tl >~

- 6'MJ/N~CQ-t;'
)
)
-uW/N1 eJb~ >~ -zw/N1CW?/ ~

:~}~r--J
)

)
 ( )

{__ \
I . J
p - p s1n a
() u= v 2 =Pv sec 2 a- p 1
tan a
2

cos a ... Eqn.l

()

; For a to be maximum,
1t- 1'1':\~r UJ~. c"~ ..,~
(

...
( ' P..
1
= 0. :=::> u = Pv sec 2 a
f-
~ "'
(

(
)
but
.. I u
sec:l a> 1 always
> py I ikr ~fk~ -
""'- J:k APIJ;.J_
...
Resolving all forces in the horizontal direction,
( )

1
U· dr · sin a- p ds · cos a= r ·db
•
(
:. r = (u-p ) sin a· cos a ... Eqn.2
(

S,ubstituting for a from Eqn.l,

I r =CPv - p ) tan a ... Eqn.3

I,f{P:lis the hydrodynamic pressure exerted by the tail water during earthquake, then the net
pressure on the face AB will belw '-p ') j .
Then,

l~t~ = pY secJ a- (p'- p:) tan a

2
-1 ... Eqn.4

Likewise, if an element at heel is considered aud if¢ is the angle that the upstream face makes with
the vertical, then

[ .
uhttl =Pv sec J cp- (p +p ~)tan J cp ... Eqn.5

I •t~ = [Pv- (p'- p:)]tan a I ... Eqn.6

I r!tul =-fPv -(p + P~)]tan (/} I ... Eqn.7

-L, ~ ()"" e paYL~~~~- W<

ex .,ce- : ot:e. <o 13k (o

=
~el : ~ ·O c-z;U ><o

\
 "
/

)
(

CONSTRUCTION
(

( tuNNfL CoFFER.OAf1
(

.( ~
=
=
~
=
construction
zone

l
Flow in
stream bed
"'
·~: First stage
~
Q

Completed
t>ortion of
dam
(a)
Uivcrsion b y tuunel

Second Stage
(b)
T ypical two-stage diversion

Upstrc.am Face Upstream Face

Don11stream Face Downstr~m Face

Keyways

. .. ~ a~ aD
... 4 "
' ' ' Copper Strip
4-:;'\. Annealed copper strip

4"
Watcrstops
( )

)
, I
')

()

EMBANKMENT DAMS

Introduction:
Notable examples of large earth dams include Nurek dam, USSR (300m. high), Mica dam, Canada
(242m. high), Oreville dam, U.S.A (235 m. high) and Tehri dam, India (265 m. ,high).

Components of Earth Dams and Their Functions:

lc The component parts of earth dam and the functions performed by them are described as follows (
Fig. I).
I

· Transition Filter

U/S

. .
. . • . .• F01mdatlon
I I
I I I I
I I I
I
I
I
I ' I I
I I I
I
I I
I I I I
I 1
II

lmpervious.Stratum

Fig.l Components parts of an earth dam (zoned type).

1 I Core also called hearting is a centrally provided impervious wall usually of clay and fine material
which extends from the ground level uptp the highest flood level (HFL). It holds back the flow free
water in the section of the dam.

Shell also called casing is made up of materials coarser thari the core wall and extends shoulder-like
on either side of the core. It thus provides structural support for the core and distributes eyenly
loads oi.1 the foundation.

Upstream Blanket is a layer of impervious material ( usually clay ) laid out at the natural ground
level on the upsream side. It increases the path of percolation to reduce seepage pressure.

Cut of/ is a fairly impervious barrier formed in the centre of the base of an earth dam by exterising
the core darh into the foundation to the depth where impervious stratum is reached. As the cut off
tries to check the flow of water and increases the path of percolation, it is particulary suitable where
the foundation by itself is incapable of resisting under seepage.
 )

( )

(_)
(

( Internal Drain enables the carrying away of any seepage which penetrates the core of the cut off. It
also pxeyents the saturation of the upper part of the downstream shell caused by raindall. It requires
( protective filter to prevent the carrying of fine r.articles by the moving water into the drainage
system and thereby clogging it.
(

( Toe drain is provided at the downstream toe and serves the same purpose as the internal·drain. It is
made up of graded filter with relatively fine material near the periphery of drain and coarser
material near the centre in which seepage water collects and moves to a point where it can be safely
discharged. It particulary prevents sloughing i.e., creation of marsh or swamp.
(

Rip Rap is a protection provided to the sloping faces t,generally upstreaiiJ and · sometimes
downstream of the dam to protect the slopes from the action of wave, cattle, rain, etc. Rip rap
c;omprises of 60 em. to 1 m. thick stone pitching on 30 em. thick gravel.

!i2fl is ;a type of grass grown on the downstream slope to protect it against rainwash caused by
heavy rainfall and thereby prevent the formation of gullies on the slope.

Type of Earth-fill Dams:

1· J Modem developments in earth moving equipments have considerably reduced the cost of carriage
and laying of the dam materials.Earthen dams are cheaper as they can ~tilise the locally..
available materials, and less skilled labour is required for them.

Earthen dams can be easily constructed on earth foundation. However, earth dams are more
susceptible to failure as compared to rigid dams. It is imortant to control the properties of the
soil used for the construction. Continuous field observations of deformations and pore water
pressures have to be made during the construction of such dams. Suitable modifications in the
design are made during construction, depending upon the field observations.

TYPES OF EARTHEN DAMS:

1. Homogenous Embankment Type.

2. Zo ned Emba nkmc n1 T~ · f w .
I
3. Diaphragm Type.
}

~l

J
(

( (1) Homogenous Embankment Type: b-~ WVQ,jtl.~~ hj;6 Ja,~yJg~

l~·
Eathen embankment consists of a single material and is homogenous throughout. A blanket of
relatively impervious material may be placed on the upstream face. Used for low to moderately high
I
dams and for levees.
(

Top·11owJine
called PhreaticUne
~·

' )

Ho.itiqg~n~gus ,~ba,'nl<rn~nt
w.~ti:oui ~ny hite.m~l oraJn~ge

Fig.la Homogeneous type embankment.

A purely homogenous section poses the problems of seepage, and huge sections are required to
make it safe against piping, stability, etc. Hence a homogenous section is generally added with an
( internal drainage system such as a horizontal drainage filter . or a rock toe. This keeps the phreatic
line well within the body of the dam, allowing steeper slopes.Hence smaller sections can be used.

Fig.lb Homogeneous embankment provided with a drainage filter.

( J

')

)
()

()

(2) Zoned E:rn.bankment Type :

(
Usually provided with a central impervious core, covered by a comparitively pervious transition
zone, which is finally surrounded by a much more pervious outer zone
I till\~·0
The central core checks the :fe'page..Th ;'transition zone prevents piping through cracks which may
develop in the core.The outer zone gives stability to the central impervious fill and also distribute
the 'load over a larger area of foundations.

( Transition filter of
/ Mediocre Permeability
I )

}.g..~
Fig.2 Zoned type emba nkment.

~ inspite of it being highly impervious, may not make the best core, if it shrinks and swells too
) much.Clay is sometimes mixed with fine sand or fine r so as to use it as the most suitable
I )
material for the central impervious zone · or · rna be used as the satisfactory central ·
core' materials.Freely draining material, such as coarse sand _and g ravels} are used in the ~utei­
I ) shell.J!ransitlon filters! are provided whenever there is an abrupt change of permeability from one
zone tc another.
( )

( )

( )

\ )

I )

')

I
')
r )

\ )
{

(
(3) Diaphragm Type :
(
Diaphragm type embankments have a thin jmperyjous core. which is surrounded by earth or rock
( fill.The impervious core,called diaphra~m, is made o[imperyjous soils.concrete.steel,timber or any
gther material.It acts as a water barrier to prevent seepage through the dam.The diaphragm must ·
also be tied to the bedrock or to a very impervious foundation material.If the thickness of the
diaphn1gm at any elevation is less than 10 m or less than the height of the embankment above the
corresr: onding elevation, the dam embankment is considered to be of 'Diaphragm Type' .But if the
(
thickness equals or exceeds these limits, it is considered to be of zoned type embankment.

I., .
--------- ---*-~ ':!~ ~--

Fig.3 Diaphragm type embankment.

. <~o
1t.d•.Mgs 1 di~roo"'
@ Q;.,_~l~~\' ro hpe.- -(0..rhcl..!\e$ J di1~ < t\f ot- e(tlkkr.i'
Ill\

~ +fib-" kA\e.n~ -hpe

' )
I

): -~f~<1 Lrirr~:u]
{

\
DESIGN
(

Design criteria of Earth Dams

( 1) A fill of sufficiently of low permeability should be developed out of the available materials, so
( .. as to best serve the intended purpose with minimum cost.Barrow pits should be as close to dam site
as possible, so as to reduce the leads.

(2) Sufficient spillway and outlet capacities should be provided so as to avoid the possibility of
overtopping during design flood.
dtJt,a,~/:,
(3) Sufficient freeboard must be provided for wind set-up, wave action, frost action and earthquake
motions.

(4) The seepage lin~( i.e. phreatic line) should remain well within the downstream face of the dam,
so that no sloughing of the face ocurs.

(5) There is little harm in seepage through a flood control dam if the stability of foundations and
embankments is not impaired, by piping, sloughing,etc. but a conservation dam must be as water
tight as possible.

(6) There should be no possibility of free flow ofwater from upstream to downstream face.

(7) The upstream face should be properly protected against wave action, and the downstream face
against rains and against waves upto tail water.Provisions of horizontal berms
= at suitable intervals
.
in the d/s face may be thought of so as to reduce the erosion due to flow of rain water.Riprap should
be provTaed on the entire u/s slope and also on the d/s slope near the toe and uptd slighilyabove th~
tail water so as to avoid erosion.

(8) The portion of the dam, downstream of the impervious core, should be properly drained by
providing suitable horizontal filter drain, or toe drain, or chimney drain, etc.

(9) The upstream and d/s slopes should be so designed as to be stable under worst conditions of
loading.These critical conditions occur for the u/s slope during the sudden drawdown of the
reservoir, anc! for the dis slope during steady seepage under fi!)) reservoir.

(10) Tqe upstream and downstream slopes should be flat enough so as to provide sufficient ba&e
width at the foundation level, such as to ensure that the maximum shear stress developed remains
well below the corresponding maximum shear strength of the soil, so as to provide a suitable factor
of safety.

( 11) When the compaction is done by external ioadings the consolidation of the soil takes place
slmY!y as the excess pore water gets out and the load is transferred to soil grains.In coarse grains,
the void openings are large enough compared to fine grained impervious soils, thereby, fijli4escape
of' confined water and air is permitted and full compaction may occur before constuction is
over.Hence a suitable allowance in the height of the embankment(between 2 - 3% of the dam
height) must be made in fine soils so as to account for the consolidation that may take place, tipto
years after construction.

(12) Since the stability of the embankment and foundations . is very critical during construction or
even after constructiOn (1.e. during the period of consolidation)due to development of excessive.
pore pressures and consequent reduction in shear strength of soi!.The embankment slopes must .
)
(

c
remain safe under this critical condition also.

(
Embankment Design:
(
( Optimum use of the construction materials is desirable in order to minimize the cost. Sequencing of
construction operation is very important for achieving economy.
(
Embankment Slop e:
(
The embankment slopes depend on:
'
\ 1. nature of material.
(.
2. height of emrmkment.
3. type of dam ( homogeneous or zoned or diaphragm ).

Range of upstream slopes : 2 1/2 : 1 to 3 : 1

Range of downstream slopes : ~ : 1 to 2 1/2 :

Crest width:

Top width (or crest width) of the earthen dam will be constrained by the stipulation that the
phreatic line should be within the dam, for full reservoir condition. This will ensure safe seepage
gradient for the full reservoir level.

)> The emphirical recommendation for the crest width is:

I ~-: +3 / for low dams< 30m height.

) for dams higher than 30 m. ( to be modified. )

( )
)> Other Considerations for frxing up crest width are :
)
1. Height of dam
2. Importance of dam
( ) 3. Practicability of construction.
4. Ability to withstand earthquake shocks.( This can range between 6 m and 12m).

)
Freeboard:

This is fixed up based on the wave height. Normally, it is fixed considering maximum reservoir
level and 75% of maximum wind velocity. USBR recommends 2 to 3m of free board above the
highest flood level. For frost action, additional freeboard.

Height o(the Dam :

Prediction of maximum flood levels that would correspond to maximum flood discharge. Some
allowance is given for the reduction in the height due to consolidation following the dam
construction due to loading conditions that would prevail.

Bill:.!!.Y...;
l )

. )

)
(
(
Bermsare generally/aJleast 3 m in width!.
(

Pur12oses:
( • More stability by increasing the dam width.
• Roadway width for small vehicles for inspection purpose.
·• Reduction in surface erosion and provision of drainage.
( • To hold the riprap in place, by providing foundation support.

Design considerations in seismic regions:

1. Provision of cohesionless gr.adediilter upstream and downstream of cohesive clay core.

2. lli.gh!Y porous downstream zone is provided to discharge the excessive flows following .
cracking of the core and at the time provide stability.
3. Increasing the crest width or :flatten jog the side-slopes near the top, provides lQQ.g p!llhs.-of
seepage through cracks, thus providing safety against seepage failure.
4. Increasiog the core section will provide greater resistance to piping and twisting of dam
alignment due to earthquake.
5. Foundation treatment by removing soft soil from the foundation and replacing it with stony
materials.
6. Slope stability analysis considering the earthquake acceleration is to be carried out
considering the critical conditions ( for upstream slope and downstream slope).
( I

I l

)
(

ilure of Earthen Dams

I. Hydraulic failures
2. Seepage failures
3. Structural failures

Hydraulic failures : t\J ~ 0 o/Q

About 40% of earth dam failures have been attributed to hydraulic failures. The failure under
this category,may occur due to the following reasons :

(a) By OvertQJm.illg_,:

The water may overtop the dam, ifthe design flood is under-estimated or if the spillway is
of insufficient capacity or if the spillway gates arc not properly operated .Sufl1cient freeboard
should be provided as an additional safety measure.

,JJ&
The 1_Vaves developed near the top water surface due to the winds,_try to notch out the soil
from the upstream face and may even, sometimes, cause the slip of the upstream slope
.Upstream stone pitc~ing or riprap should, therefore,be provided to avoid such failures.
~~)U.. ':

~~-~~~
"'
"'
" "'

Fig.l Rollers due to wave action.

rc;crackinl(duelo{rostaction: ~~t..-~ .· ~ fd-J~f.D·~

Frost in the upper portion ofthe dam may cause heaving and cracking of the soil with
dangerous seepage and conseguent failure. An additional freeboard allowance ypto a
maximum of about IT3jiilmay be provided for dams in areas of low temperatures.

(d.) Erosion of downstream (ace byFv (ormation:

ljeavv rajps,t alling directly over the downstream face and the erosiye action of the~
moving water, may lead to the formation of gullies on the downstream face, ultimately
leading to the dam fajlur.e.This can be avoided by proper maintenance, filling the cuts from
time to time especially during rainy season, bylgrassmg\the slopes and by providin!(i)roper
ft>erms f Fig.2) at suitphlc 'wights, so that the water has not to flow for considerable
distances.The proper drainage arrangements are made for the removal of the rain water
, co .:tected on the horizontal berms.

;ror.z.r :co rre..c~ .

)

)
(
( .

• . • • -·' /BERMS
.... -
.. ...... . . .. . . ..... . .
.. .. . '
.:.... •
·EART~ DA~-A
' .T"\J.J;'
.
•
•...... ..... ' '
• .. •
'
•. • · : EMi?At'iKMEN1"•• • . :
. . .. . .. . .,
. . . ... .. .
. ..
(' . . ..
. ~
.
~ . ...

Fig.2 Provision of Berms.

(e) Erosion qfthe dis toe :

The d/s toe of the earth dam may get eroded due to cross currepts that may come from the
spillway buckets or due to taU water.This erosion of the toe can be avoided by proyiding..a
d/s slope pitching on a riprap upto a height slightly above the normal tail water
de:JtJ.!.Side walls ofthe spillway (called diaphragm walls) must be of sufficient height and
ler.gth so as to prevent the possibility of the cross flow towards the earthen embankment.

•Seepaee Failures : yl/3 N 3:J'l''o p, pi np fkr'j~ (~J~::J Slo'J ky J DJ.n.e_ • /

More than l/3rd of the earth dams have failed because of seepage failures .Uncontrolled or
concentrated seenage through the dam body or through the foundations may lead to
illD.ing or sloughing and the subsequent failure of the dam.

(a) P,iplng through foundations_:

When highly permeable cavities or fissures or strata@Jcoarse sand ~ are present in the
foundations of the dam ( Fig.3 ), water may start seeping at a huge rate through them.This
concentrated flow at allitgh gradtent)may erode the soil.This leads to increased flow of water
and soil, ultimately resulting in a rush of water and soil, thus, hollows get created below the
foundations. The dam may sink down into the hollow so formed, causing its failure.

@ H:Jl~rr~dief!if!ijot!d=/1'fl4£nd~on
@ Wa:Jer glarf. Jeer'7
® Hjh (Jn,.Ji"-0 ?'l.w Qrode_ -/Le. '<all .
e
® \;:!~ (J./\J bGd r~IJj-~ J(life,QSf: .
® 14.1l<>W Je:f. ~ k/ow fhe konJa_+;o~
® Rf'YI si () ~S down fnto +he. h?HoVJ' ~
(

(
--,......

--,......

Fig.3 Piping through dam and foundation

(b) P,iping through dam bodv~:

When the concentrated flow channels get developed in the body of the dam, soil may be
removed leading to the formation of hollows in the dam body (Fig. 3), and subsequent
subsiding of the dam. These flow channels may develop due to faulty construction,
insufficient compaction,cracks develo~ in embankment due to foundation settlement,
shrinkage cracks, animal burrow.s,etc. All these causes can be removed by ~
ction and better maintenance of the dam embankments.

Piping through the dam body, generally gets developed near the pipe conduits passing through
the dam body. Contact seepage along the outer side of conduits may either develop into
piping, or seepage through leaks in the conduits may develop into piping. This can be avoided
by thoroughly and properly compacting the soils near the outlet conduits and by
preventing the formation of cracks in the conduits. These cracks in the conduits are caused by
differential settlement and by overloading from the embankment.

(c) Sloughing o.fD/S to...e.:

The failure starts when the downstream toe becomes saturated and gets eroded, providing
a small stump or a miniature slide. The miniature slide leaves a relatively steep face ( Fig.4 )
which becomes saturated by the seepage from the reservoir and slumps again, forming a more
unstable surface.The process continues till the remaining portion of the dam is too thin to
withstand the horizontal water pressure, leading to the sudden failure of the dam.
b~ ft\p :- bov+-
~ tl owS :: ere;.~.,:
\

•j
)

)
 ------,
( ''
''
( ''
''
''

Fig.4 Downstream slide due to sloughing.

Structural failures :. A.J J...5 % ~use-J ~ hdures ~1~ BLde& _

About 25% of the dam failures have been attributed to structural failures .Structural failures
are generally caused by failures,causing tm<JCS)

(a) Foundation slide.: 5o~t So~ fs ~nJ~ort? - l > <h_m gf ~·ck. olJU f;;lljJ,'or;s

When the foundation. of earth dams are made of soft soi_Is, su_ch as fine sj!t,sort clay.., etc, the
entire dam may .slide oyer the foundat ions .Sometimes seams of fissured rocks,shales or soft
clay, etc. may exist under the foundations and the dam may slide over some of them, causing
its failure.li1 this type of failures ( Fig.5 ), the top of embankment gets cracked and
subsides, the lower slope moves outward forming large mud waves near the heel.

_l,,-----.---....
- -- --- ---~
~
/
/
/
/
.1'
.1'
. .1'
.1'

Fig.S Foundation slide

Excessive pore water pressure is confined seams of sand and silt, artesian pressure in
abutments, or hydrostatic excess developed due to consideration of clay seams embedded
between sands or silts, etc. may reduce the shear strength of the soil, until it becomes
incapable of resisting the induced shear stresses, leading to the failure of dam foundations
without warning. Loose sand foundations may fail by liquefication of flow slides.

(h) Slide in Embankment,· : Too ~f s/0Fe..s

I )

( )

r)

)
 (

( I
When the embankment slopes are too steep for the strength of the soil, they may slide
causing dam failure ( Fig.6 ). The 11\PSt critical condition of the slide of the u/s slope is the
sudden draw-down of the reservoir and slope is most likely to slide, when the reservoir is
full ( Fig.7 ).

Low water Level

(I

Fig.6 Failure due to sudden drawdown.

The u/s slope failures seldom lead to catastrophic failures, but the dis slope failures are very
serious.These failures, generally occur due to the dyvelopment of excessive unaccounted pore
•
p~:.essures which may reduce the shearing strength of the soils.Many embankments may fail
during the process of consolidation, at the time of construction or after the construction.

(
___r_: ' FAILURE
\,./'SURFACE
' \

''
'' '\
(
''

Fig. 7 DIS slope slide during full reservoir condition.

(c) Flow slide: It occurs due to liguification of foundation soil com of loose sand or
silt when the dam face collapses on its foundation

(d) Sn.reading: When the earth d.am is located on weak foundation comP.rising of
s.t ratifiedJaY-crs of sQft soil_, ctay, failure may occur through spreading of the embankment
-'
slope ( Fig.8 ). ~~

)
 ,-)

~)

( )

()
()
( )

( )

( )

()

( )

()

r)
)

f)

()
C)
C")

(")

()
l)

()
c)

:' \

\ ()
I
'irl

(: spre.a._Jing =?> \.</~ CoJak.I\J' Wnpr.sj of /nrus of' ,J+. 'So! I ol'e/
61
(

()

0
n
Stratified Clayey Foundation
(I

()

()
<h~ ( '
1-t-". 1
( )
Fig.8 Failure by spreading.
( )
~~ Previous

Flow Net Analysis.

( \

A considerable amount of seepage takes place in an earth dam through its foundations and in
the dam body through the gorous and relativel:x: impervious sandy clayey materials. To
determine the amount of seepage, it is necessary to determine the flow net which requires the
integration of the Laplace equation based on darcy's Law for the seepage of water through
soil.
I
Seepage Theory

( ) ah ah 0
2 2

( ) ,, ~+~=
ax ay
( ~
a2¢ a2tJ
-+--0
a~ ayl where ¢ = -kh is the flow causing potential. If K is constant, ¢is a
( 1
direct measure of the seepage head.

One set of lines represents the trajectories of seepage and is called Flow Lines. Between two
adjacent flow lines is a flow channel which conveys a fixed part of the total discharge. The
other set is called E.Jlliipotential Lines which are simply contours of equal head.. The
difference between any two adjacent equipotential lines is the potential droP, or head loss
developed as seepage water flows through the flow channel.

The entire pattern offlow lines and equipotential line is termed asliiownet/( Fig. I)
 )

J)

.J
 c
(

Potential ·orop

Flow Lines

- Equipotential Lines

Fig.l The flow net.

Properties of Flow Net Curves.

In drawing the flow net for the earth dam following properties of the curves are to be noted .

.1. The shape ofthe successive flow lines represents gradual transition from one to the other.

2. The flow lines and equipotential lines must intersect each other at right angles.

3. The(flow lineslmust S!ill:! and ~at ri~ht angles to the ground surface upstream~
downstream respectively.
\

4. If an upstream stratum does Q21 exist, the flow line gradually adopts semi-elliptical shape.

L --,---r __________ rines must~ and eng at right angle§. to the first and last flow lines
respectively.

6. Every square obtained by the intersection of flow lines and equipotential lines is called a
fl.eld.

7. If the curves are drawn properly, a circle can be drawn in each field which touches all the
four sides of the fields.
I

u•
-

)
 r

~srr
;{1~
(j
1\

- -
~ §_
~-

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'V
~

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\
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l; ('· .

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/
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~

J a
~
..:::::::; ol
•4 -<2
-+- +
~
V'l
-<1
~
-A ()J

~ \1
<J
, ;
" ~ cl
II
2 c:::
..:::!,
~
~ ~
~
<lJ ~ c::;;
---.,
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In the light of the above properties, the flow lines and the equipotential lines in the flow net
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can be drawn in the body of the dam and in the foundations. Fig.2 shows flow-net drawn for a
( homogeneous earth dam provided with a horizontal drainage filter.
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Equipotential lines

_______l_ ____ _
Phreatic Line

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Fig.2 Flow net for seepage through homogeneous earth dam with horizontal drainage
filter.

Phreatic Line

Phreatic line is the kop flow lind which separates saturated from unsaturated zone and below
which p,ositiye hydrostatic pressure exists in the dam section. Along the phreatic line, the
atmospheric pressure exists. This line, whose position is not influenced by the presehce of
pervious foundation, is always normal to the upstream face which represents I 00 per cent
equipotential line. The subsequent equipotential lines meet the phreatic line at equal vertical
intervals cf'4h)). Similarly the subsequent flow lines are determined on the condition of
equating the distance between the flow line with that between the potential lines, thus forming
a series of squares.( Fig.2 ).

Pore Pressure ..
A~k eAr· I ~ 1Z~~
The soil mass comprises of solid particles, and voids filled with water and air. When the moist
soil mass is loaded without permitting water or air to escape, partcJthe load"causes the s.oil
( )
grains to ~ elastical~y without changing their solid volume and is called the\iffective
stress/ The remainmg part load is carried by the stress in the water and air contained in the
( ) voids and is known as the pore-wafer pressurejJr simplyi.P.ore pressure) .

Because the pore water pressure generally deeends on the comeressibility of the compacted
soil and the amount of air contained in it, greater pressures would result when the soils are
compacted close to saturation. As such, it is a general practice in the construction of high
earth fill dam to compact the cohesive soils with water content brought below the optimum
moisture content of ~r ~ximl!W 9J:y dens.i!y.

Considerable pore pressures develop during and after construction of an earth dam before
filling of the reservoir. Immediately on dam construction, the soil mass is under compression
due to the overlying fill and without proper drainage of the compacted wet soil and as a result
sizeable pure pressures develop. However, these are gradually dissipated as the soil moisture
is redistributed. As the reservoir is filled, water reenters the voids and a new pore pressure
head at any point is equal to the hydrostatic head due·to the water in the reservoir less the
head loss in seepage through the dam to that point.
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The usual failure of an earth dam consists in sliding of a large mass of soil along a curved
surface.( Fig. I)
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. . a l Bank Slope
Ongon ~

Bulg~e ... "" ...

... ....
"'
, /
/

,.,
;'

,,

Fig.l 'Cross-section of failure by sliding

The stability of the earth dam. is therefore determined by its ab ility to resist shear stress
resul ting from externally aQplied loads such as reservoir and earthquake and from internal
body force caused by the weight of the soil and the dam slopes. The external and internal
body forces also produce compressive stresses normal to the potential sliding surface, which
contribute both to the shearing strength of the soil as well as to the development oi.llQie.
pressure~. Terzaghi found that the total stress normal to any plane is made up of an effectjye
stress and a fluid pressun;. Thus, the total· normal compressive stress is mathematically stated
as .
fa-=o-'+u J ... Eqn.l

where cr = normal compressive stress.

d = effective stress
u-=...Qore wat~r gressure.

The shearing strength ( s ) along a plane is obtained from Coulomb's equation.

or

s•c+(a-u)tan~
s - c +a 'tan e ... Eqn.2
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wher~ Cohesion whose value for sand is taken as zero and for clay between 5 - 6Q
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kN/m 2
( - -@)=::.Angle_Q[loternal frictio
~ .
From Eqn.2 it may be inferred that the fractional portio'n of the resistance <J.long a plane is
reduced by pore water pressure.

Various methods have been proposed for computing the stability of earth dams. In general,
these methods are based on the shearing strength of the soil and certain assumption with
respect to the character of the embankment failure. The Swedish or Slip Circle method
suggested by Patterson, a Swedish engineer is the one most generally used.

Slip Circle Method

The basic method presumes the failure surface to be an arc of circle in cross-section.
Moments are developed about the circle centre, by the internal forces and external loads
including the weight of the mass of soil, the force exerted by the water pressure on the face of
the slope, etc. These moments tend to cause overturning ( L:M0 ) and c'onsequent failure. The
resisting moments ( .L:Mr) are provided by the shear resistance along the failure surface plus
any resistance offered by piling of structures which extend across the failure surface. The
safety of the slope is given by the ratio of the resisting to overturning moments which should
be greater than 1.

In determining the stability of a proposed slope such as an embankment, it is necessary to try

nany different circles. The circle which gives the minimum factor of safety is the most
critical. The number of circles in practice is decided by the past experience.

The basic analysis as described above is used for any soil where shear resistance is
. independent of the normal pressure on the failure surface. In soils, where shear is affected by
the confining pressure, the effective stress on each segment of failure arc must be determined
in order to compute the shear strength. Since no exact analysis for this is available, various
approximations are employed of which the method of slices is most reliable and widely used.

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