d.

Nematodes
INTRODUCTION TO PLANT i. DBCP is used to kill nematodes. DBCP is also called
PATHOLOGY “fumazone” and “nemagon”
6. What government agency regulates the movement of “would be pest”?
QUIZ a. NCPC
b. FDA
1. Which of the following diseases is caused by viroid? c. DA
a. Potato spindle tuber d. BPI
b. Bunchy top of abaca - virus i. Plant quarantine system is under the National Plant
c. Rice grassy stunt - virus Quarantine Services Division, which is under BPI
d. Rice tungro - virus
2. Which of the following statements is true?
a. Rice tungro is caused by the combination of two viruses, RTBV IMPORTANCE OF PLANTS
and RTV.
i. RTV should be RTSV  They make up the majority of the earth’s living environment as trees,
b. The term pathogenesis refers to the capacity of the pathogen to grass, flowers, and so on.
cause a disease  They provide food, shelter, clothing, medicine, aesthetics, improving
i. Should be pathogenicity not pathogenesis environment and luxuries.
c. Rice tungro spherical virus is localized in the vascular bundle  Plant diseases cause devastation to the agricultural sector.
d. Nephotetix virescens can transmit RTSV alone.  Plant diseases can be identified by means of their symptoms they
3. Which of the following is incorrect? expressed on the plant
a. Radopholus sp. – burrowing nematode
b. Paratylenchus sp. – pin nematode
c. Belonaimus sp. – lance nematode PLANT PATHOLOGY
d. Pratylenchus sp. – lesion nematode
 ETYMOLOGY
4. In case a disease is not yet known to you previously, it is necessary to
 Greek word pathos – suffering
resort to ____.
 Greek word logos – to study
a. Koch’s Postulate
 Plant pathology is the study of the suffering of plants
b. Laboratory diagnosis
 AS A SCIENCE
c. Field diagnosis
 Because it seeks to understand the nature of plant diseases
d. All of the above
 Includes:
5. In Davao, this pesticide which is chemicaaly known as
o Cause – etiology of plant disease (what is the causal organism)
Dibromochloropropane (DBCP) was used in 1970 extensively on
banana plantations. However, at the end of 1980, high cases of sterility o Plant-pathogen interaction
and other health concerns were recorded in the area. The said pesticide o Factors affecting disease development
was used to kill what certain plant pathogenic agent?  Host
a. Phytoplasma  Environment
b. Viruses  Characteristics of the pathogen itself
c. Fungi o Means of control
 AS AN ART  Transcription and translation
 Because it is the application of knowledge gained from studying the  Reproduction
nature of plant diseases (process where science is made useful)  WHY DO WE NEED TO STUDY PLANT DISEASES?
 Includes:  They affect food supply
o Disease diagnosis  They reduce quantity and quality of plant produce
o Assessment and forecasting  They cause financial losses
 Assessment – severity and incidence of the disease  They limit the kinds of plants and industries in an area
 Forecasting – projection of the diseases within 5 years  They make some infected plants poisonous to humans
given a certain environmental condition. o There are some fungal diseases that produce mycotoxins, which
o Recommended control measures are poisonous to humans.
 Most important because it is what the farmers are after to o Fusarium produces poisonous substances called fumonisins
increase their profit or mitigate the effects of the disease in o Aspergillus flavus produces aflatoxins
their farm.  They increase cost of production due to control measures
 ULTIMATE OBJECTIVE OF PLANT PATHOLOGY  BRIEF HISTORY AND IMPORTANCE
 Control and management so that losses will be brought to a  International
minimum o Late blight disease of potato (Phytophthora infestans
[fungal-like organism])
 Devastated northeastern Europe where potato is
PLANT DISEASE considered a staple crop
 1845 – observed in Belgium, Holland, England, and
 WHAT IS A PLANT DISEASE? Ireland (25% loss)
 Physical malfunction caused by animate objects (Whetzel, 1929)
 1846 – total crop failure in Ireland; caused the Irish famine
 Any deviation from normal growth or structure of plants that is
efficiently pronounced and permanent to produce visible symptoms
to impair quality or economic value. (Stakman & Harrar, 1957)
 A malfunctioning process cause by continuous irritation (Horsfall &
Dimond)
 Any malfunctioning of host cells and tissues that results from
continuous irritation by a pathogen or an environmental actor and
leads to the development of symptoms.
 HOW DO PLANT DISEASES AFFECT PLANTS?
 Root absorption
o Nematodes greatly affects root absorption of plants
 Uptake of water and minerals
 Photosynthesis o Coffee rust of Ceylon (Hemileia vastatrix [fungus])
o Blasts and rusts usually affect the photosynthesis of plants  Destroyed coffee plantations  tea was planted instead
 Respiration
 Permeability
 Transport of photosynthates
o Ergot of rye (Claviceps purpurea [fungus]) o Bengal Famine (Helminthosporium oryzae [fungus])
 French word argot – spur  Brown spot of rice
 Caused  Bangladesh; 50% yield loss for early maturing varieties
* Abortion while 75-90% yield loss for the late maturing varieties
* Tingling sensation  Fugus have sexual and asexual stage
* Fever
* Gangrene (loss of limbs and extremities)  Locale
* Convulsions o Cadang-cadang disease of coconut (Cadang cadang
* Burning sensation (St. Anthony’s Fire or Holy Fire) [viroid])
 1722 – the army of Peter the Great of Russia (20k soldiers)  Viroid
died from consuming severely infected wheat * Smaller than a virus
 Produces sclerotial bodies, which is a mass of hyphae * Single stranded
* Ergot of rye is capable of tissue substitution, causing * Circular RNA particles which do not have capsid
some of the grains to turn into sclerotial bodies * Unlike viruses, viroids do not have protein coat
containing a powerful hallucinogenic called Lysergic * It has extensive bas pairing which allows it to persist
Acid Diethylamide (LSD) even with smaller number of base pairs
 1918 – first observed; loss amounted to >200M dollars;
killed 15M coconut trees
 Cadang cadang – came from the Bicolano word gadan
gadan, which means death
 o Coffee rust in Batangas (Hemileia vastatrix)
 Destroyed coffee plantations in Batangas

o Citrus decline (Tylenchulus semipenetrans [nematode])

o Downey mildew of corn (Peronosclerospora philippinensis
[fungal-like organism])  The causal organism exhibits
* sexual dimorphism – sexes of the same species
 Annual yield loss reached 95% amounting to 17M Php
exhibit differences in morphological characteristics
 Controlled seed treatment using Metalaxyl (APRON 35
* is sexually reproducing
SD), also known as ridomil
* APRON 35 SD (SD means side dressing) * is capable of facultative parthenogenesis – capable to
produce offspring without copulation or gametes
o Rice tungro (Rice Tungro Bacilliform Virus [RTBV] & Rice involved
Tungro Spherical Virus [RTSV])  wiped out the citrus plantations in Batangas
 In order to have a successful infection or expression of the  Fun facts about citrus nematode:
disease, both of the viruses should be present in the plant * First discovered in California (Thomas, 1913)
 Symptoms: * Nathan Cobb (1913) described it as a new species,
* Yellow to Orange Leaf discoloration which then was identified as the causal agent of citrus
* Stunted growth decline
* Duncan (2005) noted that the nematode can be found
* Reduced tiller numbers sterile or partly filled grains
in every citrus growing in the world
 1971 – Affected 70k hectares
 The reason why non-domestically produced
 Loss of 1.22M cavans of rice valued at 30M Php
citrus plants undergo quarantine and permit
 To diagnose, the symptoms should be present as well as
acquisition before importation and establishment
the green leafhopper – GLH (Nephotetix virescens or
in the Philippine market
‘ngusong kabayo’), which is its vector
 TYPES OF CROP LOSSES
 Yield reduction
 Postharvest losses due to storage pests
 Quality reduction
 Toxin contamination due to organisms producing mycotoxins,
aflatoxins, fumonisins
 Susceptibility/predisposition of host attack once the plant has been
affected primarily by a disease
 Increase in production cost and handling

CONCEPTS OF PLANT DISEASES

WHAT IS A PLANT DISEASE?
 Physical malfunction caused by animate objects
 Any deviation from normal growth or structure of plants
 A malfunctioning process caused by continuous irritations
 Any malfunctioning of host cells and tissues that results from continuous
irritation

COMMON TERMINOLOGIES
 Pathogen – any agent (biotic or abiotic) that causes a disease. The term is
generally used to refer to living organisms, such as
 Fungus
 Bacteria
 Viruses
  Viroid  PLANT DISEASES CAN BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO:
 Host – a plant being attacked by a parasite. A food relationship with a  Affected plant organs
parasite (pathogen is implied). o Root diseases
 Suscept – a plant that is susceptible to a disease, whether or not the o Foliage diseases
pathogen is parasitic. o Fruit diseases
 Parasite – an organism which depends wholly or partly on another living  Symptoms
organism for its food. Most parasites are pathogens. o Leaf spots
 Facultative parasite – organism which has the ability to become a o Rusts
parasite but originally a saprophyte o Smuts
 Obligate parasite – organism that subsists only on living organisms o Anthracnose
and attacks only living tissues. o Mosaic
 Saprophyte – an organism that lives on dead organic or inorganic matter. o Wilts
 Facultative saprophyte – organism which has the ability to become a
o Rots
saprophyte but is ordinarily a parasite
 Types of affected plants or hosts
 Obligate saprophyte – organism that only subsists on and attacked
o Ornamentals
dead tissues
o Field crops
 Pathogenicity – capacity of a pathogen to cause a disease
o Vegetables
 Pathogenesis – disease development in the plant. This is not the same
 Types of pathogen
with the disease cycle.
o Infectious or biotic or parasitic agents
 Virulence – quantitative amount of disease that an isolate of a given
o Non-infectious or abiotic or non-parasitic agents
pathogen can cause in a given group of plants in terms of size or number
of lesions.
 Aggressiveness – measures the rate of virulence expressed by a
pathogenic isolate. It is the virulence with respect to time.
DISEASE TRIANGLE
 Susceptibility – inability to overcome the effects of a pathogen. It is the  COMPONENTS
opposite of resistance.  Virulent Pathogen
 Disease resistance – inherent ability of an organism to overcome the  Favorable Environment – conducive for disease development
effects of a pathogen.  Susceptible Host
 Disease tolerance – ability of a plant to withstand the severe effects of  DISEASE DIAGNOSIS
the pathogen without experiencing a severe reduction in yield.  Improper disease diagnosis  waste of time and resources, and can
 Masked symptoms – symptoms are not expressed due to unfavorable lead to further losses
condition  Steps:
 Symptomless carriers – host that does not show symptoms irrespective of o Know what is normal
environment.  Proper plant identification
 Recognize healthy plant appearance
CLASSIFICATION o Check for symptoms and Signs
 Rational grouping of plant diseases  Identify the characteristic symptoms
 Helpful in the identification and subsequence of a particular disease  Identify symptom variability
  Look for signs of biotic causal agents  Isolation and identification of biotic plant disease causal
* Signs vs symptoms agents
 Signs (parts of the pathogen which indicate the  Diagnostic tests for identification of biotic/abiotic causal
presence of the pathogen. They can be in the agents
form of cells, bacterial cells, cell parts) o Final Diagnosis
 Symptoms (visible effect of the pathogen on the  Diagnosis is a form of hypothesis testing, where the
plant) hypothesis is simply the identity of the disease and a good
 Identify the plant part affected diagnostician goes through multiple iterations of the
* Are the symptoms associated with a specific plant scientific method.
part
o Observe patterns
 Check for Distribution symptoms
* Caused by Biotic agents – random
* Caused by Abiotic agents – uniform
SYMPTOM
 Check for Host specificity
o Ask questions  Evidences of a disease in the plant
 To review the cultural practices and growing environment  A symptom is the visible change in the appearance of a plant or its parts
* Cultural practices of farmers that make crops arising from a disease.
susceptible  Symptoms can result from disruption of:
 Monocropping causes the disease cycle to be  Photosynthesis
continuous  water absorption
 Improper postharvest handling  nutrient translocation
 Too much nitrogen application results to toxicity  reproduction
and overproduction of tillers, making the  LOCAL VS SYSTEMIC
morphology of the plant conducive to pests  Local
 Improper use of pesticides leads to pesticide o Expressed as a physiological or structural change in a limited
resistance area of the tissues of the hosts
o Laboratory tests o Examples:
 Koch’s Postulate (also called Koch’s Rules of Proof)  Galls
* Association  Leaf spots
* Isolation  Cankers
* Inoculation  Systemic
* Re-isolation o Expressed as the reaction of a greater part or all of the plant
 Incubation of plant material o Examples:
* Sometimes neither symptoms nor signs provide  Dwarfing
enough specific or characteristic information to  Wilting
decide the cause of the disease  Yellowing
  Mosaic o Galls vs nodules
 COMMON SYMPTOMS  Galls – attached to the roots
 Wilting – flaccid (soft) condition of leaves, shoots, or entire plants  Nodules – loosely attached to the roots
expressing loss of turgor
 Yellowing – loss of green color in normally green tissues at edge of SIGN
necrotic areas
 Blast – commonly applied to blighting or sudden death of young  Structure of the pathogen or the pathogen itself
buds  Maybe a result of interaction between the pathogen and the host (e.g.
 Blight – sudden or total killing of shoots, foliage, twigs, and ooze, odor)
blossoms  COMMON SIGNS
 Canker – sunken lesion in cortical tissues of stems, twigs, tubers  Mycelium – the mass of hyphae (fungal threads) of the fungus
with raised borders  Hypha (single thread filament of the fungus)
 Damping off – can be pre-emergence or post-emergence  Sclerotium – hard, dense mass of mycelium with a rind-like outer
o Pre-emergence: seed decay or death of seedlings before coat, black or brown
emergence from soil o Rhizoctonia – Leaf blight of rice
o Post- emergence: emerged seeds fall over from infection at or o Sclerotium
above the soil level o Claviceps – causes Ergot of rye
o Usually caused by Pythium sp. o Sclerotium are sometimes used for inoculation
 Die back – dying backwards from tips of twigs and branches of trees  Spores – general term for reproductive bodies of fungi
and shrubs o Conidia – asexual spores of imperfect fungi, ascospores,
 Mummification – final stage in certain types of rots, usually in fruit basidiospores, etc.
diseases where dead fruits (mummy) are covered by mycelia and  Sorus – cluster of sporangia or spores (Smut & rust)
spores  Sporangium
 Pitting – drying of small localized areas in fleshy or woody tissues o Usually seen in oomycetes
beneath healthy-appearing, external tissues, leaving definite  Pythium
depression or pits  Phytophthora
 Rot – dead tissue in a more or less advanced stage of disintegration  Rhizopus
o Common sign when the causal organism is bacteria – bacterial o Enlarged tip of a specialized fruiting hypha of fungi and fungal-
ooze like organisms
 Shot-hole – necrotic spotting of leaves in which diseases tissues  Conidia or zoospores are produced inside
soon drops out leaving holes  Ooze – droplets or strands composed of bacteria or fungal spores
 Spot – circular or irregular dead area in which tissues dry out mixed with host liquids
 Dwarfing – sub normalize size of entire plant or some of its organs o Usual in bacterial wilt diseases
 Resetting – shortening of the internodes of shoots or branches o Slime – white exudates
resulting in the crowding of the foliage
 Nematode cyst or egg masses– diagnostic feature of cyst and root
 Fasciculation – clustering of organs about a common locus due to
knot nematodes
adventitious development
 SIGNS OF DIFFERENT PLANT PATHOGENS
 Tumefaction – formation of tumor-like outgrowths or local swelling
 Fungal diseases
on any part of the plant
 o Mycelia
o Spores
o Fruiting bodies
 Bacterial diseases
o Bacterial cells
o Bacterial ooze
 Nematode
o Eggs
o Juveniles
o Adult nematode PARASITIC AGENTS OF PLANT
 Viruses
o Virus particles
DISEASES: Fungi
o Inclusion bodies FUNGI
 Viroid
o RNA fragments  Considered one of the most important pathogens affecting crops
 Parasitic flowering plants  PHYLUM ASCOMYCOTA
o Seeds  One of the common phylum containing a large number plant
o Plant itself pathogenic fungal genera
 Almost 80% of fungi affecting plants are included in this phylum
 Common diseases associated with Ascomycota
o Fusarium wilt of banana
o Colletotrichum fungal disease
 CHARACTERSISTICS:
 usually filamentous, branches, spore bearing organisms that lack
chlorophyll
o hence, they cannot produce their own food
o they rely on their host for growth and development
 fungal cell walls contain chitin and glucan
 heterotrophic
o they cannot produce their own food
 Penetration and entry: they use an appressorium to attach to the host
o They are the only ones aside from nematodes that can penetrate
an organism on its own
o Bacteria, viruses, viroids, and FLOs cannot penetrate an
organism and express a disease on their own; they need natural
openings and wounds to penetrate the organism
o Mode of penetration and nutrition:
  Once the spore landed on the host’s surface, and o Involves male and female gametes
environment is suitable for growth, it will germinate on the o Oogonium – female organ which will be fertilized by the
host antheridium, forming oospores
 It will create a germ tube which would later on become o Antheridium- male organ
penetration peg where the appressorium would attach to,  Fungi
creating a haustorium or haustoria o Oosppores are not produced
* Haustoria – responsible for obtaining nutrients from o Sexual reproduction results in zygospores, ascospores or
the host basidiospores
* This is the reason why fungal infected leaves dry out,  Nuclear State:
resulting to lesions or blights  Oomycetes - Diploid (2n)
 Fungi – haploid or dikaryotic
REPRODUCTION OF FUNGI  Cell wall composition:
 It can reproduce in terms of spores or through the mycelia  Oomycetes: cellulose & glucan
 Survival: Through spores or mycelia in decaying materials  Fungi: chitin & glucan
o Cellulose is rare in the cell wall of true fungi
 BY SPORES
 Small seed-like structures that germinate and produce threadlike  Type of flagella on zoospores:
filaments (hyphae) through the plant’s natural opening like the  Zoospores: motile spores
stomates, hydathodes, and lenticels o Whiplash – directed posteriorly (pababa)
o Fibrous Ciliated – directed anteriorly (pataas)
FLOs vs FUNGI  Oomycetes – has whiplash and fibrous ciliated
 Fungi – zoospores are only produced in chytrids (under Phylum
Chytridiomycota); the flagellum for those was only whiplash
 Mitochondria:
 Oomycetes – with tubular cristae
 Fungi – with flattened cristae

KIGDOM CHROMISTA (FLOs)

 TAXONOMY
 Phylum: Oomycota
 Class: Oomycetes
 Order:
o Saprolegniales (Aphanomyces)
 Kingdom o Peronosporales
 Oomycetes: Stramenophyla or Chromista  Family:
 True Fungi: Chytridiomycota * Pythiaceae
 Sexual Reproduction:  Pythium (damping off of rice)
 Oomycetes: Heterogametangia
  Phytophthora (leaf blight of potato)  MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
* Peronosporaceae (mildews)  One of the most distinguishing characteristics is the production of
 Plasmopara zoospores produced in the sporangia
 Peronospora  The anterior flagellum of a zoospore is a tinsel type (fibrous
 Bremia ciliated), while the posterior flagellum is a whiplash type
 Pseudoperonospora o Both are typically attached in a ventral groove
 Peronosclerospora
 Sclerophthora
 Sclerospora
* Albuginaceae
 Albugo (commonly known as white rust, which
is common in kangkong)
 Cells of albugo are connected by disjunctor cells Ventral grooove
 Note on naming of taxonomy:
o Kingdom: -ista
o Phylum: -cota
o Class: -cetes
o
o Order: -ales
 Orientations of antheridium and oogonium when reproducing
o Family: -ceae
zoospores:
 PHYLYM OOMYCOTA
o Amphigynous orientation of the antheridium
 The oomycetes (aka water molds) are a group of several hundred
 Oogonium is in shoot-like orientation with the antheridium
organisms that include some of the most devastating plant
o Paragynous orientation of the antheridium
pathogens.
 The diseases they cause include  Antheridium just kisses the surface of the oogonium
o Seedling blights
o Damping off
o Root rots
o Foliar blights
o Downy mildews

 Some notable diseases are the
o Late blight of potato  DISEASES CAUSED BY FLOs
 Pythium sp.
o Downy mildew of grape vine
o Seed rot
o Sudden oak death
o Seedling damping-off
o Root and stem rot of soybean
o Root rot of all types of plants
 Because of their filamentous growth habit (nutrition by absorption,
o Soft rots of fleshy fruits in contact with the soil
and reproduction via spores), oomycetes were long regarded by
plant pathologists as lower fungi.  Phytophthora sp
o Late blight of potato
 oRoot rots, fruit rots, and blights of many annual and perennial  Order Glomales (endomycorrhiza)
plants o Glomus
o Root and stem rots o Acaulospora
o Cankers o Gigaspora
o Diebacks of trees o Endomycorrhiza – mutual relationship of the root with the
 Bremia, Peronospora, Plasmopara, Pseudoperonospora fungus
o Downy mildews of dicotyledonous plants like lettuce, tobacco,  PHYLUM BASIDIOMYCOTA
grape and cucurbits  Aka the club and mushroom fungi
 Peronosclerospora, Sclerophthora, Sclerospora  Produces sexual spores called basidiospores
o Downy mildew diseases of monocots like corn, sorghum, and o Basidiospores are produced externally on a club-like, one- or
sugarcane. four-celled spore producing structure called basidium
 Albugo
o White rust diseases of cruciferous plants
o Located on the underside of the leaf

TRUE FUNGI
 PHYLYM CHYTRIDIOMYCOTA
 Has motile cells (zoospores with whiplash flagellum)
 Order Chytridiomycetes
o Physoderma mardis – crown spot of corn
o Synchytrium psopocarpi – orange gall of winged bean
o Olpidium brassicae – root disease of crucifers 
 Parts:
 PHYLUM ZYGOMYCOTA o For every hymenium, there is one basidium which produces the
 Have well-developed mycelia without cross walls basidiospores
 Produce non-motile spores in sporangia called zygospores  Order Uredinales (rust fungi)
o Resting spore is a thick-walled zygospore produced by the o Common:
union of two morphologically similar gametes  Hemileia
 Zygomycetes are strictly terrestrial fungi  Puccinia
o Their spores are often floating around in the air  Uromyces
o Are either saprophytes or weak parasites of plants and plant  Phakospora
products on which they can cause soft rots or molds. o It is among the most destructive plant diseases
 Order Mucorales  Have caused famines and ruined economies of large areas,
o Rhizopus stolonifera – soft rot of fruits and vegetables including entire countries
 Aka black bread mold o Attacks mostly leaves and stems
o Choanephora cucurbitarum – fruit rot of cucurbits
  Rust infections usually appear as numerous rusty, orange,  Masmius – fairy ring disease of turfgrasses
yellow, or even white-colored spots that rupture the  Pleurotus -white rot on logs
epidermis  Pholiota – brown wood rot of deciduous forest trees
o Rust fungi are obligate parasites in nature  Order Aphyllophorales
 But some of them have now been grown on special culture o Basidia without cross walls produced on hymenium-forming
media in the laboratory hyphae and lining the surfaces of small pores or tubes
o Most rust fungi produce five distinct fruiting structures with o Examples:
five different spore forms that appear in a definite sequence.  Athelia (anamorph is Sclerotium) – root and stem rots of
 Microcyclic rusts – teliospores  basidiospores many plants
* Involves the process of karyogamy – fusion of the  Chondrostereum, C. purpureum – silver leaf disease of
nucleus trees
 Macrocyclic rusts – basidiospores (from basidium)   Corticium – one species causing the red thread disease of
spermatia (from spermogonium)  aeciospores (from turf grasses
aecium)  uredospores (from uredium or uredinium)   Heterobasidion, H. annosum – root and butt rot of many
teliospores (from telium) trees
* Barberry (Berberis vulgaris) – alternative host for  Ganoderma – root and basal stem rots in many trees
basidiospores  PHYLUM ASCOMYCOTA
 Order Ustilaginales (smut fungi)  Most important phylum of true fungi because 80% of fungi infecting
o Common: plants belongs to Phylum Ascomycota
 Ustilago o Fusarium – vascular wilts, root rots, stem rots, seed infections
 Tilletia  Gibberella (teleomorph stage)
o Most smut fungi attack the ovaries of grains and grasses and  Fusarium or panama wilt of banana – Fusarium
develop in them and in the fruit (i.e. in the kernels of grain oxysporum formespiciales cubense tropical race IV
crops) which they destroy completely o Colletotrichum – anthracnose
 Example: in corn (produces huitlacoche – a delicacy in  Gibberella (teleomorph stage)
Mexico because of its higher protein content than the  Mango anthracnose – Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
corn’s) o Alternaria – leaf spots & blights
o Most smut fungi produce only two kinds of spores  Lewia (teleomorphic stage)
 Teliospores o Bipolaris – leaf spots and root rots in grasses
 Basidiospores  Cochliobolus heterostropus (teleomorph stage)
 Order Agaricales  Corn leaf spot – Bipolaris maydis
o Basidium without cross walls o Curvularia – leaf spots on grasses
o Produce radiating gills/ lamella
 Cochliobolus (teleomorph stage)
o Many are mycorrhizal fungi o Botrytis – grey mold rot
o Commonly found on forest trees
 Botryotinia (teleomorph stage)
o Examples:
 B. cinerea – soft rot of fruits
 Armillaria – root rot of trees o Rhizoctonia – root and stem rots
 Crinipellis – witches’ broom of cacao
  Thanatenophorus (teleomorph stage)  Absorbed by roots and distributed within the plants to control
 Sheath blight of rice - R. solani certain diseases
o Sclerotium – southern blight of many crops  Applied to seeds or soil
 Aethalium (teleomorph stage)  Benlate
 Most have
o Sexual stage – teleomorph
o Asexual stage – anamorph
ISOLATION OF PLANT PATHOGENIC FUNGI
 Produce sexual spores called ascospores  Tissue planting technique
o usually in groups of eight within an ascus  STEPS
o Ascus contains  Produce agar (Potato dextrose agar)
 Ascogonium – female part o Put medium in distilled water then autoclave
 Antheridium – male part o Pour autoclaved solution into a petri dish
o Types of ascocarp: o Cool the medium to solidify
 Get sections from margin of lesions of infected plant part, which
was placed in 10% chlorox
o Sa margin kumukuha because it is where the pathogen is
actively growing
 Tissue sections blotted with sterile paper towel to remove chlorox
 Sections are placed on medium

 Produce asexual spores called conidia
o On free hyphae or in asexual fruiting structures (Pycnidia,
acervuli)

KINDS OF FUNGICIDE
 PROTECTIVE FUNGICIDE
 As foliage and fruit sprays or dusts to keep disease-causing fungi
from penetrating plants
 Zineb
 ERADICANT FUNGICIDE
 kills or inhibits fungi after they have penetrated the plants
 Mercury Chloride
 PROTECTIVE AND ERADICANT FUNGICIDE
 Controls foliage and fruit diseases, as seed treatment
 Captan
 SYSTEMIC AND CURATIVE FUNGICIDE
  Obligate parasites of submicroscopic size
o Cannot be cultured but can be inoculated into a healthy plant to
observe the symptoms
 Consist of segments of double or single stranded RNA or DNA encased
in protein structures called protein coat
 Lacks machinery for its own reproduction; it needs suitable host
 Shape ranges from spherical to filamentous
 TWO MAIN COMPONENTS OF VIRUSES:
 Protein coat – 60 to 95%
o To provide protective sheath for the nucleic acid
o Facilitates the movement of the virus from cell to cell
o Determine the vector transmissibility
o Determine the kinds of symptoms its causes
 Nucleic acid content – 5 to 40%
o Considered as the blueprint or the infective component of the
virus
o Nucleic acid of most plant viruses consists of single-stranded
RNA, but a large number of viruses have been shown to
contain DNA
 EXAMPLE OF PLANT DISEASES CAUSED BY VIRUSES:
 Tomato leaf curl virus (TolCV)
 Rice tungro – RTBV and RTSV
 FUN FACTS:
 19th century
o Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck & Russian researcher
Dmitrii Iwanovski investigated the cause of a mysterious
disease of tobacco
 They found out about tobacco mosaic virus
o Berijerinck coined the term contagium vivum fluidum (living
infectious fluid) whose reproduction was intimately linked to
that of its host cell
PARASITIC AGENTS OF PLANT
DISEASE: Virus SHAPES OF THE PLANT VIRUSES
PLANT VIRUSES
 Considered as the invisible foe
 They are not seen by the naked eye
  Two types of Replication:

 Shapes
 Isometric – Cowpea chlorotic mottle virus
 Rod shaped – Tobacco mosaic virus
 Geminate
 Filamentous
 Bacilliform – Bacilliform rhabdovirus (Broccoli necrotic yellow
virus)
 Flexuous thread – Sugarcane mosaic virus
 Electron microscope
 Type of microscope to view viruses
o Lytic cycle:
 The bacteriophage will introduce the phage DNA but it
will remain separate from the host’s DNA.
TYPES OF VIRUSES  The phage DNA that is completely separated from the host
 BACTERIOPHAGES DNA will eventually use the cellular mechanism of the
host, such as ribosomes to produce proteins, etc.
 A type of virus that infects bacteria
 “bacteriophage” – bacteria eater  When all of its needs are met by the cellular components,
 Composed of nucleic acid molecule that is surrounded by a protein it will assemble into a new phage until it multiply again.
structure  Once phages accumulate, the cell will lyse, thereby
releasing the phages to infect other cells
 o Lysogenic cycle: VIRUS INFECTION AND SYNTHESIS
 The phage DNA will be incorporated into the host genome
* Some viruses have DNA, which makes it easier to
infect a DNA-composed organism
* Some viruses have RNA, which requires reverse
transcription prior to DNA replication to infect a
DNA-composed organism.
 The most famous viruses that can reverse
transcribe in animals is the HIV
 Once the phage DNA is incorporated in the host genome,
it can be passed on to the daughter cells
 In the case that the virus would be subjected to a stressful
condition, the lysogenic replication will convert to the
lytic cycle.
 SATELLITE VIRUSES
 Cannot cause infection by themselves
o Instead, they must always be associated with certain typical
viruses (helper viruses) because they depend on the latter for
multiplication and plant infection
o It can reduce the ability of the helper viruses to multiply and
cause disease
 Acts like a parasite of the helper virus
 Common examples:
o Satellite tobacco necrosis virus
o Satellite tobacco mosaic virus
o Satellite panicum mosaic virus
o Satellite maize white line mosaic virus

BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF VIRAL COMMON SYMPTOMS

COMPONENTS
 IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES
 Genome
 Nucleotide
 Codons
 Start codon – AUG
 Stop codons – UAG, UGA, UAA
  Mechanical
 Vectors
 Nematodes
o Genera Longidorus, Paralongidorus, Xiphinema
 Can transmit several polyhedral-shaped viruses known as
Nepovirus
 Nepoviruses
* Grape fanleaf
* Tobacco ringspot
o Genera Trichodorus & Paratrichodorus
 Can transmit two rod-shaped Tobravirus (Tobacco rattle
virus & Pea early browning virus)
 Soil-borne fungi – through their zoospores
 Mites – vector
 Insects – most effective vector for transmitting viruses
o Common vectors
 Chewing insects
* Thrips
* Beetles
* Grasshoppers
 Piercing and sucking insects
* Aphids
 Mosaic – Tobacco mosaic virus * Leafhoppers
 Vein clearing - Okra * Psyllids
 Ringspot & shoe-stringing of younger leaves – Papaya ringspot virus * Treehopper
 Leaf curling – Tomato leaf curl virus * Planthopper
 Stunting (bunchytop) – Banana bunchy top virus * Mealy bug
* White flies
* Plant bug
MODE OF TRANSMISSION
 Infected pollen, seeds, and other planting materials
 Direct contact of an infected plant through an opening of another
plant
 Through seed-borne viral diseases
 Through fertilization of an infected pollen with an egg cell
 Through asexual reproduction
INSECT – VECTOR MEDIATED
 Grafting, budding, etc. TRANSMISSION: Virus-vector Relationship
 THREE STAGES IN THE TRANSMISSION CYCLE  Cellular inclusions – reaction [not a by-product] of plant cell due to
 Acquisition Phase the infection of the virus
o Vector feeds on the infected plant and acquires sufficient virus o Very specific for certain viruses
for transmission o Can be observed using high-power compound microscope
 Latent Period  Pinwheel-like
o Vector has acquired sufficient virus but is still not able to o Diagnostic inclusions due to Potyviruses
transmit it  Cylindrical
 Retention Period
o Length of time during which the vector can transmit the virus METHODS OF IDENTIFYING VIRUSES
to a healthy host.
 EXTRACTION FROM THE HOST AND PURIFICATION
 TYPES OF VIRUS-VECTOR RELATIONSHIP
 Non-circulative, non-persistent viruses
o Stylet-borne
o Virus is easily acquired and only resides on the stylet-borne
insect
 Only stays on the feeding mouthpart of the insect
o It can be removed easily
 Non-circulative, semi-persistent
o Foregut borne
o The virus is retained in the insect foregut
o Does not invade other insect organs; it only stays on the foregut
 Circulative, non-propagative
o Non-replicating
o Circulative – requires the invasion of several organs
o Non-propagative – despite invading several organs, it will not
multiply
 Circulative, propagative
o Viruses replicates and systematically invade several insect
organs and tissues
o Its primary goal is to enter the hemolymph or neuronal tissues
in order to reach the salivary glands for transmission.
 Among these four types of virus-vector relationship, circulative
propagative is the most difficult to control
 VIRUS MORPHOLOGY
 Referring to size and shape (through electron microscopy)
DETECTION OF PLANT VIRUSES
 THE PRESENCE OF CELLULAR INCLUSIONS
 o Absorbance value comparison
o Developed in the late 1970s
o Has been used widely by pathologists
o Types:
 Direct ELISA
* Loading of the antigen
* Loading of the primary antibody (enzyme-linked)
* Loading of substrate (Paranitrophinyl phosphate –
PNPP)
 Reacts with the sample to colorize it
 Create the color yellow
 Indirect ELISA
* Loading of the antigen
Tobacco mosaic virus are
* Loading of the primary antibody
always rod-shaped
* Loading of the secondary antibody (Goat Anti-Rabbit
Alkaline Phosphatase – GARAP)
 SYMPTOMATOLOGY  Ituturok sa rabbit yung antigen so that it may
 Not very liable and host range produce an antibody, which will later on be
o Because there are pathogens that produces the same symptoms extracted
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES  The extracted antibody is called GARAP
 Thermal inactivation point (TIP) * Loading of the substrate (PNPP)
o Exposure of the purified virus for 10 minutes to a specific  Double Antibody Sandwich ELISA (DAS-ELISA)
temperature (the lowest temperature) * Antigen is at the middle of two antibodies (like a
o Temperature gradient with increment of 5 degrees sandwich)
 Longevity of the virus in vitro (LIV) * Loading of the capture antibody
o LIV is the length of time after which crude sap from a virus- * Loading of the antigen
infected plant loses it infectivity when kept at room * Loading of the secondary antibody (GARAP)
temperature (20-22*C) * Loading of the substrate
o To determine LIV  Compound ELISA
 Samples of crude sap are removed from storage at * Combined the detection antibody and the GARAP
intervals and tested on assay plants * Loading of the capture antibody
 Dilution end point (DEP) * Loading of the antigen
o The dilution of a virus in crude extract at which it can still * Loading of the secondary antibody (GARAP) and
cause infection detection antibody
 SEROLOGICAL TESTS or PROTEIN-BASED TECHNIQUE * Loading of the substrate
 ELISA (Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay)  Triple Antibody ELISA
o Colorimetric-based approach
 Includes detection antibody which makes it most
*  Quarantine – legal measure
accurate, although it’s costly  Certification – certifying if the plant is virus free
* Loading of the capture antibody  Use of virus-free seeds and planting materials
* Loading of the antigen  ERADICATIVE
* Loading of the detection antibody (specific to the  Roguing – removing infected plants from the area
antigen) o Not effective if the life cycle of the pathogen is fast
* Loading of the secondary antibody (GARAP)  Destruction
* Loading of substrate (PNPP) o Killing the plant before maturation and before it creates another
 NUCLEIC ACID BASED TECHNIQUE (Conventional & RT-PCR) inoculum
 Hot water treatment of propagative plants
 PROTECTIVE
 Control of vectors
 CROSS PROTECTION
 Exposing a plant to a less virulent pathogen; like a vaccine
 GENETIC ENGINEERING
 Genetically modified plants that are resistant to a virus
 EARLY DETECTION
 To establish the right farm management

CONTROL MEASURES FOR VIRUS DISEASES

 PREVENTATIVE
 Key to control of virus diseases – prevention is better than cure
  Because of the its small size (250-370bp), viroids lack specific
information to code for even one protein, even for a replicase enzyme
required to replicate the viroid.
 The reason why it does not have a protein coat
 The best control for viroid plant diseases is quarantine because it does
not have treatment
 GENOME ORGANIZATION OF VIROID
 Left-hand terminal domain (for replication)
 Pathogenicity region – causes the expression of disease
 Conserved central core – used for detecting the genome of viroid in
experiments
 Variable region – also for detection
 Right hand terminal domain (for replication)

MECHANISM OF VIROID REPLICATION

 Viroid Rolling Circle Mechanism
 Steps:
 Slits are produced, causing the genetic material of the host to be
exposed.
 The complimentary portion of the viroid RNA attached to the
exposed host genome, replicating it.
VIROIDS  Once replicated, the infected genome multiplies, resulting to the
expression of the disease
DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS
 Small, single-stranded, circular RNA that infect higher plants and, in
SYMPTOMS CAUSED BY VIROIDS
many cases, induce specific diseases
 POTATO SPINDLE TUBER VIROID  Symptom development is very slow, making the symptoms difficult
 First recognized viroid to identify and diagnose immediately
 With 359 nucleotides  Symptoms:
 Common Symptoms: o Develop slowly over 8 to 15 years and not particularly
o Potato tubers become smoother, elongated, with tapering ends. diagnostic of the disease unless observations are made over
o Tuber eyes are numerous several years
o Erect o Declining or dead coconut palms
o Spindly o Leaflets bend or break
o Dwarfed o Yellow orange spots on leaf
o Leaves are small, erect, and the leaflets are darker green and o Small scarifies and malformed fruit
sometimes show rolling and twisting.  Transmission:
 Transmission: o Still not clear how cadang cadang viroid spreads from tree to
o Spread primarily by knives used to cut healthy and infected tree
potato seed tubers and during handling and planting of the crop.  Control
 Control: o Production and use of viroid-free palm seedlings whether from
o Use PSTVd-free potato tubers that may have survived from the seed or through tissue culture are extremely important
previous year’s crop.
 CITRUS EXOCORTIS VIROID
 With 371 nucleotides
 Symptoms:
o Infected plants develop narrow, vertical, thin strips of partially
loosened outer bark that give the bark a cracked and scaly
appearance
 Presence of crack and scaly bark
o Some show stem and leaf epinasty, along with cracking and
darkening of leaf veins and petioles
 Epinasty – a nastic movement in which a plant part is bent
outward and often downward
o It may also show yellow blotches on young infected stems
 Transmission:
o Spread primarily by budding knives, pruning shears, or other
cutting tools, by hand, and possibly by scratching and gnawing
of animals.
 Control:
o Use of CEVd-free seedlings
 COCONUT CADANG-CADANG
 With 246 nucleotides
o Smallest known viroid
 o Vermiform – worm-like structure
 No segmentation
o No internal separation of body plans
 Slender worms – 0.5 to 2.0 mm in length
 No legs or appendages
 Some females are swollen at maturity
o Pear-shaped
o Spheroid
 Body is transparent with colorless cuticle and striations
 Have longitudinal muscles that allow movement
 Fun fact:
o Earthworm is not included in Phylum Nematoda because it is
segmented. Instead, it is included in Phylum Annelida.
 Stylet

oStylet knob – muscle that protrudes the stylet

oThey feed by puncturing the plant cells and extracting the
predigested contents with a hollow spear or stylet
 Causes lesions
 Disseminated by infested soil, nursery stock, running water, or
vehicles and machineries
 They reproduce through eggs
NEMATODES o Sexual
o Parthenogenetic – no sex involved
PLANT PARASITIC NEMATODES
 CHARACTERISTICS
 Nematodes are the Largest microorganism
ANATOMY OF PLANT PARASITIC
 Bilaterally symmetrical and vermiform NEMATODES
o Bilaterally symmetrical – when cut in the middle, the right and
left parts are the same [mirror images]  Nematodes are triploblastic – contains three body layers in the embryo
  Ectoderm o Composed of:
 Mesoderm  Cheilostome (lip cavity)
 Endoderm * Hexaradite or triradiate symmetry
 Note: most higher organisms are triploblastic in nature and have a * Just behind the oral aperture
coelom (a body cavity surrounded by mesoderm) * In stomatous group, it extends from the oral aperture
 Nematodes have a body cavity that is not totally surrounded by to the fixed guide ring
mesoderm, which makes them a pseudocoelomic (false coelom)  Pharyngostome
 Hence, their organs are not enclosed * Triadially symmetrical
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM * Varies in shape and structure as well as in the
 Hollow tube extending from the mouth through the esophagus,
presence of stylet, teeth, and mandibles
intestine, rectum, and anus
o Examples of stoma of free-living nematodes (free living
 Lips – usually six in number and surrounds the mouth
nematodes – no stylet)
 Most plant parasitic nematodes have a hollow stylet or spear
 Mononchida – barrel shape
o The spear is used to puncture holes in plant cells and through
 Rhabditomorpha – cylindrical
which to withdraw nutrients from the cells.
o Functions:  Cephalobomorpha, diplogasteromorpha – collapsed
o Stoma with Stylet
 Penetrate the plant cell
 Stomatostylet
 Secret enzymes and take up nutrients from the plant
* Usual structure of stylet with stylet knob
 Helps the hatch from egg
* Hollow and protrusible
 Esophagus
o Contains median bulb that performs as a pump for enzyme * Parts
secretion and nutrient uptake.  Cone (with subterminal ventral opening)
 Intestine  Shaft
o Facilitates digestion and absorption of nutrients  Knobs
 Anus * Occurs in Tylenchomorpha (Tylenchidae &
o Opening from which waste is expelled from the intestine Aphelenchidae)
 Three Compartments of the Digestive System  Odontostylet
o Stomodeum [foregut] * A protrusible hollow tooth with a cuticular extension
 Stoma + pharynx + cardia (foregut) called odontophore
 mixed ecto- and mesodermal region * Parts
o Mesenteron [midgut]  Odontostyle
 Intestine (midgut)  Odontophore
 Has an endodermal origin * Occurs in Xiphinema & Longidorus (Dorylaimida,
o Proctodeum [hindgut] Longidoridae)
 Rectum (hindgut)  Onchiostylet
 Has an ectoderm region * Curved, solid tooth with dorsal groove
 Stoma or Buccal Cavity (sensu lato) * Parts
o Mouth or oral opening  Onchium
  Onchiophore CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT PARASITIC
* Occurs in Triplonchida (Trichodoridae)
 Four Types of Pharynx/Esophagus
NEMATODES
o Undivided (1-part) – Enoplida/ Mononchida  Kingdom: Animalia
o Flask – shaped (2-part) – Dorylaimida, Triplonchida  Phylum: Nematoda
o Tripartite (3-part) – Rhabditida  Class: Tylenchida
o (4-part) – Tylenchidae, Aphelenchidae  Suborder: Tylenchina
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM  Superfamily: Tylenchoidea
 Well-developed o Family Anguinidae
 Females  Anguina – wheat or seed gall nematode
o Females have one or two ovaries, followed by an oviduct and  Ditylenchus – bulb nematode
uterus, terminating in a vulva o Family Belonolaimidae
 Males  Belonolaimus – sting nematode
o The male reproductive structure is similar to that of the female,
 Tylenchorhynchus – stunt nematode
but there is a testis, seminal vesicle, and a terminus in a o Family Pratylechidae
common opening with the intestine
 Pratylenchus – lesion nematode
* Deadly because they are migratory endoparasitic
nematode
 Radopholus – burrowing nematode
 Nacobbus – false root knot nematode
LIFE CYCLE OF A TYPICAL PARASITIC o Family Hoplolaimidae
NEMATODE  Hoplolaimus – lance nematode
 Heliocotylenchus – spiral nematode
 Nematodes are dioecious – sexes are separate but there are also  Rotylenchulus – reniform nematode
hermaphroditic nematodes, which have both the male and female sexes.  Scutellonema – dry rot nematode
 FOUR STAGES OF NEMATODE GROWTH o Family Heteroderidae
 Egg stage  Heterodera & Globodera – cyst nematode
 Four larval or juvenile stages  Meloidogyne – root knot nematode
o During each juvenile stage, a molt happens where a cuticle is  Superfamily- Criconematoidea
shed because the nematode is increasing in size o Family Criconematidae
o The second juvenile stage is where the nematode is very active  Criconemoides – ring nematode
and very attracted to plant roots o Family Paratylenchidae
 Adult stage
 Paratylenchus – pin nematode
 Fun facts: o Family Tylenculidae
 giant cells – formed by root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne)
 Tylenchulus – citrus nematode
 syncytium – formed by cyst nematode (Globodera & Heterodera)
 Suborder Aphenechina
 Family Aphelenchoididae
 o Aphelenchoides – foliar nematode  Does not need copulation
o Bursaphelencus – red ring nematode  SEX REVERSAL – observed in juvenile stage during unfavorable
 Order Dorylaimida condition
 Family Longidoridae  happens when the ratio of the male and female nematodes is
o Longidorus – needle nematode imbalanced as well as for environmental survival.
o Xiphinema – dagger nematode o imbalance can cause competition in resources
 Family Trichodoridae
o Paratrichodorus & Trichodorus – stubby root nematode
 Summary
NEMATODE CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
FEEDING POSITION
 ECTOPARASITIC NEMATODE
 The nematode maintains on the outside od the plant
 Ectoparasitic nematodes use their stylets to feed from the cells of the
plant roots
 Nematodes that use this strategy can graze on numerous plants
 They can have extremely long stylets, which assist them in feeding
deep within the plant root on nutrient-rich plant cells.
SYNCYTIA vs GIANT CELLS  Example:
o Xiphinema – dagger nematode
 SYNCYTIA – created by cyst nematode
 Syncytia cells result from cell fusions after cell wall dissolutions  SEMIENDOPARASITIC NEMATODE
between the initial cell on which the nematode starts feeding  They are able to partially penetrate the plant and feed at some point
o Results to the increasing number of neighboring cells (up to in their life cycle
200 cells can be incorporated in a large syncytium)  Usually the head of the nematode penetrates the root and allows the
o Mechanism – neighboring cells merge with each other nematode to form a permanent feeding cell.
 GIANT CELLS – created by root knot nematodes  These nematodes swell and do not move once they have entered into
 Giant cell formation is the result of repeated nuclear divisions of the the endoparasitic phase of their life cycle.
initial feeding cell without complete cytokinesis  Their J4 stage is also known as their cryptobiotic stage, where males
 HYPERTOPHY vs HYPERPLASIA do not feed but they are required for reproduction (analogical to
 Hypertrophy – gall formation due to increase of cell size seed dormant stage or hibernation stage)
 Hyperplasia – gall formation due to increase in cell number  Example:
o Tylenchulus semipenetrans – citrus nematode

REPRODUCTION IN NEMATODES  MIGRATORY ENDOPARASITIC NEMATODE

 They spend much of their time migrating through root tissues,
 AMPHIMIXIS – males are needed
destructively feeding on plant cells
 PARTHENOGENESIS – only females are produced and offspring are
 These nematodes cause massive plant tissue necrosis because of
clone of the female their migration and feeding
  When they feed from the plant, they simply suck out the plant cell
cytoplasm using their stylet, killing the plant cells and moving ahead
of the lesion.
o They make no permanent feeding cells.
 Examples
o Pratylenchus – lesion nematode
o Radopholus – burrowing nematode
o Hirschmanniella – rice root nematode

 SEDENTARY ENDOPARASITIC
 The most damaging nematodes in the world
 They have permanent feeding site
 The two main nematodes in this group are
o Heterodera & Globodera – cyst nematodes
o Meloidogyne – root knot nematode
 OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS

EXAMPLES OF PLANT DISEASES DUE TO

PLANT PARASITIC NEMATODES
 ROOT KNOT NEMATODE (Meloidogyne sp.)
 Symptoms
o Formation of giant cells, leading to gall formation
 Giant cells are formed because of repeated nuclear
division (like hyperplasia)
 * This is because the female nematode will have a
permanent feeding site
 Infected roots develop the typical root knot galls that are
two to several times as large in diameter as the healthy
root.
 Galls vs nodules
* Galls – attached mainly to the roots
* Nodules – loosely attached to the roots
o Releasing of eggs
 Occurs when the female nematode matures, dies, and
bursts.
o Symptoms appear on the underground parts of the plants.
 Damages plants by devitalizing root tips and causing the formation
of swellings of the roots. o J2 is the infective stage of nematodes
o This deprives plants of nutrients and also disfigure and reduce  Where nematodes are very attracted to the growing roots
the market value of many root crops  J2 invades rootlet and causes the formation of giant cells
 Can be controlled effectively in the greenhouse with steam  SOYBEAN CYST NEMATODE (Heterodera glycines)
sterilization of the soil or soil fumigation with nematicides.  The infective second-stage juveniles penetrate young primary roots
o In the field, the best control of root knot is obtained by or apical meristems of secondary roots.
fumigating the soil with approved chemical nematicides. o Juvenile (J2) pierce their stylets into and feed off cells of the
o Fumigation – treating something using a particular chemical,  Cortex
which when exposed to a certain temperature, transforms into  Endodermis
gaseous state.  Pericycle, causing the enlargement of these cells.

 Life Cycle

o
 Groups of enlarged cells are called syncytia (formed from fusing of
two or more cells due to dissolution) and serve as feeder cells for the
nematode
 o Syncytia in contact with developing third- or fourth- stage
males begin to degenerate, indicating cessation of feeding.
o Syncytia in contact with females degenerate after egg
deposition
 The most practical method of control of the soybean cyst nematode
o Through the use of resistant varieties and through a one- to
two-year crop rotation with nonhost crops, as some legumes are
the only other cultivated crops that are hosts of this nematode.
 LESION NEMATODE (Pratylenchus)
 They attack the roots of all kinds of plants, such as cereals and other
field crops, vegetables, fruit trees, and many ornamentals.
o Lesion nematodes reduce or inhibit root development by
forming local lesions on young roots.
 They are migratory endoparasitic nematodes, thereby
creating lesions

o As a result of the root damage, affected plants grow poorly,
 BURROWING NEMATODE (Radopholus similis)
produce low yields, and may finally die.
 Is the most important banana root pathogen
 Infected plants appear stunted and chlorotic as though they are
 Infected banana plants grow poorly with fewer and smaller leaves,
suffering from mineral deficiencies or drought.
premature defoliation, and have smaller fruits.
o As the infection progresses, plants can be pulled easily from the
o Browning and presence of cavities in the cortex followed by
soil because of the extensive destruction of the root system.
deep cracks on the root surface.
 Lesion nematodes can best be controlled by overall or row treatment
 The burrowing nematode spends its life and reproduces inside
of the soil with nematicides before the crop is planted.
cavities in the root cortex,
o Such treatments give good control of these nematodes, but they
o Where it completes a life cycle in about 20 days
usually fail to eradicate them completely.
 Most of the spread of the nematode from plant to plant is through
root contact or near contact.
o Long distance spread of the nematode is primarily with infected
plant material, such as infected banana sets
 Disease cycle of Pratylenchus nematode  Control:
o Using nematode-free plantlets produced, hot water treatment in
55*C for 20 minutes
 Or by flooding the field for 5 to 6 months where possible
o By soil fumigation or post-planting treatment with appropriate
nematicides.

 STEM and BULB NEMATODE (Ditylenchus)

 On most crops, Ditylenchus causes heavy losses by
 o Killing seedlings  Baermann Funnel Method
o Dwarfing plants  Most popular method of extracting nematodes
o Destroying bulbs  Low-cost, low-tech, low-labor strategy for quickly separating the
o Making them unfit for propagation or consumption entire population of active worms from their substrate.
o Causing the development of distorted, swollen, and twisted  STAGES IN NEMATODE ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT
stems and foliage
o By reducing yields greatly
 Symptoms
o Many leaves become flaccid and are so weakened that they
cannot maintain their erect growth and fall to the ground
o The stem, neck, and individual scales of the bulb become
softened, loose, and pale gray in color.
 Affected scales appear as discolored rings in cross sections
of infected bulbs and giving off a foul odor
o Infected bulbs continue to decay in storage
 Control
o Long crop rotation and use of resistant cultivars
 Disease Cycle


 Entomopathogenic nematode – used for Biocon for insects like the
fall army worm which pupates in the soil.
 SAMPLING OF NEMATODES
 The following field characteristics have implications for the
sampling method, and therefore must be considered:
o Aggregate distribution and seasonal behavior of nematode
SAMPLING EXTRACTION OF PLANT
o Crop type and history
PARASITIC NEMATODES
 oSoil moisture, compaction and type
oTemperature and seasonal changes
 If collecting nematodes, it should not be rainy because you
will only collect FLNs instead of nematodes
 It should also not be too sunny as the nematode will
dessicate
 Sampling tools
o Spade
o Hand trowel
o Screwdriver
o Soil auger (corer)
o Knives (for cutting roots)
o Scissors
o Polythene sample bags
o Tags
o Marker pens o
 Sampling Patterns  Time of Sampling
o Any sampling pattern can be utilized as long as it is done the o The optimum time for sampling varies between crops and is
right way related to the growth stage of the crop and objective of the
sampling
 Predictive sampling – done early in the season, such as
before planting or at the end of the pr4evious cropping
season.
 Diagnostic sampling – in the middle of the season and/or
at the final harvest
o Note: do not collect samples when the soil is too dry or
extremely wet because the nematode populations are usually
low under these conditions.
 Soil Sampling
o Storage of soil samples
 Nematodes are sensitive and very perishable
o Sampling Pattern used by BPI for collecting nematodes of  Samples should not be left in direct sunlight and in closed
perennial crops vehicle in the sun
 It should not be left for long periods of time before
processing
 Should be stored in an insulated coolbox or in a
refrigerator with a temperature of 10*C for only up to 2
weeks.
  o Materials
 Funnel with a rubber tube attached to it
 Clamp
 Sieve with 850 µm mass size or bigger
 Tissue paper
 Tap water
 Beakers
 Leveling materials
 Structural support for the extraction setup
o Steps:
 Check if clamp can completely block water from the
funnel to prevent it from leaking
 Transfer the funnel containing some water into the
structural support
 Place a tissue paper on the sieve and add some soil on the
tissue paper. You can also use plant samples like root to
extract motile nematodes, depending on the nature of your
work
 EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES  Carefully transfer the sieve containing the soil sample or
 Baermann Funnel and Sieving Method plant sample on the funnel.
  Pour tap water on the side of the funnel, such that the
water slightly touches the soil or the plant material. You
can also choose to cut off extra ends of the tissue paper to
avoid fast wicking away of water.
 Level the setup on the structure as well as label the beaker
and the setup

 Baermann Funnel Method