Lovasné Hangácsi Margit

ENGLISH FOR CHEMISTRY and CHEMICAL

ENGINEERING
Exercise Book

Lektorálta: Pákozdy Andrea

A segédanyagot készítették:

Szabóné Enyedi Gabriella,

Papp Eszter,
John Graham,
Farkas János,
Hajdu Zita,
Dr. Nyilas Istvánné
Dr. Laczkóné Rácz Edit,
Louis J. Mattia,
Major Judit,
George Seel

TÁMOP-4.1.2.D-12/1/KONV-2012-0008

Debrecen

2014

1
1. UNIT 1. CHEMICAL ELEMENTS and the PERIODIC TABLE ............................................................... 5
1.1. Chemical Elements and the Periodic Table ............................................................................. 6
1.1.1. The Periodic Table ........................................................................................................... 6
1.1.2. The Importance of the Periodic Table ........................................................................... 11
1.1.3. Trends or Periodicity ..................................................................................................... 13
1.1.4. Grouping of the Elements ............................................................................................. 14
1.1.5. Electron Configuration and the Table ........................................................................... 16
2. UNIT 2. CHEMICAL BONDING ....................................................................................................... 22
2.1. Chemical bonding .................................................................................................................. 23
2.1.1. Chemical bonding and atomic structure ....................................................................... 23
2.1.2. Types of bonding ........................................................................................................... 24
2.1.3. What is bond energy?.................................................................................................... 30
2.1.4. Bonding in metals (Properties of metals) ...................................................................... 32
2.2. What is a molecule? .............................................................................................................. 35
2.3. How do we depict chemical structures? ............................................................................... 37
3. UNIT 3. ACIDS and BASES ............................................................................................................. 40
3.1. Acid/Base Basics .................................................................................................................... 41
3.1.1. How does one define acids and bases? ......................................................................... 41
3.1.2. Properties ...................................................................................................................... 42
3.2. Types of definitions ............................................................................................................... 44
3.2.1. The Arrhenius Definition ............................................................................................... 44
3.2.2. The Brønsted-Lowry Definition ..................................................................................... 50
3.2.3. Lewis Theory .................................................................................................................. 53
3.3. Neutralization and Titration .......................................................................................... 55
3.3.1. Neutralization ............................................................................................................ 55
3.3.2. Titrations ....................................................................................................................... 56
4. UNIT 4. STATES of MATTER and THERMODYNAMICS ................................................................... 60
4.1. States of Matter .................................................................................................................... 61
4.1.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 61
4.1.2. Solids, Liquids, Gases, Plasmas and Bose-Einstein Condensates .................................. 64
4.1.3. Phase transitions ........................................................................................................... 67
4.2. Thermodynamics ................................................................................................................... 71
5. UNIT 5. SOLUTION CHEMISTRY ..................................................................................................... 76
5.1. Solutions ................................................................................................................................ 78

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 5.1.1. Properties of Solutions .................................................................................................. 78
5.1.2. Types of Solutions.......................................................................................................... 81
5.1.3. The Solution Process ..................................................................................................... 83
5.1.4. Degrees of Saturation .................................................................................................... 85
5.1.5. Concentration Terms ..................................................................................................... 87
5.1.6. Electrolytes .................................................................................................................... 91
5.1.7. Colligative Properties .................................................................................................... 95
6. UNIT 6. INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL ENGINEERING ............................................................... 98
6.1. Essence and etymology of chemical engineering ................................................................. 99
6.2. History of chemical engineering .......................................................................................... 100
6.2.1. Early history of chemical engineering ......................................................................... 100
6.2.2. New concepts and innovations ................................................................................... 104
6.2.3. Safety and hazard developments ................................................................................ 105
6.2.4. Recent progress ........................................................................................................... 106
6.3. Key concepts........................................................................................................................ 108
6.3.1. Chemical reaction engineering .................................................................................... 108
6.3.2. Plant design ................................................................................................................. 109
6.3.3. Process design ............................................................................................................. 110
6.3.4. Transport phenomena ................................................................................................. 113
6.3.5. Applications and practice ............................................................................................ 115
7. UNIT 7. GENERAL CHEMICAL ENGINEERING CONCEPTS ............................................................. 116
7.1. General concepts ................................................................................................................. 117
7.1.1. Chemical engineer ....................................................................................................... 117
7.1.2. Chemical reaction ........................................................................................................ 120
7.1.3. Distillation Design ........................................................................................................ 121
7.1.4. Fluid mechanics ........................................................................................................... 122
7.1.5. Heat transfer ............................................................................................................... 124
7.1.6. Mass transfer ............................................................................................................... 126
7.1.7. Polymerization ............................................................................................................. 130
8. UNIT 8. BRANCHES of CHEMICAL ENGINEERING......................................................................... 132
8.1. Branches of Chemical Engineering ...................................................................................... 133
8.1.1. Biochemical engineering ............................................................................................. 133
8.1.2. Biomedical engineering ............................................................................................... 135
8.1.3. Ceramics ...................................................................................................................... 136

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 8.1.4. Food Engineering ......................................................................................................... 139
8.1.5. Materials Science......................................................................................................... 140
8.1.6. Nanotechnology .......................................................................................................... 142
8.1.7. Plastics engineering ..................................................................................................... 143
8.1.8. Polymer engineering ................................................................................................... 145
8.1.9. Separation processes................................................................................................... 146
9. UNIT 9. ELECTROCHEMISTRY (CHEMICAL ENGINEERING) ......................................................... 148
9.1. Chemistry and Electricity ..................................................................................................... 149
9.1.1. History of Electrochemistry ......................................................................................... 149
9.1.2. Potential differencies at interfaces ............................................................................. 151
9.1.3. Galvanic cells and electrodes ...................................................................................... 153
9.1.4. Electrodes and electrode reactions ............................................................................. 155
9.1.5. Electrolysis ................................................................................................................... 162
10. UNIT 10. NANOTECHNOLOGY (CHEMICAL ENGINEERING) .................................................... 165
10.1. Origins.............................................................................................................................. 166
10.2. Fundamental concepts .................................................................................................... 167
10.2.1. What is nano? .............................................................................................................. 167
10.2.2. Larger to smaller: a materials perspective .................................................................. 170
10.2.3. Simple to complex: a molecular perspective .............................................................. 173
10.2.4. Molecular nanotechnology: a long-term view ............................................................ 174
10.3. Current research.............................................................................................................. 176
10.3.1. Nanomaterials ............................................................................................................. 176
10.3.2. Bottom-up approaches, Top-down approaches, Functional approaches and Biomimetic
approaches .................................................................................................................................. 177
10.3.3. Speculative .................................................................................................................. 179
10.3.4. Tools and techniques................................................................................................... 180
10.3.5. Applications ................................................................................................................. 182

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1. UNIT 1. CHEMICAL ELEMENTS and the PERIODIC
TABLE

5
 1.1. Chemical Elements and the Periodic Table
READING

1.1.1. The Periodic Table

After reading the text, match the highlighted terms (1-9) in the text to the given definitions (a-i).

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Periodic_table_(polyatomic).svg/128
0px-Periodic_table_(polyatomic).svg.png

The Periodic Table of Elements categorizes like elements together. Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian
scientist, was the first to create a widely accepted arrangement of the elements in 1869. Mendeleev
believed that when the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic mass, certain sets of
properties recur periodically. Although most modern periodic tables are arranged in eighteen groups
(columns) of elements, Mendeleev's original periodic table had the elements organized into eight
groups and twelve periods (rows).

On the periodic table, elements that have similar properties are in the same groups (vertical). From
left to right, the atomic number (z) of the elements increases from one period to the next
(horizontal). The groups are numbered at the top of each column and the periods on the left next to
each row. The main group elements are groups 1,2 and 13 through 18. These groups contain the
most naturally abundant elements, and are the most important for life. The elements shaded in light

6
pink in the table above are known as transition metals. The two rows of elements starting at z=58,
are sometimes called inner transition metals and have that have been extracted and placed at the
bottom of the table, because they would make the table too wide if kept continuous. The 14
elements following lanthanum (z=57) are called lanthanides, and the 14 following actinium (z=89) are
called actinides.

Elements in the periodic table can be placed into two broad categories, metals and nonmetals. Most
metals are good conductors of heat and electricity, are malleable and ductile, and are moderate to
high melting points. In general, nonmetals are nonconductors of heat and electricity, are
nonmalleable solids, and many are gases at room temperature. Just as shown in the table above,
metals and nonmetals on the periodic table are often separated by a stairstep diagonal line, and
several elements near this line are often called metalloids (Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, and At). Metalloids are
elements that look like metals and in some ways behave like metals but also have some nonmetallic
properties. The group to the farthest right of the table, shaded orange, is known as the noble gases.
Noble gases are treated as a special group of nonmetals.

http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Inorganic_Chemistry/Descriptive_Chemistry/Periodic_Trends_of_Elem
ental_Properties/Periodic_Properties_of_the_Elements

http://www.meta-synthesis.com/webbook/35_pt/wikipedia.jpg

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1. mass a. one of a group of metallic elements in which the members have the filling of
the outermost shell to 8 electrons interrupted to bring the penultimate shell from
8 to 18 or 32 electrons
2. properties b. gases in group 0 of the periodic table; they are monatomic and, with limited
exceptions, chemically inert

3.atomic c. elements whose properties are intermediate between those of metals and
number non-metals

4.abundant d. the amount of material in sg

5.transition e. existing or available in large quantities so that there is more than enough
metals

6.malleable f. sg that can be pressed or pulled into shape without needing to be heated

7.ductile g. sg that is easy to press or pull into a new shape

8.metalloids h. the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

9.noble gases i. a quality or power that belongs naturally to sg

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SPEAKING

Discuss with a partner what words come to your mind in connection with the periodic table and
chemical elements. Agree on a list of 10 words and start discussing each of them.

LANGUAGE USE

The words in the three sentences below are jumbled up. Your task is to form the correct sentence.
Each sentence has been removed from the text above.

1. of elements the Periodic together Table like elements categorizes.

2. the periodic are table that groups have similar elements properties in the on same.

3. and metals elements in placed the periodic broad nonmetals table can into categories, two
periodic be.

9
VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

It is very useful to know how we can form different parts of speech. Insert the missing forms of the
words in the table. All the words are taken from the text above.

VERB NOUN ADJECTIVE ADVERB

categorizes

- periodic

- naturally

conductor -

electricity

- metalloid -

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VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

1.1.2. The Importance of the Periodic Table

Match the words highlighted in green (1-9) in the text below to their synonyms (a-i).

The modern periodic table has changed since Mendeleev's original table, yet both the first tables and
the modern table are important for the same reason: The periodic table organizes elements
according to similar properties so you can tell the characteristics of an element just by looking at its
position on the table.

Before all the naturally occurring elements were discovered, the periodic table was used to predict
the chemical and physical properties of elements in the gaps on the table. Today, the table can be
used to predict properties of elements yet to be discovered, although these new elements are all
highly radioactive and break down into more familiar elements almost instantly.

The table is useful for modern students and scientists because it helps predict the types of chemical
reactions that are likely for an element. Rather than memorize facts and figures for each element, a
quick glance at the table reveals a lot about the reactivity of an element, whether it is likely to
conduct electricity, whether it is hard or soft, and many other characteristics.

Elements in the same column as each other (groups) share similar properties. For example, the
elements in the first column (the alkali metals) are all metals that usually carry a 1+ charge in
reactions, react vigorously with water, and combine readily with nonmetals.

Elements in the same row as each other (periods) share highest unexcited electron energy level.

Another useful feature of the periodic table is that most table provide all the information you need
to balance chemical reactions at a glance. The table tells an element’s atomic number and usually its
atomic weight. The usual charge on an element is indicated by an element's group.

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1. characteristics a like

2.predict b give

3.although c showed

4. figures d numbers

5. glance e foretell

6.similar f despite

7. vigorously g qualities

8. provide h look

9. indicated i forcefully

SPEAKING

After reading the text above discuss the importance of the periodic table.The following questions
might assist you in this activity.

How do you think the modern periodic table has changed since Mendeleev's original table?

What was the periodic table used for before all the naturally occurring elements were
discovered?

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LISTENING and SPEAKING

1.1.3. Trends or Periodicity

Using the information below, discuss the periodic trends with a partner or in a small group.The
following video may help you in doing so : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XK-WTYncldA

The periodic table is organized according to trends in element properties:

Moving Left to Right Across the Row

Atomic Radius Decreases

Ionization Energy Increases
Electron Affinity Generally Increases (except Noble Gases)
Electronegativity Increases

Moving Top to Bottom Down a Column

Atomic Radius Increases

Ionization Energy Decreases
Electron Affinity Usually Decreases Moving Down a Group
Electronegativity Decreases

Figure 11: Courtesy of wikipedia for releasing this image into the public domain

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READING

1.1.4. Grouping of the Elements

Add a heading to each paragraph.

Metalloids, Transition Metals, Alkali Metals, Halogens, Lanthanides and Actinides, Alkali Earth
Metals, Noble Gases

……….

The ………. are comprised of group 1A of the periodic table and consist of Lithium, Sodium, Rubidium,
Caesium, and Francium. These metals are highly reactive and form ionic compounds (when a
nonmetal and a metal come together) as well as many other compounds. ………. all have a charge of
+1 and have the largest atom sizes than any of the other elements on each of their respective
periods.

..........

.......... are located in group 2A and consist of Bereyllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium,
and Radium. Unlike the Alkali metals, the earth metals have a smaller atom size and are not as
reactive. These metals may also form ionic and other compounds and have a charge of +2.

……….

The ………. range from groups IIIB to XIIB on the periodic table. These metals form positively
charged ions, are very hard, and have very high melting and boiling points. ………. are also good
conductors of electricity and are malleable.

……….

………. (shown in row ** in chart above on page 2) and ………. (shown in row * in chart above on
page 2), form the block of two rows that are placed at the bottom of the periodic table for
space issues. These are also considered to be transition metals. ………. form the top row of this
block and are very soft metals with high boiling and melting points. ………. form the bottom
row and are radioactive. They also form compounds with most nonmetals.

……….

As mentioned in the introduction, ………. are located along the staircase separating the metals from
the nonmetals on the periodic table. Boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium all
have metal and nonmetal properties. For example, Silicon has a metallic luster but is brittle and is an
inefficient conductor of electricity like a nonmetal. As the ………. have a combination of both metallic
and nonmetal characteristics, they are intermediate conductors of electricity or "semiconductors".

……….

………. are comprised of the five nonmetal elements Flourine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, and
Astatine. They are located on group 17 of the periodic table and have a charge of -1. The term

14
"………." means "salt-former" and compounds that contain one of the ……….. are salts. The physical
properties of ………. vary significantly as they can exist as solids, liquids, and gases at room
temperature. However in general, ………. are very reactive, especially with the alkali metals and earth
metals of groups 1 and 2 with which they form ionic compounds.

……….

The ………. consist of group 18 (sometimes reffered to as group O) of the periodic table of
elements. The ………. have very low boiling and melting points and are all gases at room temperature.
They are also very nonreactive as they already have a full valence shell with 8 electrons. Therefore,
the ………. have little tendency to lose or gain electrons.

http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Inorganic_Chemistry/Descriptive_Chemistry/Periodic_Trends_of_Elem
ental_Properties/Periodic_Properties_of_the_Elements

http://ycphysicalscience2010-
2011.wikispaces.com/file/view/periodic_table_families.gif/206989954/668x368/periodic_table_fami
lies.gif

15
READING and VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

1.1.5. Electron Configuration and the Table

You are going to read a text about the relationship between electron configuration and the table. Fill
the gaps in the text with words from the box.

common, thus, either, randomly, takes up, affects, determining, picture, therefore, increases,
similar, much

The "periodic" nature of chemical properties that Mendeleev had discovered is related to
the electron configuration of the atoms of the elements. In other words, the way in which an atom's
electrons are arranged around its nucleus ………. the properties of the atom.

Bohr's theory of the atom tells us that electrons are not located ………. around an atom's nucleus, but
they occur in specific electron shells. Each shell has a limited capacity for electrons. As lower shells
are filled, additional electrons reside in more-distant shells.

The capacity of the first electron shell is two electrons and for the second shell the capacity is eight.
…….., oxygen , with eight protons and eight electrons, carries two electrons in its first shell and six in
its second shell. Fluorine, with nine electrons, carries two in its first shell and seven in the second.
Neon, with ten electrons, carries two in the first and eight in the second. Because the number of
electrons in the second shell ………. , we can begin to imagine why the chemical properties gradually
change as we move from oxygen to fluorine to neon.

Sodium has eleven electrons. Two fit in its first shell, but remember that the second shell can only
carry eight electrons. Sodium's eleventh electron cannot fit into ………. its first or its second shell. This
electron ………. residence in yet another orbit, a third electron shell in sodium. The reason that there
is a dramatic shift in chemical properties when moving from neon to sodium is because there is a
dramatic shift in electron configuration between the two elements. But why is sodium ………. to
lithium? Let's look at the electron configurations of these elements.

16
 Group IA VIA VIIA VIIIA

Lithium Oxygen Fluorine Neon

Sodium

Electron Configurations for Selected Elements

As you can see in the illustration, while sodium has three electron shells and lithium two, the
characteristic they share in ………. is that they both have only one electron in their outermost electron
shell. These outer-shell electrons (called valence electrons) are important in ………. the chemical
properties of the elements.

An element's chemical properties are determined by the way in which its atoms interact with other
atoms. If we ………. the outer (valence) electron shell of an atom as a sphere encompassing
everything inside, then it is only the valence shell that can interact with other atoms - ………. the same
way as it is only the paint on the exterior of your house that "interacts" with, and gets wet by, rain
water.

17
 Lithium Sodium

An atom's valence shell

"covers" inner electron shells

The valence shell electrons in an atom determine the way it will interact with neighboring atoms, and
………. determine its chemical properties. Since both sodium and lithium have one valence electron,
they share similar chemical properties.

http://www.visionlearning.com/en/library/Chemistry/1/The-Periodic-Table-of-Elements/52/reading

READING

Read the text again and decide whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE.

1. The way in which an atom's electrons are arranged around its nucleus depends on the properties
of the atom.

2. Bohr's theory of the atom tells us that electrons are not located strictly around an atom's nucleus.

3. As lower shells are filled, additional electrons reside in more-distant shells.

4. Why is sodium different from lithium?

5. Both sodium and lithium have only one electron in their outermost electron shell.

6. An element's chemical properties are determined by the way in which its atoms interact with
other atoms.

7. As sodium and lithium have one valence electron, they share different chemical properties.

18
Quiz

Find the answer to the following questions:

1. What is the most abundant element in the universe?

a. oxygen

b. hydrogen

c. sodium

2. What is the most abundant element in the earth's crust?

a. iron

b. magnesium

c. oxygen

3. What is the second more abundant element in the human body?

a. oxygen

b. calcium

c. carbon

19
LANGUAGE USE

Simple Past – Present Perfect Simple

In British English, the use of Simple Past and Present Perfect is quite strict. As soon as a time
expression in the past is given, you have to use Simple Past. If there are no signal words, you must
decide if we just talk about an action in the past or if its consequence in the present is important.
Certain time in the past or just / already / yet?

Do you want to express that an action happened at a certain time in the past (even if it was just a
few seconds ago) or that an action has just / already / not yet happened?

Simple Past Present Perfect Simple

certain time in the past just / already / not yet

I phoned Mary 2 minutes ago. I have just phoned Mary.

Certain event in the past or how often so far?

Do you want to express when a certain action took place or whether / how often an action has
happened till now?

Simple Past Present Perfect Simple

certain event in the past whether / how often till now

He went to Canada last :
summer. Have you ever been to Canada? / I have
been to Canada twice.

http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/simpas-preper

See more about the two tenses at http://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/present-perfect-or-

past-simple.html

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Use the appropriate form of the verbs in brackets.

1. My friend (be) …………….. to London three times.

2. A few years ago she (study) …………..English in New York.
3. I can’t get into my house because I (lose) ……………. my keys.
4. She (be) …………. unemployed since she left school.
5. I never (know) ……….. my grandmother as she died before I was born.
6. It is the first time I (eat) ………. crayfish.
7. It’s ages since they (speak) ……… .
8. The last time I saw him (be) ………. the day before yesterday.
9. I just (have) ………… the time to go to the cinema recently.
10. Tom (be) ………. away for the last two weeks.

LISTENING for fun!

I guess you are tired now, so listen to the New Periodic Song  at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zUDDiWtFtEM

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2. UNIT 2. CHEMICAL BONDING

22
 2.1. Chemical bonding

READING

2.1.1. Chemical bonding and atomic structure

You are going to read a text about chemical bonding and the atomic structure. Work with a partner.
Fill the gaps in the text with words from the box.

noble gases, particles, represented, uncombined, equal, chemical symbols, to, electrically,
achieve, energy level

Chemical bonding happens when two or more atoms join together to form a molecule. It is a general
principle in science that all systems will try to reach their lowest ………. , and chemical bonding will
only take place when a molecule can form that has less energy than its ………. atoms. The three main
types of bond are ionic, covalent, and metallic. These all involve electrons moving between atoms in
various ways. Another, much weaker, type is the hydrogen bond.
Atomic Structure

Atoms consist of a nucleus containing positively charged protons, which is surrounded by an ……….
number of negatively charged electrons. Normally, therefore, they are ………. neutral. An atom can,
however lose or gain one or more electrons, giving it a positive or negative charge. When one has an
electrical charge, it is called an ion.
It is the electrons that are involved in chemical bonding. These ………. are arranged into shells that can
be thought of as existing at increasing distances from the nucleus. Generally, the further from the
nucleus the shells are, the more energy they have. There is a limit ………. the number of electrons that
can occupy a shell. For example, the first, innermost, shell has a limit of two and the next shell a limit
of eight.
In most cases, it is only the electrons in the outermost shell that participate in bonding. These are
often called the valence electrons. As a general rule, atoms will tend to combine with one another in
such a way that they all ………. full outer shells, as these configurations usually have less energy. A
group of elements known as the ………. — helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon — already
have full outer shells and because of this, they do not normally form chemical bonds. Other elements
will generally try to achieve a noble gas structure by giving, accepting, or sharing electrons with other
atoms.
Chemical bonds are sometimes ………. by something called a Lewis structure, named after the
American chemist Gilbert N. Lewis. In a Lewis structure, the valence electrons are represented by
dots just outside the ………. for the elements in a molecule. They show clearly where electrons have
moved from one atom to another and where they are shared between atoms.

23
READING

2.1.2. Types of bonding

You are going to read a text about types of bonding. Some sentences are missing from the text.
Choose from the list (A-G) the most appropriate sentence for each gap (1-6) in the text.There is an
example at the beginning.

Ionic Bonding

This type of chemical bonding takes place between metals, which easily give up electrons, and non-
metals , which are keen to accept them. The metal gives the electrons in its incomplete outermost
shell to the non-metal, leaving that shell empty so that the full shell below becomes its new
outermost shell. (0) ___D___ In this way, both atoms have achieved full outer shells. This leaves the
metal with a positive charge and the non-metal with a negative charge, so they are positive and
negative ions that attract one another.

A simple example is sodium fluoride. (1) ______ Fluorine has two shells, with seven electrons in the
outermost. The sodium gives its one valence electron to the fluorine atom, so that the sodium now
has two complete shells and a positive charge, while the fluorine has two complete shells and a
negative charge. The resulting molecule — sodium fluoride — features two atoms with complete
outer shells bonded together by electrical attraction .

Covalent Bonding

Atoms of non-metals combine with one another by sharing electrons in such a way that they lower
their overall energy level. (2) ______ To take a simple example, hydrogen has just one electron, in
its first — and only — shell, which leaves it one short of a full shell. Two hydrogen atoms can share
their electrons to form a molecule in which both have a full outer shell.

It is often possible to predict how atoms will combine with one another from the number of
electrons they have. For example, carbon has six, which means that it has a full first shell of two and
an outermost shell of four, leaving it four short of a full outer shell. Oxygen has eight, and so has six
in its outer shell — two short of a full shell. A carbon atom can combine with two oxygen atoms to
form carbon dioxide, in which the carbon shares its four electrons, two with each oxygen atom, and
the oxygen atoms in turn each share two of their electrons with the carbon atom. (3) ______

Metallic Bonding

24
In a piece of metal, the valence electrons are more or less free to move around, rather than
belonging to individual atoms. The metal therefore consists of positively charged ions surrounded by
mobile, negatively charged electrons. The ions can be moved relatively easily, but are difficult to
detach, due to their attraction to the electrons. (4) ______ The mobility of the electrons also
explains why metals are good conductors of electricity.

Hydrogen Bonding

Unlike the examples above, hydrogen bonding involves bonding between, rather than within,
molecules. When hydrogen combines with an element that strongly attracts electrons — such as
fluorine or oxygen — the electrons are pulled away from the hydrogen. This results in a molecule
with an overall positive charge on one side and a negative charge on the other. (5) ______

Although these bonds are much weaker than ionic, covalent, or metallic bonds, they are very
important. Hydrogen bonding takes place in water, a compound containing two atoms of hydrogen
and one of oxygen. (6) ______ Without hydrogen bonding, water would have a much lower boiling
point and could not exist as a liquid on the Earth.

http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-chemical-bonding.htm

Find more information on chemical bonding at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h6LPAwAmnCQ

A This means that more energy is required to convert liquid water into a gas than would otherwise
be the case.

B This explains why metals are generally easy to bend but difficult to break.

C In a liquid, the positive and negative sides attract one another, forming bonds between the
molecules.

D The non-metal accepts electrons so as to fill up its incomplete outermost shell.

E This way, all three atoms have full outer shells containing eight electrons.

F This usually means that, when combined, they all have full outer shells.

G Sodium has three shells, with one valence electron in the outermost.

VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

Provide the antonyms of the following words from the text above.

25
1. outermost
2. accepting
3. attract
4. combine
5. lower their energy level
6. mobile
7. important

26
VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

Match the words (1-15) from the text above with the synonyms (a-o).

1. take place a growing

2. various b instance

3. involve c lead to

4. therefore d include

5. bonding e since

6. increasing f occur

7.occupy g need

8. as h react

9. because of i donate

10. represent j different

11. give k as a result

12. example l link

13. combine m due to

14. result in n fill a space

15. require o show

27
SPEAKING

Read the text again and by using the illustration below discuss what you have learned about the
different types of bonding.

WRITING

With the help of the information from the text titled Types of bonding and the ’pictures’ above write
a 120 word summary of the different types of bonding.

28
LISTENING

Watch the following video about ionic bonding at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qf07-8Jhhpc.

Work with a partner. Discuss the three steps the presenter has mentioned.The following expressions
might help you:

connection between metal atoms and non-metal atoms

a big, thick staircase ( why is it mentioned?)
step 1 – transfer of electron
step 2 - ion formation
step 3 - opposite charges, sticking together

See more about ionic bonding at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5EwmedLuRmw

29
READING

2.1.3. What is bond energy?

After reading the text, answer the following questions.

Bond energy is a term used in chemistry to describe the amount of energy required to separate
the chemical bonds between atoms. It is defined as the amount of heat energy required to break a
specific quantity of bonds of one type and is expressed as kilojoules per mole of bonds (kj/mol). A
mole is a constant, equal to 6.02 x 1023 atoms or molecules of a particular substance. The bond
energy of a particular bond depends on the type of bond, and some are much stronger than
others. Ionic bonds, formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another are generally the
strongest, and hydrogen bonds are the weakest.
Some chemists and texts refer to the energy needed to break bonds apart as bond dissociation
energy, sometimes expressed as a negative value, and the energy needed to form the bonds as bond
energy, expressed as a positive value, but this is mainly a matter of semantics as the absolute
amounts are identical for any given bond. The same amount of energy is released when bonds are
formed as must be applied to break them. This can cause confusion, but the terms bond dissociation
energy and bond energy are sometimes used interchangeably. The main difference is the usage of
one or the other to describe what kind of reaction is happening, not the amount of energy
involved.http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-bond-energy.htm

1. How do you define bond energy?

2. How is an ionic bond formed?

3. Which is the strongest bond?

4. What kind of value refers to bond energy?

30
5. What can lead to confusion?

6. How are the terms bond dissociation energy and bond energy sometimes used?

7. What is the main difference between the terms mentioned in the previous question?

31
VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

2.1.4. Bonding in metals (Properties of metals)

Fill the gaps in the text with words from the box.

malleability, lattice, hybrids, electronegativities, fluid, p-orbitals, alkali, octet, quantitative

The fact that the metallic elements are found on the left side of the periodic table offers an
important clue to the nature of how they bond together to form solids.

These elements all possess low ………. and readily form positive ions Mn+. Because they show
no tendency to form negative ions, the kind of bonding present in ionic solids can immediately be
ruled out.

The metallic elements have empty or nearly-empty outer ………., so there are never enough outer-
shell electrons to place an ………. around an atom.

These points lead us to the simplest picture of metals, which regards them as a ………. of positive ions
immersed in a “sea of electrons” which can freely migrate throughout the solid. In effect the
electropositive nature of the metallic atoms allows their valence electrons to exist as a mobile ……….
which can be displaced by an applied electric field, hence giving rise to their high electrical
conductivities. Because each ion is surrounded by the electron fluid in all directions, the bonding has
no directional properties; this accounts for the high ………. and ductility of metals.

This view is an oversimplification that fails to explain metals in a ……….. way, nor can it account for
the differences in the properties of individual metals. A more detailed treatment, known as the bond
theory of metals, applies the idea of resonance ………. to metallic lattices. In the case of an ……….
metal, for example, this would involve a large number of hybrid structures in which a given Na atom
shares its electron with its various neighbors.

http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/chembond/cb10.html

32
READING

After reading the text above again, answer the questions that follow.

1. What does the fact that the metallic elements are found on the left side of the periodic
table offer an important clue to?

2. What is characteristic of all these elements?

3. Why is the kind of bonding present in ionic solids can immediately be ruled out?

4. What is the consequence of the fact that the metallic elements have empty or nearly-
empty outer p-orbitals?

5. How can we describe the so-called lattice of ions?

6. What allows the valence electrons of the metallic atoms to exist as a mobile fluid?

7. What gives rise to their high electrical conductivities?

8. Why does the bonding have no directional properties?

33
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/images/gcsechem_60.gif

34
 2.2. What is a molecule?
VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

Read the following text. Use a dictionary and explain the meaning of the following words and phrases
from the text above:

Most people think of molecules as the particles that result when atoms become joined together in
some way. This conveys the general picture, but a somewhat better definition is:

A molecule is an aggregate of atoms that possesses distinctive observable properties.

A more restrictive definition distinguishes between a "true" molecule that exists as an independent
particle, and an extended solid that can only be represented by its simplest formula. Methane, CH4, is
an example of the former, while sodium chloride, which does not contain any discrete NaCl units, is
the most widely-known extended solid.

Structure, structure, structure!

And what are those properties that characterize a particular kind of molecule and distinguish it from
others? The identity of a chemical species is defined by its structure. In its most fundamental sense,
the structure of a molecule is specified by the identity of its constituent atoms and the sequence in
which they are joined together, that is, by the bonding connectivity. This, in turn, defines
the bonding geometry— the spatial relationship between the bonded atoms.

The importance of bonding connectivity is nicely illustrated by the structures of the two
compounds ethanol and dimethyl ether, both of which have the simplest formula C2H6O.
The structural formulas reveal the very different connectivities of these two molecules whose
physical and chemistry properties are quite different:

35
 http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/chembond/cb01.html#PageTop

1. particle

2. aggregate

3. distinctive

4. distinguish

5. observable

6. discrete

7. chemical species

8. constituent atom

9. that is

10. spatial relationship

11. compound

12. structural formula

13. property

LISTENING and SPEAKING

After watching the video at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RbbOBPfH_uk, discuss the

differences between an atom and a molecule with a partner.

36
 2.3. How do we depict chemical structures?
READING

Write the appropriate answer to each question below.

Chemical species are traditionally represented by structural formulas such as the one for ascorbic
acid (vitamin C) which we show here. The lines, of course, represent the "chemical bonds" of the
molecule. More importantly, the structural formula of a molecule defines its connectivity, as was
illustrated in the comparison of ethanol and dimethyl ether shown above.

One limitation of such formulas is that they are drawn on a two-dimensional paper or screen,
whereas most molecules have a three-dimensional shape.

The wedge-shaped lines in the structural formula are one way of indicating which bonds extend
above or below the viewing plane. You will probably be spared having to learn this convention until
you get into second-year Chemistry.

Three-dimensional models (either real plastic ones or images that incorporate perspective and
shading) reveal much more about a molecule's structure. The ball-and-stick and space-filling
renditions are widely employed, but each has its limitations, as seen in the following examples:

[U. Alberta ]
methane Note how this shows CH4 to be
[U. Rochester] roughly spherical.

Space-filling model, showing relative

Ball-and-stick model, showing the
Ordinary structural sizes of the atoms and general shape
"chemical bonds" and bonding
formula, showing of the molecule, but not all atoms
geometry, but with the individual
connectivity only. visible. No obvious "chemical bonds"
atoms unrealisticly separated.
here!

37
 ascorbic acid

But what would a molecule "really" look like if you could view it
through a magical microscope of some kind? A possible answer would be this computer-generated
view of nicotine. At first you might think it looks more like a piece of abstract sculpture than a
molecule, but it does reveal the shape of the negative charge-cloud that envelops the collection of
atom cores and nuclei hidden within. This can be very important for understanding how the molecule
interacts with the similar charge-clouds that clothe solvent and bioreceptor molecules.

Finally, we get to see one! In 2009, IBM scientists in Switzerland succeeded

in imaging a real molecule, using a technique known as atomic force microscopy in which an atoms-
thin metallic probe is drawn ever-so-slightly above the surface of an immobilized pentacene
molecule cooled to nearly absolute zero. In order to improve the image quality, a molecule of carbon
monoxide was placed on the end of the probe.

The image produced by the AFM probe is shown at the very bottom. What is actually being imaged is
the surface of the electron clouds of the molecule, which consists of five fused hexagonal rings of
carbon atoms with hydrogens on its periphery. The tiny bumps that correspond to these hydrogen
atom attest to the remarkable resolution of this experiment.

38
http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/chembond/cb01.htRSC

1. What does the structural formula of a molecule define?

2. What do the wedge-shaped lines indicate?

3. How would you characterize the three-dimensional models?

4. What does the computer-generated view of nicotine show?

5. What does AFM stand for and what is it used for?

6. What does the surface of the electron clouds of the molecule consist of?

7. What do the tiny bumps prove?

SPEAKING

Because of the fact that the three-dimensional models reveal much more about a molecule's
structure discuss them in detail with a partner or in a small group on the basis of the text
above. Focus on the following ideas:

the representation of chemical species by structural formulas

two -dimensional drawings
three-dimensional models
imaging a real molecule (atomic force microscopy)

39
3. UNIT 3. ACIDS and BASES

40
 3.1. Acid/Base Basics
READING

3.1.1. How does one define acids and bases?

Match the proper names to the following definitions and then check your choice while reading the
text below.

a. Arrhenius 1. Acids are electron pair acceptors while bases are electron pair donors.

b. Lewis 2. Acids are substances that donate protons (H+) whereas bases are substances
that accept protons.

c. Bronsted- 3. Acids are substances that ionize (break off) in an aqueous solution to
Lowry produce hydrogen (H+) ions while bases produce hydroxide (OH-) ions in
solution.

In chemistry, acids and bases have been defined differently by three sets of theories. One is the
Arrhenius definition, which revolves around the idea that acids are substances that ionize (break off)
in an aqueous solution to produce hydrogen (H+) ions while bases produce hydroxide (OH-) ions in
solution. On the other hand, the Bronsted-Lowry definition defines acids as substances that donate
protons (H+) whereas bases are substances that accept protons. Also, the Lewis theory of acids and
bases states that acids are electron pair acceptors while bases are electron pair donors. Acids and
bases can be defined by their physical and chemical observations.

http://www.chem4kids.com/files/art/reaction_acidbase3.gif

41
SPEAKING

3.1.2. Properties
Work with a partner. Discuss the properties of acids and bases according to the table below.

Acids and bases are common solutions that exist everywhere. Almost every liquid that we encounter
in our daily lives consists of acidic and basic properties, with the exception of water. They have
completely different properties and are able to neutralize to form H2O. The table below compares
the different properties between them:

Table 1.

ACIDS BASES

produce a piercing pain in give a slippery feel.

a wound.

taste sour. taste bitter.

are colorless when placed are pink when placed in

in phenolphthalein (an phenolphthalein (an indicator).
indicator).

are red on blue litmus are blue on red litmus paper (a

paper (a pH indicator). pH indicator).

have a pH<7. have a pH>7.

produce hydrogen gas

when reacted with metals.

produce carbon dioxide

when reacted with
carbonates.

Common examples: Common Examples: Soap,

Lemons, oranges, vinegar, toothpaste, bleach, cleaning
urine, sulfuric acid, agents, limewater, ammonia

42
hydrochloric acid water, sodium hydroxide.

43
 3.2. Types of definitions

VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

3.2.1. The Arrhenius Definition

Match the words (1-6) from the text below to their synonyms (a-f).

In 1884, the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius proposed two specific classifications of compounds,
termed acids and bases. When dissolved in an aqueous solution, certain ions were released into the
solution.

Arrhenius Acids

An Arrhenius acid is a compound that increases the concentration of H+ ions that are present when
added to water. These H+ ions form the hydronium ion (H3O+) when they combine with water
molecules. This process is represented in a chemical equation by adding H2O to the reactants side.

HCl(aq)→H+(aq)+Cl−(aq)

In this reaction, hydrochloric acid (HCl) dissociates into hydrogen (H+) and chlorine (Cl-) ions when
dissolved in water, thereby releasing H+ ions into solution. Formation of the hydronium ion equation:

HCl(aq)+H3O+(l)→H3O+(aq)+Cl−(aq)

Incomplete Ionization (Weak Acids)

Strong acids are molecular compounds that essentially ionize to completion in aqueous solution,
disassociating into H+ ions and the additional anion; there are very few common strong acids. All
other acids are "weak acids" that incompletely ionize in aqueous solution.

Strong Acids HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, HBr, HI, HClO4

Weak Acids All other acids, such as HCN, HF, H2S, HCOOH

Arrhenius Bases

44
An Arrhenius base is a compound that increases the concentration of OH- ions that are present when
added to

water.

The dissociation is represented by the following equation:

NaOH(aq)→Na+(aq)+OH−(aq)

In this reaction, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) disassociates into sodium (Na+) and hydroxide (OH-) ions
when dissolved in water, thereby releasing OH- ions into solution.

Figure 1. Arrhenius acids dissociate to form aqueous H+ ions and Arrhenius bases dissociate to form
aqueous OH- ions.

NOTE: The stronger the acid and base, the more dissociation will occur.

Incomplete Ionization (Weak Bases)

Like acids, strong and weak bases are classified by the extent of their ionization. Strong bases
disassociate almost or entirely to completion in aqueous solution. Similar to strong acids, there are
very few common strong bases. Weak bases are molecular compounds where the ionization is not
complete.

45
46
1. proposed a react

2. released b liberated

3. increases c grouped

4. combine d shown

5. ionize e suggested

6. represented f enlarges

7. classified g break off

http://dl.clackamas.edu/ch105/lesson%207%20images/hyd18.jpg

47
READING

While reading the text above, decide if the statements are TRUE or FALSE.

1. An Arrhenius acid is a compound that decreases the concentration of H+ ions that are present
when added to water.

2. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) associates into hydrogen (H+) and chlorine (Cl-) ions when dissolved in
water.

3. Strong acids are molecular compounds that essentially ionize to completion in aqueous solution.

4. There are a few common strong acids.

5. An Arrhenius base is a compound that increases the concentration of OH- ions that are present
when added to water.

6. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) disassociates into sodium (Na+) and hydroxide (OH-) ions when dissolved
in water.

7. The weaker the acid and base, the more dissociation will occur.

8. Weak bases are molecular compounds where the ionization is not complete.

LISTENING

Watch the video at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DupXDD87oHc and then discuss

the topic. The recording is about the strengths and weaknesses of acids and bases. Focus on the
following ideas:

complete ionization
incomplete ionization

48
VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

3.2.1.1. Limitations to the Arrhenius Theory

Fill the gaps in the text with words from the box.

dissolved, solution, neutralised, dilute, weak base, in line with, however, either

The Arrhenius theory has many more limitations than the other two theories. The theory suggests
that in order for a substance to release either H+ or OH- ions, it must contain that particular ion.
However, this does not explain the ………. ammonia (NH3), which in the presence of water, releases
hydroxide ions into solution, but does not contain OH- itself.

Hydrochloric acid is ………. by both sodium hydroxide solution and ammonia solution. In both cases,
you get a colourless solution which you can crystallise to get a white salt - ………. sodium chloride or
ammonium chloride. These are clearly very similar reactions. The full equations are:

NaOH(aq)+HCl(aq)→NaCl(aq)+H2O(l)

NH3(aq)+HCl(aq)→NH4Cl(aq)

In the sodium hydroxide case, hydrogen ions from the acid are reacting with hydroxide ions from the
sodium hydroxide - ………. the Arrhenius theory. However, in the ammonia case, there are no
hydroxide ions!

You can get around this by saying that the ammonia reacts with the water it is ………. in to produce
ammonium ions and hydroxide ions:

NH3(aq)+H2O(l)⇌NH+4(aq)+OH−(aq)

This is a reversible reaction, and in a typical ………. ammonia solution, about 99% of the ammonia
remains as ammonia molecules. Nevertheless, there are hydroxide ions there, and we can squeeze
this into the Arrhenius theory ……….. , this same reaction also happens between ammonia gas and
hydrogen chloride gas.

NH3(g)+HCl(g)→NH4Cl(s)

In this case, there are not any hydrogen ions or hydroxide ions in solution - because there isn't any
………. . The Arrhenius theory wouldn't count this as an acid-base reaction, despite the fact that it is
producing the same product as when the two substances were in solution. Because of this short-
coming, later theories sought to better explain the behavior of acids and bases in a new manner.

49
READING

3.2.2. The Brønsted-Lowry Definition

After reading this text, answer the questions that follow.

In 1923, British chemists Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Thomas Martin Lowry independently
developed definitions of acids and bases based on the compounds' abilties to either donate or accept
protons (H+ ions). In this theory, acids are defined as proton donors; whereas bases are defined
as proton acceptors. A compound that acts as both a Bronsted-Lowry acid and base together is called
amphoteric.This took the Arrhenius definition one step further, as a substance no longer needed to
be composed of hydrogen (H+) or hydroxide (OH-) ions in order to be classified as an acid or base.

Consider the following chemical equation:

HCl(aq)+NH3(aq)→NH+4(aq)+Cl−(aq)

Here, hydrochloric acid (HCl) "donates" a proton (H+) to ammonia (NH3) which "accepts" it , forming a
positively charged ammonium ion (NH4+) and a negatively charged chloride ion (Cl-). Therefore, HCl is
a Brønsted-Lowry acid (donates a proton) while the ammonia is a Bronsted-Lowry base (accepts a
proton). Also, Cl- is called the conjugate base of the acid HCl and NH4+ is called the conjugate acid of
the base NH3.

1. Who developed the definitions of acids and bases at the beginning of the 20th century?
2. How did they define acids and bases?
3. What is the conjugate base of the acid HCl and what is the conjugate acid of the base NH3 ?

50
http://s-owl.cengage.com/ebooks/vining_owlbook_prototype/ebook/images/book_content/16-
05.jpg

51
READING

3.2.2.1. pH Scale
After reading this text, answer the questions that follow.

Since acids increase the amount of H+ ions present and bases increase the amount of OH- ions, under
the pH scale, the strength of acidity and basicity can be measured by its concentration of H+ ions. This
scale is shown by the following formula:

pH = -log[H+]

with [H+] being the concentration of H+ ions.

The pH scale is often measured on a 1 to 14 range, but this is incorrect. Something with a pH less
than 7 indicates acidic properties and greater than 7 indicates basic properties. A pH at exactly 7 is
neutral. The higher the [H+], the lower the pH.

The pH scale shows that substances with a pH greater than 7 are basic and a pH less than 7 are acidic

What increases the amount of H+ and what increases that of OH- ions?
How can we measure the strength of acidity and basicity?
On what range is the pH scale often measured? Is it correct?

52
WRITING

3.2.3. Lewis Theory

Translate the text below into Hungarian. Be careful with the Hungarian terminology.

The Lewis theory of acids and bases states that acids act as electron pair acceptors and bases act
as electron pair doners. This definition doesn't mention anything about the hydrogen atom at all,
unlike the other definitions. It only talks about the transfer of electron pairs. To demonstrate this
theory, consider the following example.

This is a reaction between ammonia (NH3) and boron trifluoride (BF3). Since there is no transfer of
hydrogen atoms here, it is clear that this is a Lewis acid-base reaction. In this reaction, NH3 has a lone
pair of electrons and BF3 has an incomplete octet, since boron doesn't have enough electrons around
it to form an octet.

Figure 2. The Lewis structures of ammonia and boron trifluoride.

Because boron only has 6 electrons around it, it can hold 2 more. BF3 can act as an acid and accept
the pair of electrons from the nitrogen in NH3, which will then form a bond between the nitrogen and
the boron.

53
Figure 3. The Lewis structure of H3NBF3, which resulted from the bond between nitrogen and boron.

This is considered an acid-base reaction where NH3 (base) is donating the pair of electrons to BF3.
BF3 (acid) is accepting those electrons to form a new compound, H3NBF3.

54
 3.3. Neutralization and Titration
LISTENING and SPEAKING

3.3.1. Neutralization
Work with a partner. Read the two short texts below and discuss the topics. The
following video might help you: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_pc9wp4QyUE).

A special property of acids and bases is their ability to neutralize the other's properties. In an acid-
base (or neutralization) reaction, the H+ ions from the acid and the OH- ions from the base react to
create water (H2O). Another product of a neutralization reaction is an ionic compound called a salt.
Therefore, the general form of an acid-base reaction is:

The following are examples of neutralization reactions:

1.

2.

http://boomeria.org/chemlectures/textass2/neutral.jpg

55
LANGUAGE USE

3.3.2. Titrations
Read the short text about titrations and find all the instances of PASSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS there. Then
give reasons for their use. Below you can get useful information on passive and active voices. After
reading the text, do the exercise on the last page.

Titrations are performed with acids and bases to determine their concentrations. At the equivalence
point, the number of moles of the acid will equal the number of moles of the base. This indicates that
the reaction has been neutralized.

Neutralization: moles of acid = moles of base

Here's how the calculations are done:

For instance, hydrochloric acid is titrated with sodium hydroxide:

For instance, 30 mL of 1.00 M NaOH is needed to titrate 60 mL of an HCl solution. The concentration
of HCl needs to be determined. At the eqivalence point:

moles of HCl = moles of NaOH

http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Acids_and_Bases/Acid

http://boomeria.org/chemlectures/textass2/titration.jpg

56
57
Passive and Active Voices

Verbs are also said to be either active (The executive committee approved the new policy)
or passive (The new policy was approved by the executive committee) in voice. In the active voice,
the subject and verb relationship is straightforward: the subject is a be-er or a do-er and the verb
moves the sentence along. In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is neither a do-er or a be-
er, but is acted upon by some other agent or by something unnamed (The new policy was approved).

The passive is particularly useful (even recommended) in two situations:

When it is more important to draw our attention to the person or thing acted upon: The
unidentified victim was apparently struck during the early morning hours.
When the actor in the situation is not important: The aurora borealis can be
observed in the early morning hours.

The passive voice is especially helpful (and even regarded as mandatory) in scientific or
technical writing or lab reports, where the actor is not really important but the process or principle
being described is of ultimate importance. Instead of writing "I poured 20 cc of acid into the beaker,"
we would write "Twenty cc of acid is/was poured into the beaker." The passive voice is also useful
when describing a mechanical process in which the details of process are much more important than
anyone's taking responsibility for the action: "The first coat of primer paint is applied immediately
after the acid rinse."

Only transitive verbs (those that take objects) can be transformed into passive constructions.

Sentences with direct and indirect objects

Active Professor Villa gave Jorge an A.

Passive An A was given to Jorge by Professor Villa.

Passive Jorge was given an A.

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/passive.htm

58
Change the following sentences from active to passive.

1. They should send it to us on Monday.

2. They cannot hold the meeting in that room.

3. They may deliver the package while we are out.

4. Susan is teaching that class.

5. We must warn them of the danger.

6. They couldn't sell the car at that price.

7. The government is debating that question now.

8. He has to finish it today.

9. They are sending the ambassador to Europe on a special mission.

10. You must insure your car.

59
4. UNIT 4. STATES of MATTER and THERMODYNAMICS

60
 4.1. States of Matter
READING

4.1.1. Introduction
Read this text about states of matter and the Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter. Parts of some
sentences have been removed from the text. Choose the most appropriate part from the list (A-G) for
each gap (1-6) in the text. There is an example at the beginning.

The different states of matter have long confused people. The ancient Greeks were the first (0) …C..
based on their observations of water. But these same Greeks, in particular the
philosopher Thales (624 - 545 BCE), incorrectly suggested that since water could exist as a solid,
liquid, or even a gas under natural conditions, it must be the single principal element in
the universe (1) …... .We now know that water is not the fundamental substance of the universe; in
fact, (2) …... .

To understand the different states in which matter can exist, we need to understand something
called the Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter. Kinetic Molecular Theory has many parts, but we will
introduce just a few here. One of the basic concepts of the theory states
that atoms and molecules possess an energy of motion (3) …... In other words, atoms and molecules
are constantly moving, and we measure the energy of these movements (4) …... The more energy a
substance has, the more molecular movement there will be, and the higher the perceived
temperature will be. An important point that follows this is that the amount of energy that atoms
and molecules have (and thus the amount of movement) influences their interaction with each
other. (5) ….., many atoms and molecules are attracted to each other as a result of various
intermolecular forces such as hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces, and others. Atoms and
molecules that have relatively small amounts of energy (and movement) will interact strongly with
each other, while those that have relatively high energy will interact only slightly, if even at all, with
others.

How does this produce different states of matter? Atoms that have low energy interact strongly and
(6) …... Thus, collectively, these atoms form a hard substance, what we call a solid. Atoms that
possess high energy will move past each other freely, flying about a room, and forming what we call
a gas. As it turns out, there are several known states of matter; a few of them are detailed below.

A as the temperature of the substance

B tend to "lock" in place with respect to other atoms

C to identify three classes (what we now call states) of matter

D from which all other substances are made

E unlike simple billiard balls

F it is not even an element

61
G that we perceive as temperature

62
READING

Look at the text above again and decide whether these sentences are TRUE or FALSE.

1. Thales correctly suggested that since water could exist as a solid, liquid, or even a gas, it must be
the single principal element in the universe.

2. The more energy a substance has, the less molecular movement there will be.

3. The amount of energy that atoms and molecules have influences their interaction with each other.

4. Atoms and molecules that have relatively small amounts of energy will interact weakly with each
other.

5. Atoms that have low energy interact strongly.

http://media-3.web.britannica.com/eb-media/65/63065-004-07B69F7B.jpg

63
VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

4.1.2. Solids, Liquids, Gases, Plasmas and Bose-Einstein Condensates

You are going to read a text about ’Solids, Liquids, Gases, Plasmas and Bose-Einstein
Condensates’.Fill the gaps in the text with phrases from the box.

intermolecular forces, charged ions, vibrational energy, low density, gaseous superfluids,
absolute zero, liquid crystals, attractive forces, ionized gases, rigid structure, little interaction

1. Solids are formed when the ………. between individual molecules are greater than
the energy causing them to move apart. Individual molecules are locked in position near each other,
and cannot move past one another. The atoms or molecules of solids remain in motion. However,
that motion is limited to ……….; individual molecules stay fixed in place and vibrate next to each
other. As the temperature of a solid is increased, the amount of vibration increases, but the solid
retains its shape and volume because the molecules are locked in place relative to each other.

2. Liquids are formed when the energy (usually in the form of heat) of a system is increased and the
………. of the solid state is broken down. In liquids, molecules can move past one another and bump
into other molecules; however, they remain relatively close to each other like solids. Often in liquids,
……….. (such as hydrogen bonds) pull molecules together and are quickly broken. As the temperature
of a liquid is increased, the amount of movement of individual molecules increases. As a result,
liquids can "flow" to take the shape of their container but they cannot be easily compressed because
the molecules are already close together. Thus liquids have an undefined shape, but a defined
volume.

3. Gases are formed when the energy in the system exceeds all of the
attractive forces between molecules. Thus gas molecules have ………. with each other beyond
occasionally bumping into one another. In the gas state, molecules move quickly and are free to
move in any direction, spreading out long distances. As the temperature of a gas increases, the
amount of movement of individual molecules increases. Gases expand to fill their containers and
have ………. . Because individual molecules are widely separated and can move around easily in the
gas state, gases can be compressed easily and they have an undefined shape.

Solids, liquids, and gases are the most common states of matter that exist on our planet.

4. Plasmas are hot, ………. . Plasmas are formed under conditions of extremely high energy, so high, in
fact, that molecules are ripped apart and only free atoms exist. More astounding, plasmas have so
much energy that the outer electrons are actually ripped off of individual atoms, thus forming a gas
of highly energetic, charged ions. Because the atoms in plasma exist as ………., plasmas behave
differently than gases, thus representing a fourth state of matter. Plasmas can be commonly seen
simply by looking upward; the high energy conditions that exist in stars such as our sun force
individual atoms into the plasma state. As we have seen, increasing energy leads to more molecular
motion. Conversely, decreasing energy results in less molecular motion. As a result, one prediction of
Kinetic Molecular Theory is that if we continue to decrease the energy (measured as temperature) of

64
a substance, we will reach a point at which all molecular motion stops. The temperature at which
molecular motion stops is called ………. and has been calculated to be -273.15 degrees Celsius. While
scientists have cooled substances to temperatures close to absolute zero, they have never actually
reached absolute zero. The difficulty with observing a substance at absolute zero is that to "see" the
substance, light is needed, and light itself transfers energy to the substance, thus raising the
temperature. Despite these challenges, scientists have recently observed a fifth state of matter that
only exists at temperatures very close to absolute zero.

5. Bose-Einstein Condensates represent a fifth state of matter only seen for the first time in 1995.
The state is named after Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein who predicted its existence in the
1920's. B-E condensates are ………. cooled to temperatures very near absolute zero. In this weird
state, all the atoms of the condensate attain the same quantum-mechanical state and can flow past
one another without friction. Even more strangely, B-E condensates can actually "trap" light,
releasing it when the state breaks down.

Several other less common states of matter have also either been described or actually seen. Some
of these states include ………., fermionic condensates, superfluids, supersolids and the aptly named
strange matter.

See more about gases, liquids and solids at

http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/liquids/character.html

Bose-Einstein Condensates

http://pfc.umd.edu/sites/default/files/images/cold_atoms_research.jpg

65
READING

Read the text above again. There are some statements after it. Your task is to match the statements
to the numbered paragraphs.The last two sentences in the text do not count as a separate paragraph.

a) Because individual molecules are widely separated and can move around easily , they can be
compressed easily.
b) Individual molecules are locked in position near each other, and cannot move past one
another.
c) All the atoms attain the same quantum-mechanical state and can flow past one another
without friction.
d) They cannot be easily compressed because the molecules are already close together.
e) They are formed under conditions of extremely high energy, so high, that molecules are
ripped apart and only free atoms exist.

VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

Insert the missing forms of the words in the table. All the words are taken from the text above.

VERB NOUN ADJECTIVE ADVERB

limited

easily

increase

exceed

energetic

condensate -

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READING

4.1.3. Phase transitions

You are going to read a text about phase transitions. After you have read it, answer the questions
that follow.

The transformation of one state of matter into another state is called a phase transition. The more
common phase transitions even have names; for example, the terms melting and freezing describe
phase transitions between the solid and liquid state, and the terms
evaporation and condensation describe transitions between the liquid and gas state. Phase
transitions occur at very precise points, when the energy (measured as temperature) of a substance
in a given state exceeds that allowed in the state. For example, liquid water can exist at a range of
temperatures. Cold drinking water may be around 4ºC. Hot shower water has more energy and thus
may be around 40ºC. However, at 100°C under normal conditions, water will begin to undergo a
phase transition into the gas phase. At this point, energy introduced into the liquid will not go into
increasing the temperature; it will be used to send molecules of water into the gas state. Thus, no
matter how high the flame is on the stove, a pot of boiling water will remain at 100ºC until all of the
water has undergone transition to the gas phase. The excess energy introduced by a high flame will
accelerate the liquid-to-gas transition; it will not change the temperature. The heat curve below
illustrates the corresponding changes in energy (shown in calories) and temperature of water as it
undergoes a phase transition between the liquid and gas states.

As can be seen in the graph above, as we move from left to right, the temperature of liquid water
increases as energy (heat) is introduced. At 100ºC, water begins to undergo a phase transition and
the temperature remains constant even as energy is added (the flat part of the graph). The energy
that is introduced during this period goes toward breaking intermolecular forces so that individual
water molecules can "escape" into the gas state. Finally, once the transition is complete, if further
energy is added to the system, the heat of the gaseous water, or steam, will increase.

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This same process can be seen in reverse if we simply look at the graph above starting on the right
side and moving left. As steam is cooled, the movement of gaseous watermolecules and thus
temperature will decrease. When the gas reaches 100ºC, more energy will be lost from the system as
the attractive forces between molecules reform; however the temperature remains constant during
the transition (the flat part of the graph). Finally, when condensation is complete, the temperature of
the liquid will begin to fall as energy is withdrawn.

Phase transitions are an important part of the world around us. For example, the energy withdrawn
when perspiration evaporates from the surface of your skin allows your body to correctly regulate its
temperature during hot days. Phase transitions play an important part in geology,
influencing mineral formation and possibly even earthquakes. And who can ignore the phase
transition that occurs at about -3ºC, when cream, perhaps with a few strawberries or chocolate
chunks, begins to form solid ice cream.

Now we understand what is happening in a pot of boiling water. The energy (heat) introduced at the
bottom of the pot causes a localized phase transition of liquid water to the gaseous state. Because
gases are less dense than liquids, these localized phase transitions form pockets (or bubbles) of gas,
which rise to the surface of the pot and burst. But nature is often more magical than our
imaginations. Despite all that we know about the states of matter and phase transitions, we still
cannot predict where the individual bubbles will form in a pot of boiling water.

http://www.visionlearning.com/en/library/Chemistry/1/States-of-Matter/120

1. How is phase transition defined?

2. Enumerate the more common phase transitions.
3. When do they occur?
4. What does the heat curve in the graph above illustrate?
5. How can phase transitions be an important part of the world around us?
6. What can phase transitions influence in geology?
7. Why can we say that nature is often more magical than our imaginations?

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VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

Complete the sentences from the text above with parts removed from them.

1. The terms __________ describe phase transitions between the solid and liquid state.

2. Phase transitions occur at very precise points, when the energy (__________) of a substance in a
given state exceeds that allowed in the state.

3. __________ introduced by a high flame will accelerate the liquid-to-gas transition; it will not
change the temperature.

4. As steam is cooled, the movement of __________ and thus temperature will decrease.

5. When condensation is complete, the temperature of the liquid will begin to fall as __________ .

6. Phase transitions play an important part in geology, influencing __________ and possibly even
earthquakes.

7. The energy (heat) introduced at the bottom of the pot causes __________ of liquid water to the
gaseous state.

mineral formation the excess energy a localized phase transition

energy is withdrawn
melting and freezing

gaseous water molecules measured as temperature

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SPEAKING

You can find a graph in the text above. Study it carefully and then discuss with a partner what you can
see in it on the basis of the following questions.

1. How are the temperature and the energy related to each other?

2. How does the energy introduced during this period influence intermolecular forces ?

3. What happens when further energy is added to the system?

WRITING

Write a description of phase transitions represented in the following process diagram . Concentrate
on the different chemical processes that occur when a phase transition takes place.

http://meditationandspiritualgrowth.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/Phase-
Transition1.jpg

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 4.2. Thermodynamics
VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

You are going to read a text about Thermodynamics , a branch of physics, which deals with the
energy and work of a system. Match the words (1-8) from the text with their synonyms (a-h).

http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/Images/thermo.gif

Thermodynamics is a branch of physics which deals with the energy and work of a system. It was
born in the 19th century as scientists were first discovering how to build and operate steam engines.
Thermodynamics deals only with the large scale response of a system which we can observe and
measure in experiments. Small scale gas interactions are described by the kinetic theory of gases.
The methods complement each other; some principles are more easily understood in terms of
thermodynamics and some principles are more easily explained by kinetic theory.

There are three principal laws of thermodynamics. Each law leads to the definition of
thermodynamic properties which help us to understand and predict the operation of a physical
system.

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The First Law of Thermodynamics can be stated something like this: " Heat is a form of energy.
Types of energy can be transferred from one type to another, and it is possible to account for all of
the energy to show no loss or gain of energy from the transfer." This law is apparently violated by
the famous Einstein equation, E = m c2, in which E is energy, m is mass and c is the velocity of light.
This is the equation that shows that an incredibly small mass disappears when a nuclear reaction
occurs and an incredibly large amount of energy is made. Einstein's equation does not violate the
first law, but just shows us the difficult idea that mass and energy are just two different forms of the
same thing. Mass is just a very concentrated form of energy. It is pretty difficult to get energy from
mass. (And even more difficult to get mass from energy!)

The Second Law of Thermodynamics is a bit more complex. There are several ways to express it and
several parts to it. "Usable work from a heat engine is available from a difference in temperature
rather than any amount of material at the same temperature." and "When two materials are
combined, the temperature of both of them will become the same, a weighted average based on
the specific heat and mass of the two materials coming together."

The Third Law of Thermodynamics describes material under a very specialized condition. It shows
that it is impossible to bring and keep a material to absolute zero temperature, since absolute zero is
the condition wherein a material has absolutely no motion of the atoms or molecules.

http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/thermo.html

http://www.chemtutor.com/sta.htm

Match the words (1-8) from the text with their synonyms (a-h).

1. observe a. complicated
2. principles b. happens
3. principal c. connected
4. apparently d. see
5. occurs e. main
6. complex f. laws
7. combined g. state
8. condition h. obviously

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READING

Look at the text above again and decide whether these sentences are TRUE or FALSE.

1. Thermodynamics deals only with the small scale response of a system which we can observe and
measure in experiments.

2. Large scale gas interactions are described by the kinetic theory of gases.

3. Thermodynamic properties help us to understand and predict the operation of a physical system.

4. The First Law of Thermodynamics is in harmony with the famous Einstein equation.

5. When two materials are combined, the temperature of both of them will become the same.

6. According to the Third Law of Thermodynamics it is impossible to bring and keep a material to
absolute zero temperature.

LISTENING and SPEAKING

Watch the video about the Laws of Thermodynamics and then discuss these laws with a partner.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dL9NfiJjV14 (Zeroth, First, Second and Third Laws of

Thermodynamics)

The following key words and expressions might help you:

energy transfer
heat flow +work done
conservation of energy
entropy dictates!
absolute zero : impossible

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LANGUAGE USE

Read the text about thermodynamics and find all the instances of RELATIVE CLAUSES there. Then give
reasons for their use. Below you can get useful information on relative clauses. After reading the text,
do the exercise on the last page.

Relative clauses

Relative clauses

Defining relative clauses are used to specify I have a friend who speaks five languages.
which person or thing we mean. We don't put I have a friend that speaks five languages.
commas between the noun and a defining
relative clause. She showed me the coat which she had
Who or that are used for people. bought.
Which or that are used for things. She showed me the coat that she had bought.

Non-defining relative clauses (extra

information clauses) are used to add extra
who speaks five languages, works as a
information to a sentence.
translator for the EU.

We put commas before a non-defining relative

clause (and also after, if necessary).
The area, which has very high
unemployment, is in the north of the country.
Who is used for people.
Which is used for things.

That cannot be used.

Relative pronouns

This is the man who helped us.

We use who or that when we talk about (more formal)
people. This is the man that helped us.
(less formal)
Who is more formal than that. We cannot use what:

We use which or that when we talk about It's the watch which my husband bought me for
things (not people). my birthday. (more formal)
It's the watch that my husband bought me for
Which is more formal than that. my birthday. (less formal)

In informal speech, we can It's the watch my husband bought me for my

74
omit which and thatwhen the pronoun refers to birthday.
the object of the sentence. In this sentence, 'the watch' is the object of the
verb 'bought' so we don't need to
use that orwhich.

It was the man that sold me the car.

We cannot omit which and that when the In this sentence, 'the man' is the subject of the
pronoun refers to the subject of the sentence. verb 'sold' so we need to use that or who.
.

John, whose brother was also a musician,

We use whose to show possession.
plays over 100 concerts every year.

Do the following exercise:

1. He is a famous architect ____designs won an international award last year.

2. He is the one ____the award should be given to.

3. This is Mary, ____ is taking over my job when I leave.

4. Its the invoice ____ you sent us last week.

5. He is a consultant ____advice I rely on.

6. The photocopier, ____ has a two-year guarantee, cost $2000.

7. The people ____were stopped at the border were all from Eastern Europe.

8. They expect his decision soon, ____ should help us solve the problem.

9. The President of the company, ____ I really admire, is visiting us next week.

75
5. UNIT 5. SOLUTION CHEMISTRY

76
http://treasure.diylol.com/uploads/post/image/200869/resized_chemistry -cat-meme-
generator-why-are-chemists-great-for-solving-problems-they-have-all-the-solutions-
83f72a.jpg

77
 5.1. Solutions

READING

5.1.1. Properties of Solutions

Read the following text about the properties of solutions. Parts of some sentences have been removed
from the text. Choose the most appropriate part from the list (A-K) for each gap (1-10) in the text.
There is an example at the beginning.

A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances that exist in a single phase. There are
two main parts to any solution. The solute is the component of a solution (0) __J____; it is usually
present in a smaller amount than the solvent. The solvent is the component (1) ______, and it is
usually present in greater concentration. For example, in a solution of salt water, salt is the solute
and water is the solvent. In solutions (2) ______, the solution is referred to as an aqueous solution.
A solution does not have to involve liquids. For instance, air is a solution (3) ______, and other trace
gases, and solder is a solution of lead and tin. The general rule of thumb for solutions is the idea (4)
______ . Polar, ionic substances are soluble in polar solvents, while nonpolar solutes are soluble in
nonpolar solvents. For example, alcohol and water, (5) ______, can form a solution and iodine and
carbon tetrachloride, which are both nonpolar, make a solution. However, iodine will not readily
dissolve in polar water.
In a solution, the particles are really small— (6) ______. They never settle on standing, they cannot
be separated by filtering, and light will pass through a solution unchanged. One type of mixture (7)
______ is known as the colloid. In a colloid, particles are between 100 and 1000 nm in size—still too
small for our eyes to distinguish, but particles this small will not settle. As is the case in solutions, the
particles cannot be filtered, (8) ______. Some examples of colloids include gelatin, fog, smoke, and
shaving cream. Another type of mixture (9) ______ is known as a suspension. Suspensions have
much larger particles: usually over 1000 nm. Particles in a suspension will settle on standing, can
often be separated by a filter, and may scatter light, (10) ______. Some examples of suspensions are
muddy water, paint, and some medicines, like Pepto-Bismol.

78
A that like dissolves like
B that is not considered a solution
C into which the solute is dissolved
D but they do scatter light
E that consists of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide
F that is not a solution
G where water is the solvent
H anywhere from 0 to 100 nm
I but they are usually not transparent
J that is dissolved in the solvent
K which are both polar

http://ssds-science.weebly.com/uploads/2/1/6/1/21610518/6039180_orig.jpg

READING

Read the text above and then match the following terms from it ( 1-5 ) to the definitions

( A-E ).

79
1. colloid A. not considered a solution; usually not transparent
2. solute B. the component into which the solute is dissolved
3. solvent C. a homogenous mixture of two or more substances that exist in a single
phase
4. suspension D. the component of a solution that is dissolved in the solvent
5. solution E. particles in it are too small for our eyes to distinguish

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READING

5.1.2. Types of Solutions

You are going to read a short text about types of solutions. Work with a partner. Fill the gaps in the
text with words from the box.

condensation, clusters, makeup, instance, water vapor, solvent, adsorption, since, homogenous

There are three common states of matter, and seven different types of solutions are possible. These
can be seen here in the Table:

Solute Solvent Example

gas gas air

gas liquid soda

gas solid Hydrogen on Platinum

liquid gas Water vapor in air

liquid liquid Alcohol in Water

liquid solid Dental fillings (Mercury in Silver)

solid gas Sulfur vapor in air

solid liquid sugar solution in water

solid solid Solder (tin in lead)

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A gas cannot act as a ______ for a liquid or a solid. If the solute is a solid or a liquid, it must be
converted to a gas to form a gaseous solution. Why is fog, for ______ , not a solution of liquid water
in air? The water droplets are not mixed on a molecular level--they are ______ of many many
molecules suspended in air.

Different types of Solutions

Source: Basic Chemistry, 3rd Edition, William S. Seese/Guido H. Daub.
Prentice Hall Inc.

All mixtures of gases are solutions, since they consist of ______ systems of different kinds of
molecules. Solutions of solids in liquids are very common. ______ water is a liquid at ordinary
temperatures one may consider ______ in air to be a solution of a liquid in a gas. Solutions of gases
in solids are rare, one example is the ______ of hydrogen on the surface of palladium and platinum.
This phenomenon, called ______ , approaches the nature of a solution.
In general substances that are alike in their chemical ______ are more likely to form solutions.

http://njcmr.njit.edu/distils/lab/chemistry/Solutions/Sol.html

SPEAKING

Work with a partner or in a small group. Discuss the different types of solutions with the help of the
information you find in the Table above.

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READING

5.1.3. The Solution Process

After reading the text, decide whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE.

In order for a solute to be dissolved in a solvent, the attractive forces between the solute and solvent
particles must be great enough to overcome the attractive forces within the pure solvent and pure
solute. The solute and the solvent molecules in a solution are expanded compared to their position
within the pure substances.

The process of expansion, for both the solute and solvent, involves a change in the energy of the
system: this process can be either exothermic or endothermic. After dissolving, the solute is said to
be fully solvated (usually by dipole-dipole or ion-dipole forces), and when the solvent is water, the
solute is said to be hydrated. The separation of the solute particles from one another prior to
dissolving is an endothermic process for both solvent and solute (steps 1 and 2), but when the solute
and solvent combine with each other, this is an exothermic process (step 3). If the energy released in
step 3 is greater than the energy absorbed in steps 1 and 2, the solution forms and is stable.
The term solubility refers to the maximum amount of material that will dissolve in a given amount of
solvent at a given temperature to produce a stable solution. By looking at the plot of solubilities
below, you can see that most solids increase in solubility with an increase in temperature.

83
Gases, however, decrease in solubility with an increase in temperature.

1. The solute and the solvent molecules are contracted compared to their position within the
pure substances.
2. The process of expansion involves a change in the energy of the system in the case of the
solute.
3. After dissolving in water, the solute is said to be hydrated.
4. The separation of the solute particles from one another after dissolving is an endothermic
process.
5. When the solute and solvent combine with each other, this is an exothermic process.
6. Few solids increase in solubility with an increase in temperature.
7. But gases increase with an increase in temperature.

WRITING

Describe in detail what you can see on the plot above. Write about the behaviour of solids in
solubility and then compare it with that of gases.Write 120 words.

84
SPEAKING

5.1.4. Degrees of Saturation

Read the text and then think about the questions that follow. Discuss them with a partner or in a
small group.

http://mcclearyeocchemreview.weebly.com/uploads/1/4/6/1/14614346/2325527_orig.gif?1

When referring to solutions, there are three degrees of saturation—unsaturated, saturated, and
supersaturated. If a solution is unsaturated, the solvent is capable of dissolving more solute. When
the solution is saturated, the solvent has dissolved the maximum amount of solute that it can at the
given temperature. At this point we say that the solution is in a state of dynamic equilibrium—the
processes of dissolving and precipitation are happening at the same rate. A supersaturated solution
is one in which the solvent contains more solute than it can theoretically hold at a given
temperature. Supersaturated solutions are often formed by heating a solution and dissolving more
solute, then cooling the solution down slowly. These solutions are unstable and crystallize readily.

1. When is a solution unsaturated?

2. What characterizes a saturated solution?
3. How do we define a dynamic equilibrium?
4. What is a supersaturated solution like?

85
LANGUAGE USE

You have just read about degrees of saturation. Now some words are missing from the text. Write
the missing words on the lines 1-6 in the gaps. Use only one word in each gap.There is an example at
the beginning.

When referring to (0)_ solutions _____, there are three degrees of saturation—unsaturated,
saturated, and supersaturated. If a solution is unsaturated, the solvent is capable of (1) ______ more
solute. When the solution is saturated, the solvent has dissolved the maximum amount of (2)______
that it can at the given temperature. At this point we say that the solution is in a state of dynamic
(3)______—the processes of dissolving and precipitation are happening at the same rate.
A supersaturated solution is one in which the solvent contains more solute (4) ______ it can
theoretically hold at a given temperature. Supersaturated solutions are often formed by (5) ______
a solution and dissolving more solute, then cooling the solution down slowly. These solutions are
unstable and (6) ______ readily.

LISTENING

Watch the following video and with the help of this recording revise what you have learned about the
different types of solutions.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JQRIlS9lNdg (solutions tutorial- unsaturated, saturated

supersaturated)

There are some ideas below to assist you in doing so:

how do I tell them apart?

no chunks, no grit in the bottom
how did the saturated solution look?
adding solute changes the appearance (in which case?)
where does the supersaturation come in?

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READING

5.1.5. Concentration Terms

Match the terms ( 1-5 ) from the short texts below to the definitions ( A-E ).

Solutions are often referred to as being concentrated or dilute. These two terms are very general.
While concentrated indicates that there is a lot of solute dissolved in the solvent (perhaps the
solution is near to being saturated) and dilute indicates that a small amount of solute is dissolved in
the solvent, we often need to be exact with quantities in chemistry.

Molarity (M )

The molarity of a solution is a measure of the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. This is
the most common concentration unit used in chemistry. For instance, you might see an expression
that looks like this:
[NaCl] = 0.75
which means that 0.75 mole of NaCl is dissolved per 1.00 L of solution. The brackets around the
number indicate that the concentration is expressed in terms of molarity.

Dilution

Dilution is the process of taking a more concentrated solution and adding water to make it less
concentrated. The more concentrated solution before the dilution is performed is known as
the stock solution. You can relate the concentration of the stock solution to the concentration of the
diluted solution using the equation below:
M1V1 = M2V2

87
where M is molarity and V is the volume, in liters, of the solution.

88
Mass Percent (Weight Percent)

The mass percent of a solution is another way of expressing its concentration. Mass percent is found
by dividing the mass of the solute by the mass of the solution and multiplying by 100; so a solution of
NaOH that is 28% NaOH by mass contains 28 g of NaOH for each 100 g of solution. Here’s the
equation:

Molality (m)

Whereas the molarity of a solution is dependent on the volume of the solution, the molality is
dependent on the mass of the solvent in the solution. Do not get these confused.

1. concentrated A. a measure of the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent

solution
2. dilution B. a measure of the number of moles of solute per liter of solution
3. molarity C. it is found by dividing the mass of the solute by the mass of the
solution and multiplying by 100
4. mass percent D. there is a lot of solute dissolved in the solvent
5. molality E. the process of taking a more concentrated solution and adding
water to make it less concentrated

http://www.chemistryland.com/CHM130W/13-Liquids/ApproxConcentrations.jpg

89
90
READING

5.1.6. Electrolytes

After reading the text, fill the gaps in it with words and phrases from the box.

covalently bonded, floating, dissociate, solutes, electrolytes, degree, conductivity, acetic acid

Certain solutions are capable of conducting an electric current and these solutions are referred to
as electrolytes. Generally speaking, we say that there are three classes of _____ (solutions that
conduct a current): acids, bases, and salts.
Strong electrolytes consist of solutes that _____ completely in solution. Strong acids, strong bases,
and soluble salts are in this category.
Nonelectrolytes are substances that are predominantly _____, generally will not produce ions in
solution, and therefore are considered nonconductors.
Weak electrolytes consist of _____that dissociate only a little in solution. Weak acids, weak bases,
and slightly soluble salts are in this category.
The greater the degree of dissociation of the solute, the greater the _____ of the solution.

Consider two acid solutions that have the same concentration—hydrochloric acid and _____.
Hydrochloric acid ionizes completely, while only about 2% of the acetic acid molecules ionize. If a
conductivity apparatus were used to test the two solutions, HCl would conduct an electric current to
a much greater _____ because there is more available charge in solution. Below is a figure showing
the ionization of barium chloride; as you can see, the Ba+ and Cl- ions are _____ free in solution, and
this makes barium chloride an electrolyte.

http://www.sparknotes.com/testprep/books/sat2/chemistry/chapter5section14.rhtml

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92
conductivity,

Read the text again and use the word at the end of each gap to form a new word with which to fill the
gap.

Electrolytes

Certain solutions are capable of conducting an electric current and these solutions are referred to
as electrolytes. Generally ______ (speak) , we say that there are three classes of electrolytes
(solutions that conduct a current): acids, bases, and salts.
Strong electrolytes consist of ______ (solution) that dissociate completely in solution. Strong acids,
strong bases, and soluble salts are in this category.
Nonelectrolytes are substances that are predominantly ______ ( covalent) bonded, generally will not
produce ions in solution, and therefore are considered ______ (conductor).
Weak electrolytes consist of solutes that dissociate only a little in solution. Weak acids, weak bases,
and ______ (slight) soluble salts are in this category.
The greater the degree of dissociation of the solute, the greater the ______ (conduct) of the
solution. Consider two acid solutions that have the same concentration—hydrochloric acid and acetic
acid. Hydrochloric acid ionizes completely, while only about 2% of the acetic acid molecules ionize. If
a conductivity apparatus were used to test the two solutions, HCl would conduct an ______
(electricity) current to a much greater degree because there is more available charge in solution.
Below is a figure ______ ( show) the ionization of barium chloride; as you can see, the Ba+ and Cl-
ions are floating free in solution, and this makes barium chloride an electrolyte.

http://totaltranslucency.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/image001.jpg

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READING

5.1.7. Colligative Properties

You are going to read a text about colligative properties. Parts of some sentences have been removed
from the text. Choose the most appropriate part from the list (A-G) for each gap (1-6) in the text.
There is an example at the beginning.

Properties of solutions that depend on the number of solute particles present per solvent molecule
are called colligative properties. The concentration of solute in a solution can affect various physical
properties of the solvent (0) __C____.
Vapor Pressure Lowering
When a nonvolatile solute is dissolved in a solvent, (1) ______ than that of the pure solvent. The
amount of the vapor pressure lowering is proportional to the amount of solute and not its identity.
Therefore, vapor pressure lowering is a colligative property. The equation that describes that
phenomenon is called Raoult's law.
Freezing Point Depression
The freezing point of a substance is defined as the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the
solid and the liquid states of that substance are equal. (2) ______ , the freezing point decreases.
Why is a solution’s freezing point depressed below that of a pure solvent? The answer lies in the fact
(3)______ . They must be attracted to one another and have a spot in which to cluster; if they act as
a solvent, solute molecules get in the way (4) ______. The more ions in solution, the greater the
effect on the freezing point. We can calculate the effect of these solute particles by using the
following formula:
DTf = Kf m solute i

where
DTf = the change in freezing point
Kf = molal freezing point depression constant for the substance (for water = 1.86ºC/m)
m = molality of the solution
i = number of ions in solution (this is equal to 1 for covalent compounds and is equal to the number
of ions in solution for ionic compounds)
Boiling Point Elevation
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature (5) ______ . Because vapor pressure is lowered
by the addition of a nonvolatile solute, the boiling point is increased. Why? Since the solute particles
get in the way of the solvent particles trying to escape the substance as they move around faster, it
will take more energy for the vapor pressure to reach atmospheric pressure, (6) ______ . We can
calculate the change in boiling point in a way that’s similar to how we calculate the change in
freezing point:
DTb = Kb m solute i

where
Kb = molal boiling point elevation constant (for water = 0.51˚C/m)

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http://www.sparknotes.com/testprep/books/sat2/chemistry/chapter5section14.rhtml

96
A at which the vapor pressure equals atmospheric pressure

B if the vapor pressure of the liquid is lowered

C including its freezing point, boiling point, and vapor pressure

D and thus the boiling point increases

E the vapor pressure of the resulting solution is lower

F and prevent them from clustering tightly together

G that molecules cluster in order to freeze

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6. UNIT 6. INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING

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 6.1. Essence and etymology of chemical engineering
LANGUAGE USE

Read this short text and use the most appropriate form of the words in bold.

Chemical engineering is a branch of engineering that applies the natural (or (1) ______ experiment)
sciences (e.g. chemistry and physics) and life sciences (e.g. biology, microbiology and biochemistry)
together with mathematics and (2) ______ economy to produce, transform, transport, and properly
use chemicals, materials and energy. It (3) ______ essence deals with the engineering of chemicals,
energy and the processes that create and/or convert them. Modern chemical engineers are
concerned with processes that convert raw materials or (cheap) chemicals into more useful or (4)
______ value forms. They are also concerned with pioneering valuable materials and related
techniques – which are often essential to related fields such as nanotechnology, fuel cells and
bioengineering.

George E. Davis

George E. Davis, an English (5) ______ consult, was credited for having coined the term chemical
engineering. "Chemical engineering", describing the use of (6) ______ mechanics equipment in the
chemical industry, became common vocabulary in England after 1850. By 1910, the profession,
"chemical engineer," was already in common use in Britain and the United States.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering

LISTENING

Watch the following video and then discuss with a partner or in a small group what you liked most
about the way the two students described chemical engineering.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J-fQANmN5zY (what is chemical engineering?)

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 6.2. History of chemical engineering
LANGUAGE USE

6.2.1. Early history of chemical engineering

Read the text below and decide which answer ( a, b, c or d ) best fits each gap.

Chemical engineering emerged upon the development of unit operations, a fundamental concept of
the discipline chemical engineering. Most authors agree that Davis (1) ____ unit operations if not
substantially developed it. The concept of unit operations was developed to (2) ____ the underlying
unity among seemingly different operations. For example, the principles are the same whether one is
concerned about separating alcohol from water in a fermenter, or separating gasoline from diesel in
a refinery, (3) ____ the basis of separation is generation of a vapor of a different composition from
the liquid. Therefore such separation processes can be studied together as a unit operation (in this
case called distillation).By the early 1920s, unit operations became an (4) ____ aspect of chemical
engineering at MIT and other US universities, as well as at Imperial College London. The American
Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE), established in 1908, played a key role in making chemical
engineering considered an independent science, and unit operations central to chemical engineering.
For instance, it (5) ____ chemical engineering to be a "science of itself, the basis of which is ... unit
operations" in a 1922 report.

Chemical engineering is a discipline that was developed out of those practising "industrial chemistry"
in the late 19th century. Before the Industrial Revolution (18th century), industrial chemicals and
other consumer products such as soap were mainly produced (6) ____ batch processing. Batch
processing is labour-intensive and individuals mix predetermined amounts of ingredients in a vessel,
heat, cool or pressurize the mixture for a predetermined length of time. The product may then be
isolated, purified and tested to achieve a saleable product. Batch processes are (7) ____ performed
today on higher value products, such as pharmaceutical intermediates, speciality and formulated
products such as (8) ____ and paints, or in food manufacture such as pure maple syrups, where a
profit can still be made despite batch methods being slower and (9) ____ in terms of labour and
equipment usage. Due to the application of Chemical Engineering techniques during manufacturing
process development, larger volume chemicals are now produced through a (10) ____ "assembly
line" chemical processes. Today commodity chemicals and petrochemicals are predominantly made
using continuous manufacturing processes whereas speciality chemicals, fine chemicals and
pharmaceuticals are made using batch processes.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemical_engineering

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1 a invented b discovered c devised d made up

2 a focus b lay stress on c emphasize d weight

3 a suppose b as long as c now that d whereas

4 a considerable b key c vital d important

5 a determined b defined c identified d regarded

6 a across b during c because of d through

7 a still b yet c already d any longer

8 a aromas b odours c perfumes d scents

9 a incapable b inefficient c wasteful d incompetent

10 a continual b prolonged c unbroken d continuous

The following timeline might be interesting for you regarding the history of chemical engineering.

Chemical Engineering Timeline

 1805—John Dalton published Atomic Weights, allowing chemical equations to be balanced and
establishing the basis for chemical engineering mass balances.
 1882—a course in “Chemical Technology” is offered at University College, London
 1883—Osborne Reynolds defines the dimensionless group for fluid flow, leading to practical
scale-up and understanding of flow, heat and mass transfer
 1885—Henry E. Armstrong offers a course in “chemical engineering” at Central College (later
Imperial College, London).
 1888—Lewis M. Norton starts a new curriculum at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT):
Course X, Chemical Engineering
 1889—Rose Polytechnic Institute awards the first bachelor’s of science in chemical engineering in
the US.
 1891—MIT awards a bachelor’s of science in chemical engineering to William Page Bryant and six
other candidates.
 1892—A bachelor’s program in chemical engineering is established at the University of
Pennsylvania.
 1901—George E. Davis produces the Handbook of Chemical Engineering
 1905—the University of Wisconsin awards the first Ph.D. in chemical engineering to Oliver
Patterson Watts.

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 1908—the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) is founded.
 1922—the UK Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) is founded.
 1942—Hilda Derrick, first female student member of the IChemE.[3]

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Chemical_engineering

SPEAKING

After you have done the multiple choice exercise above, read the text again and discuss with a
partner what you know now about the history of chemical engineering. The following questions and
the timeline above might also help you check your knowledge.

1. Who can be associated with the early years of chemical engineering?

2. What do you know about the Industrial Revolution?

3. What do we mean by unit operations?

4. Have you heard about the so-called batch processes?

VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

Insert the missing forms of the words in the table. All the words are taken from the text above (Early
history of chemical engineering).

VERB NOUN ADJECTIVE ADVERB

fundamental

operation

- seemingly

separation

product

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 pure -

103
READING

6.2.2. New concepts and innovations

You are going to read a text about new concepts and innovations. Fill the gaps in the text with words
from the box.

application, defined, paved, insufficient, petrochemical industry, experience, synthetic

By the 1940s, it became clear that unit operations alone was ______ in developing chemical reactors.
While the predominance of unit operations in chemical engineering courses in Britain and the United
States continued until the 1960s, transport phenomena started to ______ greater focus. Along with
other novel concepts, such as process systems engineering (PSE), a "second paradigm" was ______.
Transport phenomena gave an analytical approach to chemical engineering while PSE focused on its
______ elements, such as control system and process design. Developments in chemical engineering
before and after World War II were mainly incited by the ______, however, advances in other fields
were made as well. Advancements in biochemical engineering in the 1940s, for example, found
______ in the pharmaceutical industry, and allowed for the mass production of various antibiotics,
including penicillin and streptomycin. Meanwhile, progress in polymer science in the 1950s ______
way for the "age of plastics".

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemical_engineering

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 http://www.waowedu.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/2.jpg

READING

6.2.3. Safety and hazard developments

Read the text below and answer the questions that follow.

Concerns regarding the safety and environmental impact of large-scale chemical manufacturing
facilities were also raised during this period. Silent Spring, published in 1962, alerted its readers to
the harmful effects of DDT, a potent insecticide. The 1974 Flixborough disaster in the United
Kingdom resulted in 28 deaths, as well as damage to a chemical plant and three nearby villages. The
1984 Bhopal disaster in India resulted in almost 4,000 deaths. These incidents, along with other
incidents, affected the reputation of the trade as industrial safety and environmental protection
were given more focus. In response, the IChemE required safety to be part of every degree course
that it accredited after 1982. By the 1970s, legislation and monitoring agencies were instituted in
various countries, such as France, Germany, and the United States.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemical_engineering

1. What harmful effects might large-scale chemical manufacturing facilities have?

2. What was wrong with DDT?

3. Describe the Flixborough disaster that took place in the UK in 1974.

4. Which was the most serious disaster related to the chemical industry in India in the ’80s?

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5. How did the new safety and environmental protection measures affect the education at that time?

http://www.safeware-eng.com/Safety%20White%20Papers/hazan87.gif

LANGUAGE USE

6.2.4. Recent progress

You are going to read about recent progress. Some words are missing from the text. Write the missing
words on the lines 1-8 in the gaps. Use only one word in each gap.There is an example at the
beginning.

Advancements in computer science found applications designing and managing plants, simplifying
calculations and drawings that previously had to be done (0) _manually_____. The completion of the
Human Genome Project is also seen as a major development, not only advancing chemical
engineering but genetic engineering and genomics as well. (1) ______ engineering principles were
used to produce DNA sequences in large quantities.

Current sequencing methods rely (2) _____ the discriminatory ability of DNA polymerases, and
therefore can only distinguish four bases. An inosine (created from (3) ______ during RNA editing) is
read as a G, and 5-methyl-cytosine (created from cytosine by DNA methylation) is read as a C. With
current technology, it is difficult to sequence small amounts of DNA, as the signal is too (4) ______
to measure. This is overcome by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification.

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a laboratory (5) ______ for "amplifying" a specific DNA
sequence. PCR is extremely efficient and sensitive; it can make millions or billions of copies of any

106
specific sequence of DNA, (6) ______ when the sequence is in a complex mixture. Because of this
power, researchers can use it to (7) ______ sequences even if they only have a minute amount of
DNA. A single hair root, or a microscopic blood stain left at a crime scene, for (8) ______ , contains
ample DNA for PCR. This is called a Polymerase Chain Reaction because DNA polymerase catalyzes a
chain reaction of replication.

Kary Mullis (USA) was awarded the 1993 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for inventing PCR.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chemical_engineering

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Polymerase_chain_reaction.svg/840
px-Polymerase_chain_reaction.svg.png

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 6.3. Key concepts
READING

6.3.1. Chemical reaction engineering

Read this text about chemical reaction engineering. Parts of some sentences have been removed from
the text. Choose the most appropriate part from the list (A-E) for each gap (1-5) in the text. There is
an example at the beginning.

Chemical reaction engineering (reaction engineering or reactor engineering) is a specialty in chemical

engineering or industrial chemistry (0) _C_____. Frequently the term relates specifically to catalytic
reaction systems where either a homogeneous or heterogeneous catalyst is present in the reactor.
Sometimes a reactor per se is not present by itself, (1) ______ but rather is integrated into a process,
for example in reactive separations vessels, retorts, certain fuel cells, and photocatalytic surfaces.
The issue of solvent effects on reaction kinetics is also considered (2) ______.

Chemical reaction engineering as a discipline started in the early 1950s under the impulse of
researchers at the Shell Amsterdam research center and the university of Delft. The term chemical
reaction engineering was apparently coined by J.C. Vlugter (3) ______ on Chemical Reaction
Engineering which was held in Amsterdam in 1957.

Chemical reaction engineering aims at studying and optimizing chemical reactions (4) ______. Hence,
the interactions of flow phenomena, mass transfer, heat transfer, and reaction kinetics are of prime
importance in order to relate reactor performance to feed composition and operating conditions.
Although originally applied to the petroleum and petrochemical industries, its general methodology
(5) ______ allows to optimize a variety of systems where modeling or engineering of reactions is
needed. Chemical reaction engineering approaches are indeed tailored for the development of new
processes and the improvement of existing technologies.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering#Concepts

while preparing the 1st European Symposium

A. combining reaction chemistry and chemical engineering concepts

B. dealing with chemical reactors
C. in order to define the best reactor design
D. as an integral part

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SPEAKING

6.3.2. Plant design

On the basis of this short text below play a roleplay game with your partner(s) in which your main
task is to design a plant. Take into consideration every single factor that might be important in this
respect, for example

financial background
laws, rules and regulations
safety and environmental standards

Chemical engineering design concerns the creation of plans, specification, and economic analyses for
new plants or plant modifications. Design engineers often work in a consulting role, designing plants
to meet clients' needs. Design is limited by a number of factors, including funding, government
regulations and safety standards. These constraints dictate a plant's choice of process, materials and
equipment.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering#Concepts

Industrial modeling

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 http://www.prlog.org/10468662-3d-industrial-modeling.jpg

VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

6.3.3. Process design

You are going to read about process design. Match the words highlighted in green (1-10) in the text
to their synonyms (a-j).

In chemical engineering, process design is the design of processes for desired physical and/or
chemical transformation of materials. Process design is central to chemical engineering, and it can be
considered to be the summit of that field, bringing together all of the field's components.
Process design can be the design of new facilities or it can be the modification or expansion of
existing facilities. The design starts at a conceptual level and ultimately ends in the form of
fabrication and construction plans.
Process design is distinct from equipment design, which is closer in spirit to the design of unit
operations. Processes often include many unit operations.
Process design documents serve to define the design and they ensure that the design components fit
together. They are useful in communicating ideas and plans to other engineers involved with the
design, to external regulatory agencies, to equipment vendors and to construction contractors.
Process designers also typically write operating manuals on how to start-up, operate and shut-down
the process.
Documents are maintained after construction of the process facility for the operating personnel to
refer to. The documents also are useful when modifications to the facility are planned.
A primary method of developing the process documents is process flowsheeting.
Designs have objectives and constraints, and even a simple process requires a trade-off among such
factors. Objectives that a design may strive to include are throughput rate, process yield,
product purity, whereas constraints include capital cost, available space, safety concerns,
environmental impact and projected effluents and emissions, waste production, operating and
maintenance costs.
Other factors that designers may include are reliability ,redundancy ,flexibility, anticipated variability
in feedstock and allowable variability in product.
Designers usually do not start from scratch, especially for complex projects. Often the engineers have
pilot plant data available or data from full-scale operating facilities. Other sources of information
include proprietary design criteria provided by process licensors, published scientific data, laboratory
experiments, and input.

110
The advent of low cost powerful computers has aided complex mathematical simulation of
processes, and simulation software is often used by design engineers. Simulations can identify
weaknesses in designs and allow engineers to choose better alternatives.
However, engineers still rely on heuristics, intuition, and experience when designing a process.
Human creativity is an element in complex designs.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering#Concepts

1. transformation a. limitations

2. modification b. supported

3. distinct c. effect

4. equipment d. alteration

5.refer e. particularly

6.constraints f. nevertheless

7.impact g. adjustment

8.especially h. mention

9.aided i. apparent

10. however j. apparatus

111
SPEAKING

The text above gives you some information on process design including process design documents.
Try to figure out what kind of diagrams and specifications they involve.
Here is the extract from the text on process design documents to help you:

Process design documents serve to define the design and they ensure that the design components fit
together. They are useful in communicating ideas and plans to other engineers involved with the
design, to external regulatory agencies, to equipment vendors and to construction contractors.
Process designers also typically write operating manuals on how to start-up, operate and shut-down
the process.
Documents are maintained after construction of the process facility for the operating personnel to
refer to. The documents also are useful when modifications to the facility are planned.
A primary method of developing the process documents is process flowsheeting.

112
http://colemandesigngroup.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/design-process-e1318918558795.png

VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

6.3.4. Transport phenomena

You are going to read a text about transport phenomena. Complete the sentences from the text with
parts removed from them.

In engineering, physics and chemistry, the study of transport phenomena concerns the exchange of
mass, energy, and momentum between observed and studied systems. While it draws from fields as
diverse as continuum mechanics and thermodynamics, it places a heavy emphasis on the
commonalities between the topics covered. Mass, momentum, and heat transport all share a very
similar mathematical framework, and the parallels between them are exploited in the study of
transport phenomena to draw deep mathematical connections that often provide very useful tools in
the analysis of one field that are directly derived from the others.

While it draws its theoretical foundation from the principles in a number of fields, most of the
fundamental theory on the topic is a simple restatement of basic conservation laws.

The fundamental analyses in all three subfields of heat, momentum, and mass transport are often
grounded in the simple principle that the sum total of the quantity being studied must be conserved
by the system and its environment. Then, the different phenomena that lead to transport are each
considered individually with the knowledge that the sum of their contributions must equal zero. This
analysis is useful for calculating any number of relevant quantities. For example, in fluid mechanics a
common use of transport analysis is to determine the velocity profile of a fluid flowing through a
rigid volume.

Transport phenomena are ubiquitous throughout the engineering disciplines. Some of the most
common examples of transport analysis in engineering are seen in the fields of process, chemical,
biological, and mechanical engineering, but the subject is a fundamental component of the
curriculum in all disciplines involved in any way with fluid mechanics, heat transfer, and mass
transfer. It is now considered to be a part of the engineering discipline as much as thermodynamics,
mechanics, and electromagnetism.

Transport phenomena actually encompasses all agents of physical change in the universe. Moreover,
it is considered to be a fundamental building block which developed the universe, and which is
responsible for the success of all life on earth. However, the scope here limits the transport
phenomena to its relationship to artificial engineered systems.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering#Concepts

113
1. __________ are ubiquitous throughout the engineering disciplines.

2. However, the scope here limits the transport phenomena to its relationship to __________.

3. Most of the fundamental theory on the topic is a simple restatement of __________.

4. The study of transport phenomena concerns the exchange of __________ between observed and
studied systems.

5. Transport phenomena actually encompasses all __________ in the universe.

6. This analysis is useful for calculating any number of __________.

7. Mass, momentum, and heat transport all share a very __________.

transport phenomena artificial engineered systems

basic conservation laws mass, energy, and momentum agents of physical change

relevant quantities similar mathematical framework

Transport phenomena

https://str.llnl.gov/str/JulAug05/gifs/Aufderheide2.jpg

114
LANGUAGE USE

6.3.5. Applications and practice

Words can have a number of forms in English depending on what part of speech is used. Use the word
at the end of each gap to form a new word with which to fill the gap.

Two computer flat screens showing a plant process management application

Chemical engineers use computers to manage ______ (automatic) systems in plants.

Chemical engineers "develop economic ways of using materials and energy". Chemical engineers use
chemistry and engineering to turn raw materials into ______ (use) products, such as medicine,
petrochemicals and plastics on a large-scale, industrial setting. They are also involved in waste
management and research. Both applied and research facets could make ______ (extend) use of
computers.

A chemical engineer may be involved in industry or university research where they are tasked in
designing and performing experiments to create new and better ways of ______ (produce),
controlling pollution, conserving resources and making these processes safer. They may be involved
in designing and constructing plants as a project engineer. In this field, the chemical engineer uses
their ______ (know) in selecting plant equipment and the optimum method of production to
minimize costs and increase ______ (profit). After its construction, they may help in upgrading its
equipment. They may also be involved in its ______ (day) operations. Chemical engineers may be
permanently employed at chemical plants to manage operations. Alternatively, they may serve in a
______ (consult) role to troubleshoot problems, manage process changes and otherwise assist plant
operators.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering#Applications_and_practice

115
7. UNIT 7. GENERAL CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
CONCEPTS

116
 7.1. General concepts
READING

7.1.1. Chemical engineer

After reading the text below, match the highlighted terms (1-10) in the text to the given definitions
(a-j).

In the field of engineering, a chemical engineer is a professional who works principally in the
chemical industry to convert basic raw materials into a variety of products, and deals with the design
and operation of plants and equipment to perform such work. In general, a chemical engineer is one
who applies and uses principles of chemical engineering in any of its various practical applications;
these often include 1) design, manufacture, and operation of plants and machinery in industrial
chemical and related processes ("chemical process engineers"); 2) development of new or adapted
substances for products ranging from foods and beverages to cosmetics to cleaners to
pharmaceutical ingredients, among many other products ("chemical product engineers"); and 3)
development of new technologies such as fuel cells, hydrogen power and nanotechnology, as well as
working in fields wholly or partially derived from Chemical Engineering such as materials science,
polymer engineering, and biomedical engineering.

Chemical engineers design, construct and operate plants

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering#mediaviewer/File:Colonne_distillazione.jpg

117
Historically, the chemical engineer has been primarily concerned with process engineering, which can
generally be divided into two complementary areas: chemical reaction engineering and separation
processes. The modern discipline of chemical engineering, however, encompasses much more than
just process engineering. Chemical engineers are now engaged in the development and production
of a diverse range of products, as well as in commodity and specialty chemicals. These products
include high performance materials needed for aerospace, automotive, biomedical, electronic,
environmental and military applications. Examples include ultra-strong fibers, fabrics, adhesives and
composites for vehicles, bio-compatible materials for implants and prosthetics, gels for medical
applications, pharmaceuticals, and films with special dielectric, optical or spectroscopic properties for
opto-electronic devices. Additionally, chemical engineering is often intertwined with biology and
biomedical engineering. Many chemical engineers work on biological projects such as understanding
biopolymers (proteins) and mapping the human genome.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemical_engineering#General_chemical_engineering_conc
epts

1.raw a. types of solid or liquid that have particular characteristics

materials
2. principles b. substance made of giant molecules formed by the union of simple
molecules (monomers)

3.plants c. substances used in chemistry or produced by chemistry

4.substances d. a chemical change that happens when two or more chemical substances
are mixed together

5.product e. sg related to spectra

6.polymer f. materials such as coal, oil, etc, in their natural state, before being treated
in order to make things

7.chemical reaction g. they are made up of several different things, parts, or substances

8. chemicals h. a new chemical compound produced by chemical action

9.composites i. the general rules on which a skill, science etc is based

10.spectroscopic j. factories or buildings where an industrial process happens

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LISTENING and SPEAKING

After watching the video about ’Cool careers: Chemical Engineer’ at

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_UXwbxM8YfI , discuss with a partner or in a small group what
you have heard about this tempting profession. Focus on the areas you can work in.

VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

Read the text about chemical engineers again. Complete the sentences from the text with parts
removed from them.

1. A chemical engineer deals with the ________ of plants and equipment to perform such work.

2. These include ________ such as fuel cells and hydrogen power.

3. The chemical engineer has been primarily concerned with _________.

4. Engineers are engaged in the development and production of a _________ of products.

5. Additionally, chemical engineering is often intertwined with biology and ________.

biomedical engineering process engineering

diverse range development of new technologies design and operation

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READING and VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

7.1.2. Chemical reaction

After reading the text below, fill the gaps in the text with words from the box.

reaction rate, electrons, radioactive decays, input, metabolic syntheses, reagents, reaction
mechanism, chemical synthesis, nuclear chemistry,

A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to
another. Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that only involve the positions of ______
in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, with no change to the nuclei (no
change to the elements present), and can often be described by a chemical equation. ______ is a
sub-discipline of chemistry that involves the chemical reactions of unstable and radioactive elements
where both electronic and nuclear changes may occur.

The substance (or substances) initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants or______.
Chemical reactions are usually characterized by a chemical change, and they yield one or more
products, which usually have properties different from the reactants. Reactions often consist of a
sequence of individual sub-steps, the so-called elementary reactions, and the information on the
precise course of action is part of the ______. Chemical reactions are described with chemical
equations, which graphically present the starting materials, end products, and sometimes
intermediate products and reaction conditions.

Chemical reactions happen at a characteristic ______ at a given temperature and chemical

concentration, and rapid reactions are often described as spontaneous, requiring no input of extra
energy other than thermal energy. Non-spontaneous reactions run so slowly that they are
considered to require the ______ of some type of additional energy (such as extra heat, light or
electricity) in order to proceed to completion (chemical equilibrium) at human time scales.

Different chemical reactions are used in combinations during ______ in order to obtain a desired
product. In biochemistry, a similar series of chemical reactions form metabolic pathways. These
reactions are often catalyzed by protein enzymes. These enzymes increase the rates of biochemical
reactions, so that ______ and decompositions impossible under ordinary conditions may be
performed at the temperatures and concentrations present within a cell.

The general concept of a chemical reaction has been extended to non-chemical reactions between
entities smaller than atoms, including nuclear reactions, ______, and reactions between elementary
particles as described by quantum field theory.

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7.1.3. Distillation Design

You are going to read a text about distillation design. Use the word at the end of each gap to form a
new word with which to fill the gap.

Distillation Design is a design of industrial distillation columns for the petroleum refining, chemical
and petrochemical plants, natural gas processing, ______ (pharmacy), food and alcohol distilling
industries. It concerns the following concepts:

Vapor–liquid equilibrium(VLE): Vapor–liquid K values, relative ______(volatile), ideal and non-ideal

systems, phase diagrams, calculating bubble points and dew points

Key fractional distillation concepts: ______ (theory) stages, x-y diagrams, multicomponent
distillation, column composition and temperature profiles

Process design and ______ ( optimize): minimum reflux and minimum stages, optimum reflux, short-
cut methods, feed entry location

Rigorous calculation methods: Bubble point method, sum rates method, numerical methods
(Newton-Raphson technique), inside out method, ______(relax) method, other methods

Batch distillation: Simple distillation, constant reflux, varying reflux, time and boilup ______ (require)

Tray design and tray efficiency: tray types, tray capacities, tray hydraulic parameters, tray sizing and
______ (determine) of column diameter, point and tray efficiencies, tray efficiency prediction and
scaleup

Packing design and packing efficiency: packing types, packing hydraulics and capacities,
determination of packing efficiency by transfer unit method and by HETP method, ______ (pack)
column sizing

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7.1.4. Fluid mechanics

Read the text below about fluid mechanics. Parts of some sentences have been removed from the
text. Choose the most appropriate part from the list (A-H) for each gap (1-7) in the text. There is an
example at the beginning.

Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics (0) _D_____ and the forces on them. Fluid mechanics can be
divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest; fluid kinematics, the study of fluids in motion; and
fluid dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion. It is a branch of continuum
mechanics, a subject which models matter without using the information (1) ______, that is, it
models matter from a macroscopic viewpoint rather than from a microscopic viewpoint. Fluid
mechanics, especially fluid dynamics, is an active field of research (2)______. Fluid mechanics can be
mathematically complex, and can best be solved by numerical methods, typically using computers. A
modern discipline, (3) ______, is devoted to this approach to solving fluid mechanics problems.
Particle image velocimetry, an experimental method for visualizing and analyzing fluid flow, also
takes advantage of the highly visual nature of fluid flow.

Like any mathematical model of the real world, fluid mechanics makes some basic assumptions
about the materials being studied. These assumptions are turned into equations that must be
satisfied (4) ______ .

For example, consider a fluid in three dimensions. The assumption that mass is conserved means that
for any fixed control volume (for example a sphere) – enclosed by a control surface – the rate of
change of the mass contained is equal to the rate at which mass is passing
from outside to inside through the surface, minus the rate (5) ______, from inside to outside. (A
special case would be when the mass inside and the mass outside remain constant). This can be
turned into an equation in integral form over the control volume.

Fluid mechanics assumes that every fluid obeys the following: Conservation of mass,
Conservation of energy, Conservation of momentum, The continuum hypothesis
Further, it is often useful (at subsonic conditions) to assume a fluid is incompressible – that is, (6)
______ .
Similarly, it can sometimes be assumed that the viscosity of the fluid is zero (the fluid is inviscid).
Gases can often be assumed to be inviscid. If a fluid is viscous, and its flow contained in some way
(e.g. in a pipe), then the flow at the boundary must have zero velocity. For a viscous fluid, (7) ______
, the shear forces between the fluid and the boundary results also in a zero velocity for the fluid at
the boundary. This is called the no-slip condition. For a porous media otherwise, in the frontier of the
containing vessel, the slip condition is not zero velocity, and the fluid has a discontinuous velocity
field between the free fluid and the fluid in the porous media (this is related to the Beavers and
Joseph condition).
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if the assumptions are to be held true

A. the density of the fluid does not change

B. called computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
C. that studies fluids (liquids, gases, and plasmas)
D. at which mass is passing the other way
E. with many unsolved or partly solved problems
F. that it is made out of atoms
G. if the boundary is not porous

Balance for some integrated fluid quantity in a control volume enclosed by a control surface.

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VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

7.1.5. Heat transfer

You are going to read a text about heat transfer. Match the words (1-8) from the text with their
synonyms (a-h).

Heat transfer describes the exchange of thermal energy, between physical systems depending on the
temperature and pressure, by dissipating heat. Systems which are not isolated may decrease in
entropy. Most objects emit infrared thermal radiation near room temperature. The fundamental
modes of heat transfer are conduction or diffusion, convection, advection and radiation.

The exchange of kinetic energy of particles through the boundary between two systems which are at
different temperatures from each other or from their surroundings. Heat transfer always occurs from
a region of high temperature to another region of lower temperature. Heat transfer changes the
internal energy of both systems involved according to the First Law of Thermodynamics. The Second
Law of Thermodynamics defines the concept of thermodynamic entropy, by measurable heat
transfer.

Thermal equilibrium is reached when all involved bodies and the surroundings reach the same
temperature. Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a
change in temperature.

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1.exchange a. environment

2.decrease b.emission

3.emit c. inner

4.radiation d. idea

5.surroundings e. swap

6.internal f. enlargement

7.concept g.growth

8.expansion h.discharge

READING

Read the text above again and decide if the following statements are TRUE or FALSE.

1. Systems which are isolated may decrease in entropy.

2. Heat transfer describes the exchange of thermal energy between physical systems.

3. Few objects emit infrared thermal radiation near room temperature.

4. Heat transfer rarely occurs from a region of high temperature to another region of lower
temperature.

5. Heat transfer changes the internal energy of both systems involved according to the First Law of
Thermodynamics.

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7.1.6. Mass transfer

Read the following text about mass transfer and then answer the questions that follow.

Mass transfer is the net movement of mass from one location, usually meaning a stream, phase,
fraction or component, to another. Mass transfer occurs in many processes, such as absorption,
evaporation, adsorption, drying, precipitation, membrane filtration, and distillation. Mass transfer is
used by different scientific disciplines for different processes and mechanisms. The phrase is
commonly used in engineering for physical processes that involve diffusive and convective transport
of chemical species within physical systems.

Some common examples of mass transfer processes are the evaporation of water from a pond to the
atmosphere, the purification of blood in the kidneys and liver, and the distillation of alcohol. In
industrial processes, mass transfer operations include separation of chemical components in
distillation columns, absorbers such as scrubbers, adsorbers such as activated carbon beds, and
liquid-liquid extraction. Mass transfer is often coupled to additional transport processes, for instance
in industrial cooling towers. These towers couple heat transfer to mass transfer by allowing hot
water to flow in contact with hotter air and evaporate as it absorbs heat from the air.

Mass transfer finds extensive application in chemical engineering problems. It is used in reaction
engineering, separations engineering, heat transfer engineering, and many other sub-disciplines of
chemical engineering.

The driving force for mass transfer is typically a difference in chemical potential, when it can be
defined, though other thermodynamic gradients may couple to the flow of mass and drive it as well.
A chemical species moves from areas of high chemical potential to areas of low chemical potential.
Thus, the maximum theoretical extent of a given mass transfer is typically determined by the point at
which the chemical potential is uniform. For single phase-systems, this usually translates to uniform
concentration throughout the phase, while for multiphase systems chemical species will often prefer
one phase over the others and reach a uniform chemical potential only when most of the chemical
species has been absorbed into the preferred phase, as in liquid-liquid extraction.

While thermodynamic equilibrium determines the theoretical extent of a given mass transfer
operation, the actual rate of mass transfer will depend on additional factors including the flow
patterns within the system and the diffusivities of the species in each phase.

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1. How do we define mass transfer?

2. What kind of processes does mass transfer occur in?

3. What common examples can you give of mass transfer processes?

4. What kind of mass transfer operations can you enumerate in industrial processes?

5. How do cooling towers work?

6. Where does mass transfer find extensive application?

7. How does a chemical species move with regard to chemical potential?

8. How is the maximum theoretical extent of a given mass determined?

9. What is typical of single phase-systems and multiphase systems?

10. What additional factors does the actual rate of mass transfer depend on?

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READING

Earlier you read a text about mass transfer. Now the paragraphs of this text are mixed up. Put the
paragraphs ( A-E) into the correct order.

A Mass transfer finds extensive application in chemical engineering problems. It is used in reaction
engineering, separations engineering, heat transfer engineering, and many other sub-disciplines of
chemical engineering.

B While thermodynamic equilibrium determines the theoretical extent of a given mass transfer
operation, the actual rate of mass transfer will depend on additional factors including the flow
patterns within the system and the diffusivities of the species in each phase.

C Some common examples of mass transfer processes are the evaporation of water from a pond to
the atmosphere, the purification of blood in the kidneys and liver, and the distillation of alcohol. In
industrial processes, mass transfer operations include separation of chemical components in
distillation columns, absorbers such as scrubbers, adsorbers such as activated carbon beds, and
liquid-liquid extraction. Mass transfer is often coupled to additional transport processes, for instance
in industrial cooling towers. These towers couple heat transfer to mass transfer by allowing hot
water to flow in contact with hotter air and evaporate as it absorbs heat from the air.

D Mass transfer is the net movement of mass from one location, usually meaning a stream, phase,
fraction or component, to another. Mass transfer occurs in many processes, such as absorption,
evaporation, adsorption, drying, precipitation, membrane filtration, and distillation. Mass transfer is
used by different scientific disciplines for different processes and mechanisms. The phrase is
commonly used in engineering for physical processes that involve diffusive and convective transport
of chemical species within physical systems.

E The driving force for mass transfer is typically a difference in chemical potential, when it can be
defined, though other thermodynamic gradients may couple to the flow of mass and drive it as well.
A chemical species moves from areas of high chemical potential to areas of low chemical potential.
Thus, the maximum theoretical extent of a given mass transfer is typically determined by the point at
which the chemical potential is uniform. For single phase-systems, this usually translates to uniform
concentration throughout the phase, while for multiphase systems chemical species will often prefer
one phase over the others and reach a uniform chemical potential only when most of the chemical
species has been absorbed into the preferred phase, as in liquid-liquid extraction.

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LANGUAGE USE

The words in the sentences below are jumbled up.Your task is to form the correct sentence. Each
sentence has been removed from the text above .You are given the first word in each case.

1. Mass mechanisms different used scientific is different disciplines for transfer processes by and.

2. Mass problems application transfer extensive chemical finds in engineering.

3. A chemical from potential areas of high low areas moves chemical to chemical of species potential.

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READING

7.1.7. Polymerization
Read this text about polymerization. Parts of some sentences have been removed from the text.
Choose the most appropriate part from the list (A-H) for each gap (1-7) in the text. There is an
example at the beginning.

An example of alkene polymerization, in which each styrenemonomer's double bond reforms as a

single bond plus a bond to another styrene monomer. The product is polystyrene.

IUPAC definition

Polymerization: The process of converting a monomer or a mixture of monomers into a polymer.

In chemical compounds, polymerization occurs via a variety of reaction mechanisms (0) _D_____
present in reacting compounds and their inherent steric effects. In more straightforward
polymerization, alkenes, (1) ______ , form polymers through relatively simple radical reactions; in
contrast, more complex reactions such as those that involve substitution at the carbonyl group
require more complex synthesis due to the way (2) ______.

As alkenes can be formed in somewhat straightforward reaction mechanisms, they form useful
compounds such as polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) when undergoing radical reactions, (3)
______ due to their usefulness in manufacturing processes of commercial products, such as piping,
insulation and packaging. In general, polymers such as PVC are referred to as "homopolymers," as
they consist of repeated long chains or structures of the same monomer unit, whereas polymers (4)
______ are referred to as copolymers (or co-polymers).

Other monomer units, such as formaldehyde hydrates or simple aldehydes, are able to polymerize
themselves at quite low temperatures (ca. −80 °C) to form trimers; molecules consisting of 3
monomer units, (5) ______, or undergo further reactions to form tetramers, or 4 monomer-unit
compounds. Further compounds either being referred to as oligomers in smaller molecules.
Generally, because formaldehyde is an exceptionally reactive electrophile it allows nucleophillic
addition of hemiacetal intermediates, (6) ______ that react with other molecules present to form
more stable polymeric compounds.

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Polymerization (7) ______ can be very hazardous. This phenomenon is known as hazardous
polymerization and can cause fires and explosions.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerization

which are in general short-lived and relatively unstable "mid-stage" compounds

A. which can cyclize to form ring cyclic structures

B. in which reacting molecules polymerize
C. that vary in complexity due to functional groups
D. that is not sufficiently moderated and proceeds at a fast rate
E. which are relatively stable due to sigma bonding between carbon atoms
F. which are produced in high tonnages each year
G. that consist of more than one molecule

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8. UNIT 8. BRANCHES of CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

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 8.1. Branches of Chemical Engineering
LANGUAGE USE

8.1.1. Biochemical engineering

You are going to read about biochemical engineering. Use the word at the end of each gap to form a
new word with which to fill the gap.

Biochemical engineering is a branch of chemical engineering and ______( biomedicine) engineering

and pharmaceutical engineering that mainly deals with the design and construction of unit processes
that involve biological organisms or molecules, such as bioreactors. A bioreactor may refer to any
manufactured or engineered device or system that supports a ______ (biology) active environment.
In one case, a bioreactor is a vessel in which a chemical process is carried out which involves
organisms or biochemically active substances ______ (derive) from such organisms. This process can
either be aerobic or anaerobic. These bioreactors are commonly ______ ( cylinder), ranging in size
from litres to cubic metres, and are often made of stainless steel.

A bioreactor may also refer to a device or system ______ (mean) to grow cells or tissues in the
context of cell culture. These devices are being developed for use in tissue engineering or
biochemical engineering.

Organisms ______ (grow) in bioreactors may be submerged in liquid medium or may be attached to
the surface of a solid medium. Submerged cultures may be suspended or immobilized. Suspension
bioreactors can use a ______ ( wide) variety of organisms, since special ______ ( attach) surfaces
are not needed, and can operate at much larger scale than immobilized cultures. However, in a
______ (continuous) operated process the organisms will be removed from the reactor with the
effluent. Immobilization is a general term describing a wide variety of cell or particle attachment or
entrapment. It can be applied to ______ (base) all types of biocatalysis including enzymes, ______
(cell) organelles, animal and plant cells. Immobilization is useful for continuously operated processes,
since the organisms will not be removed with the reactor effluent, but is limited in scale because the
microbes are only present on the surfaces of the vessel.

Large scale immobilized cell bioreactors are: moving media, also known as Moving Bed Biofilm
Reactor (MBBR), packed bed, ______ (fibre) bed, membran.

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SPEAKING

8.1.2. Biomedical engineering

After watching the video at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nqZYZ_4Lh5Q and after reading
the short text below, discuss the topic of biomedical engineering with a partner or in a small group.
Focus on the following items:

healthcare purposes
biomedical engineering applications

Biomedical engineering (BME) is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to
medicine and biology for healthcare purposes (e.g. diagnostic or therapeutic). This field seeks to
close the gap between engineering and medicine: It combines the design and problem solving skills
of engineering with medical and biological sciences to advance healthcare treatment, including
diagnosis, monitoring, and therapy.

Biomedical engineering has only recently emerged as its own study, compared to many other
engineering fields. Such an evolution is common as a new field transitions from being an
interdisciplinary specialization among already-established fields, to being considered a field in itself.
Much of the work in biomedical engineering consists of research and development, spanning a broad
array of subfields. Prominent biomedical engineering applications include the development of
biocompatible prostheses, various diagnostic and therapeutic medical devices ranging from clinical
equipment to micro-implants, common imaging equipment such as MRIs and EEGs, regenerative
tissue growth, pharmaceutical drugs and therapeutic biologicals.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_engineering

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READING

8.1.3. Ceramics
After you have read this text below, answer the questions that follow.

A ceramic is an inorganic, nonmetallic solid prepared by the action of heat and subsequent cooling.
Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or may be amorphous (e.g., a
glass). Because most common ceramics are crystalline, the definition of ceramic is often restricted to
inorganic crystalline materials, as opposed to the noncrystalline glasses.

The earliest ceramics made by humans were pottery objects, including 27,000 year old figurines,
made from clay, either by itself or mixed with other materials, hardened in fire. Later ceramics were
glazed and fired to create a colored, smooth surface. Ceramics now include domestic, industrial and
building products and a wide range of ceramic art. In the 20th century, new ceramic materials were
developed for use in advanced ceramic engineering; for example, in semiconductors.

1. How do you define a ceramic?

2. What is typical of its preparation?
3. What is characteristic of its structure?
4. How do you describe the earliest ceramics?
5. What kind of treatment did later ceramics get and why?
6. What do you know about ’contemporary’ ceramics?

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READING

8.1.3.1. Types of ceramic material

After reading the text below, match the highlighted terms (1-9) in the text to the given definitions (a-
i).

A ceramic material is an inorganic, non-metallic, often crystalline oxide, nitride or carbide material.
Some elements, such as carbon or silicon, may be considered ceramics. Ceramic materials are brittle,
hard, strong in compression, weak in shearing and tension. They withstand chemical erosion that
occurs in other materials subjected to acidic or caustic environments. Ceramics generally can
withstand very high temperatures, such as temperatures that range from 1,000 °C to 1,600 °C (1,800
°F to 3,000 °F). A glass is often not understood as a ceramic because of its amorphous
(noncrystalline) character. However, glassmaking involves several steps of the ceramic process and
its mechanical properties are similar to ceramic materials.

Traditional ceramic raw materials include clay minerals such as kaolinite, whereas more recent
materials include aluminium oxide, more commonly known as alumina. The modern ceramic
materials, which are classified as advanced ceramics, include silicon carbide and tungsten carbide.
Both are valued for their abrasion resistance, and hence find use in applications such as the wear
plates of crushing equipment in mining operations. Advanced ceramics are also used in the medicine,
electrical and electronics industries.

Crystalline ceramics

Crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a great range of processing. Methods for dealing
with them tend to fall into one of two categories – either make the ceramic in the desired shape, by
reaction in situ, or by "forming" powders into the desired shape, and then sintering to form a solid
body. Ceramic forming techniques include shaping by hand (sometimes including a rotation process
called "throwing"), slip casting, tape casting (used for making very thin ceramic capacitors, e.g.),
injection molding, dry pressing, and other variations. A few methods use a hybrid between the two
approaches.

Noncrystalline ceramics

Noncrystalline ceramics, being glass, tend to be formed from melts. The glass is shaped when either
fully molten, by casting, or when in a state of toffee-like viscosity, by methods such as blowing into a
mold. If later heat treatments cause this glass to become partly crystalline, the resulting material is
known as a glass-ceramic, widely used as cook-top and also as a glass composite material for nuclear
waste disposal.

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1. silicon a. a piece of equipment that collects and stores electricity

2. brittle b. a hard metal that is one of the elements (simple substances) used in making
steel

3.amorphous c. resistance to damage caused by friction

4.clay d. one that takes place in its usual place

5.tungsten e. a measure of the resistance to flow that a fluid offers when it is subjected to
shear stress

6.abrasion f. heavy sticky soil that can be used for making pots, bricks, etc.
resistance

7.reaction g. hard but easily broken

in situ

8.capacitors h. a simple substance that is not a metal, andexists naturally in large quantities
combined with other metals, minerals, etc.

9.viscosity i. having no definite shape or features

WRITING

Read the above text again and highlight important information in each paragraph. Then formulate
the highlighted information in your own words. Organize your notes into a summary of the text.
Write 120 words.

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SPEAKING

8.1.4. Food Engineering

After watching the video at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ehpP7DFWJlk and reading the
short text below, discuss the topic of food engineering with a partner or in a small group.

Food engineering is a very wide field of activities. Prospective major employers for food engineers
include companies involved in food processing, food machinery, packaging, ingredient
manufacturing, instrumentation, and control. Firms that design and build food processing plants,
consulting firms, government agencies, pharmaceutical companies, and health-care firms also hire
food engineers. Among its domain of knowledge and action are:

research and development of new foods, biological and pharmaceutical products

development and operation of manufacturing, packaging and distributing systems for drug/food
products
design and installation of food/biological/pharmaceutical production processes
design and operation of environmentally responsible waste treatment systems
marketing and technical support for manufacturing plants.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_engineering

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LANGUAGE USE

8.1.5. Materials Science

You are going to read a text about materials science. The words in the three sentences below are
jumbled up. Your task is to form the correct sentence. Each sentence has been removed from the text.
You are given the first word in each case.

Materials science, also commonly known as materials science and engineering, is an interdisciplinary
field which deals with the discovery and design of new materials. This relatively new scientific field
involves studying materials through the materials paradigm (synthesis, structure, properties and
performance). It incorporates elements of physics and chemistry, and is at the forefront of
nanoscience and nanotechnology research. In recent years, materials science has become more
widely known as a specific field of science and engineering.

It is an important part of forensic engineering (the investigation of materials, products, structures or

components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to
property) and failure analysis, the latter being the key to understanding, for example, the cause of
various aviation accidents. Many of the most pressing scientific problems that are faced today are
due to the limitations of the materials that are available and, as a result, breakthroughs in this field
are likely to have a significant impact on the future of technology.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science

New materials have been among the greatest achievements of every age and they have been central
to the growth, prosperity, security, and quality of life of humans since the beginning of history. It is
always new materials that open the door to new technologies.

Materials scientists and engineers continue to be at the forefront of all of these and many other
areas of science, too. Materials science and engineering influences our lives each time we buy or use
a new device, machine, or structure. The definition of the academic field of Materials Science &
Engineering stems from a realization concerning the every application of materials: it is the
properties of the material that give it value. A material may be chosen for its strength, its electrical
properties, resistance to heat or corrosion, or a host of other reasons; but they all relate to
properties.

Experience shows that all of the useful properties of a material are intimately related to its structure,
at all levels, including which atoms are present, how the atoms are joined, and how groups of atoms
are arranged throughout the material. Most importantly, we learn how this structure, and the
resulting properties, are controlled by the processing of the material.

Finally materials must perform their tasks in an economical and societally responsible manner.
Understanding the relationships between properties, structure, processing and performance makes
the Materials Engineer the master of the engineering universe.

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 1. This involves paradigm field studying materials new relatively through scientific materials.

2. It open materials that the new door to new is technologies always.

3. Finally economical an must manner tasks in and societally perform responsible materials
their.

VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

It is very useful to know how we can form different parts of speech. Insert the missing forms of the
words in the table. All the words are taken from the text above (Materials Science).

VERB NOUN ADJECTIVE ADVERB

- commonly
- scientific
synthesis
operate
failure -
economical
- relatively
central

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VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

8.1.6. Nanotechnology
Read the text about nanotechnology and fill the gaps in the text with words from the box.

size threshold, surface science, doomsday scenarios, macroscale products, energy production,
one dimension, molecular self-assembly, quantum-realm scale

Nanotechnology (sometimes shortened to "nanotech") is the manipulation of matter on an atomic,

molecular, and supramolecular scale. The earliest, widespread description of nanotechnology
referred to the particular technological goal of precisely manipulating atoms and molecules for
fabrication of ______, also now referred to as molecular nanotechnology. A more generalized
description of nanotechnology was subsequently established by the National Nanotechnology
Initiative, which defines nanotechnology as the manipulation of matter with at least ______ sized
from 1 to 100 nanometers. This definition reflects the fact that quantum mechanical effects are
important at this ______, and so the definition shifted from a particular technological goal to a
research category inclusive of all types of research and technologies that deal with the special
properties of matter that occur below the given ______. It is therefore common to see the plural
form "nanotechnologies" as well as "nanoscale technologies" to refer to the broad range of research
and applications whose common trait is size. Because of the variety of potential applications
(including industrial and military), governments have invested billions of dollars in nanotechnology
research. Through its National Nanotechnology Initiative, the USA has invested 3.7 billion dollars. The
European Union has invested 1.2 billion and Japan 750 million dollars.

Nanotechnology as defined by size is naturally very broad, including fields of science as diverse as
______, organic chemistry, molecular biology, semiconductor physics, microfabrication, etc. The
associated research and applications are equally diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional
device physics to completely new approaches based upon ______, from developing new materials
with dimensions on the nanoscale to direct control of matter on the atomic scale.

Scientists currently debate the future implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology may be able
to create many new materials and devices with a vast range of applications, such as in medicine,
electronics, biomaterials and ______. On the other hand, nanotechnology raises many of the same
issues as any new technology, including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of
nanomaterials,[5] and their potential effects on global economics, as well as speculation about
various ______. These concerns have led to a debate among advocacy groups and governments on
whether special regulation of nanotechnology is warranted.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology

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READING

8.1.7. Plastics engineering

Read this text about plastics engineering. Parts of some sentences have been removed from the text.
Choose the most appropriate part from the list (A-G) for each gap (1-6) in the text. There is an
example at the beginning.

Plastics engineering encompasses the processing, design, development, and manufacture of plastics
products. A plastic is a polymeric material that is in a semi-liquid state, (0) __C____ . Plastics
engineering encompasses plastics material and plastic machinery. Plastic Machinery is the general
term for all types of machinery and devices (1) ______ . The nature of plastic materials poses unique
challenges to an engineer. Mechanical properties of plastics are often difficult to quantify, and the
plastics engineer has to design a product that meets certain specifications (2) ______. Other
properties that the plastics engineer has to address include outdoor weatherability, thermal
properties such as upper use temperature, electrical properties, barrier properties, and resistance to
chemical attack.

In plastics engineering, as in most engineering disciplines, the economics of a product plays an

important role. The cost of plastic materials ranges from the cheapest commodity plastics (3) ______
to the very expensive, specialty plastics. The cost of a plastic product is measured in different ways,
and the absolute cost of a plastic material is difficult to ascertain. Cost is often measured in price per
pound of material, or price per unit volume of material. In many cases however, it is important for a
product to meet certain specifications, and cost could then be measured in price per unit of a
property. Price with respect to processibility is often important, as some materials need to be
processed at very high temperatures, (4) ______ . In a large production run cooling time is very
expensive.

Some plastics are manufactured from re-cycled materials (5) ______ because the consistency of
formulation and their physical properties tend to be less consistent. Electrical and electronic
equipment and motor vehicle markets together accounted for 58 percent of engineered plastics
demand in 2003. Engineered plastics demand in the US was estimated at $9,702 million in 2007.

A big challenge for plastics engineers is the reduction of the ecological footprints of their products.
First attempts like the Vinyloop process can guarantee that a product's primary energy demand is 46
percent lower (6) ______ . The global warming potential is 39 percent lower.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastics_engineering

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A but their use in engineering tends to be limited

B while keeping costs to a minimum

C having the property of plasticity and exhibiting flow

D than conventional produced PVC

E used in the plastics processing industry

F used in mass-produced consumer products

G increasing the amount of cooling time a part needs

http://www.lep.net.nz/images/button_industrial_plastics2.png (Picture)

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READING

8.1.8. Polymer engineering

When you have read the text below, answer the questions that follow.

Polymer engineering is generally an engineering field that designs, analyses, and/or modifies polymer
materials. Polymer engineering covers aspects of petrochemical industry, polymerization, structure
and characterization of polymers, properties of polymers, compounding and processing of polymers
and description of major polymers, structure property relations and applications.

The basic division of polymers into thermoplastics and thermosets helps define their areas of
application. The latter group of materials includes phenolic resins, polyesters and epoxy resins, all of
which are used widely in composite materials when reinforced with stiff fibres such as fibreglass and
aramids. Since crosslinking stabilises the thermosetting matrix of these materials, they have physical
properties more similar to traditional engineering materials like steel. However, their very much
lower densities compared with metals makes them ideal for lightweight structures. In addition, they
suffer less from fatigue, so are ideal for safety-critical parts which are stressed regularly in service.

Thermoplastics have relatively low tensile moduli, but also have low densities and properties such as
transparency which make them ideal for consumer products and medical products. They include
polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon, acetal resin, polycarbonate and PET, all of which are widely used
materials.

Elastomers are polymers which have very low moduli and show reversible extension when strained, a
valuable property for vibration absorption and damping. They may either be thermoplastic (in which
case they are known as Thermoplastic elastomers) or crosslinked, as in most conventional rubber
products such as tyres. Typical rubbers used conventionally include natural rubber, nitrile rubber,
polychloroprene, polybutadiene, styrene-butadiene and fluorinated rubbers such as Viton.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer_engineering

1. What engineering field is polymer engineering?

2. What aspects does polymer engineering cover?

3. What does the basic division of polymers into thermoplastics and thermosets help in?

4. What do thermosets include?

5. What makes them ideal for lightweight structures?

6. Why are they ideal for safety-critical parts which are stressed regularly in service?

7. How can you describe thermoplastics?

8. What is typical of elastomers?

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VOVABULARY DEVELOPMENT

8.1.9. Separation processes

After reading the text about separation processes, match the highlighted terms (1-9) in the text to the
given definitions (a-i).

In chemistry and chemical engineering, a separation process, or a separation technique, or simply a

separation, is a method to achieve any mass transfer phenomenon that converts a mixture of
substances into two or more distinct product mixtures, at least one of which is enriched in one or
more of the mixture's constituents. In some cases, a separation may fully divide the mixture into its
pure constituents. Separations are carried out based on differences in chemical properties, or
physical properties such as size, shape, mass, density, or chemical affinity, between the constituents
of a mixture, and are often classified according to the particular differences they use to achieve
separation. In the case that no single difference can be used to accomplish a desired separation,
multiple operations will often be performed in combination to achieve the desired end.

Barring a few exceptions, almost every element or compound is naturally found in an impure state.
Often these impure raw materials must be separated into their purified components before they can
be put to productive use, making separation techniques essential for the modern industrial economy.
In some cases, these separations require total purification, as in the electrolysis refining of bauxite
ore for aluminum metal, but a good example of an incomplete separation technique is oil refining.
Crude oil occurs naturally as a mixture of various hydrocarbons and impurities. The refining process
splits this mixture into other, more valuable mixtures such as natural gas, gasoline and chemical
feedstocks, none of which are pure substances, but each of which must be separated from the raw
crude. In both of these cases, a series of separations is necessary to obtain the desired end products.
In the case of oil refining, crude is subjected to a long series of individual distillation steps, each of
which produces a different product or intermediate.

Here we discuss separation techniques of any scale that completely or partially separate components
of a mixture from each other (which may be referred to as fractions) usually without substantial
chemical modification. The purpose of such a separation may be analytical, i.e. to help analyze
components in the original mixture without any attempt to save the fractions, or may be preparative,
i.e. to "prepare" fractions or samples of the components that can be saved. The separation can be
done on a small scale, effectively a laboratory scale for analytical or preparative purposes, or on a
large scale, effectively an industrial scale for preparative purposes, or on some intermediate scale.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_process

146
1. mixtures a. the process of purifying substances or extracting substances from mixtures

2. constituents b. the process of boiling a liquid and condensing and collecting the vapour

3.affinity c. parts of an almost pure substance that are of a lower quality

4. purification d. a precursor to a desired product

5.refining e. the extent to which a substance or functional group can enter into a chemical
reaction with a given agent

6. impurities f. the portions of a volatile liquid within certain boiling point ranges

7. distillation g. a system of two or more distinct chemical substances

8.intermediate h. a process that removes the dirty or unwanted parts from sg

9.fractions i. one of the parts that combine to form sg

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9. UNIT 9. ELECTROCHEMISTRY (CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING)

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 9.1. Chemistry and Electricity
VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

9.1.1. History of Electrochemistry

You are going to read a text about the history of electrochemistry. Match the words (1-10) from the
text with their synonyms (a-j).

Electrochemistry is the study of chemical reactions which take place at the interface of an electrode,
usually a solid metal or a semiconductor, and an ionic conductor, the electrolyte. These reactions
involve electric charges moving between the electrodes and the electrolyte (or ionic species in a
solution). Thus electrochemistry deals with the interaction between electrical energy and chemical
change.

The connection between chemistry and electricity is a very old one, going back to Alessandro Volta's
discovery, in 1793, that electricity could be produced by placing two dissimilar metals on opposite
sides of a moistened paper.

In 1800, Nicholson and Carlisle, using Volta's primitive battery as a source, showed that an electric
current could decompose water into oxygen and hydrogen.

This was the first proof that water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen.

This was surely one of the most significant experiments in the history of chemistry, for it implied that
the atoms of hydrogen and oxygen were associated with positive and negative electric charges,
which must be the source of the bonding forces between them. By 1812, the Swedish
chemist Berzelius could propose that all atoms are electrified, hydrogen and the metals being
positive, the nonmetals negative. In electrolysis, the applied voltage was thought to overpower the
attraction between these opposite charges, pulling the electrified atoms apart in the form
of ions (named by Berzelius from the Greek for "travelers"). It would be almost exactly a hundred
years later before the shared electron pair theory of G.N. Lewis could offer a significant improvement
over this view of chemical bonding.

Meanwhile the use of electricity as a means of bringing about chemical change continued to play a
central role in the development of chemistry. Humphrey Davey prepared the first elemental sodium
by electrolysis of a sodium hydroxide melt.

It was left to Davey's former assistant, Michael Faraday, to show that there is a
direct relation between the amount of electric charge passed through the
solution and the quantity of electrolysis products. James Clerk Maxwell
immediately saw this as evidence for the "molecule of electricity", but the
world would not be receptive to the concept of the electron until the end of
the century.

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1. involve a suggest

2. dissimilar b causing

3. decompose c unlike

4. significant d advancement

5. propose e connection

6. opposite f divide

7. improvement g amount

8. bringing about h include

9. relation i vital

10. quantity j different

http://www.basinc.com/library/history/97/cover.gif

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READING

9.1.2. Potential differencies at interfaces

After reading the text about potential differencies at interfaces, match the highlighted terms (1-10) in
the text to the given definitions (a-j).

Electrochemistry is the study of reactions in which charged particles (ions or electrons) cross the
interface between two phases of matter, typically a metallic phase (the electrode) and a conductive
solution, or electrolyte. A process of this kind can always be represented as a chemical reaction and
is known generally as an electrode process. Electrode processes (also called electrode reactions) take
place within the double layer and produce a slight unbalance in the electric charges of the electrode
and the solution. Much of the importance of electrochemistry lies in the ways that these potential
differences can be related to the thermodynamics and kinetics of electrode reactions. In particular,
manipulation of the interfacial potential difference affords an important way of exerting external
control on an electrode reaction.

The interfacial potential differences which develop in electrode-solution systems are limited to only a
few volts at most. This may not seem like very much until you consider that this potential difference
spans a very small distance. In the case of an electrode immersed in a solution, this distance
corresponds to the thin layer of water molecules and ions that attach themselves to the electrode
surface, normally only a few atomic diameters. Thus a very small voltage can produce a very large
potential gradient. For example, a potential difference of one volt across a typical 10–8 cm interfacial
boundary amounts to a potential gradient of 100 million volts per centimeter— a very significant
value indeed!

Interfacial potentials are not confined to metallic electrodes immersed in solutions; they can in fact
exist between any two phases in contact, even in the absence of chemical reactions. In many forms
of matter, they are the result of adsorption or ordered alignment of molecules caused by non-
uniform forces in the interfacial region. Thus colloidal particles in aqueous suspensions selectively
adsorb a given kind of ion, positive for some colloids, and negative for others. The resulting net
electric charge prevents the particles from coming together and coalescing, which they would
otherwise tend to do under the influence of ordinary van der Waals attractions.

Interfacial potential differences are not directly observable. What we can observe, and make much
use of, are potential differences between pairs of electrodes in electrochemical cells.

151
1.ions a a conductor that emits or collects electrons in a cell, thermionic valve,
semiconductor device, etc

2.solution b the boundary between any two phases

3.electric charges c electrical force measured in volts

4.thermodynamics d forces between two atoms or nonpolar molecules, which arises because a
fluctuating dipole moment in one molecule induces a dipole moment in the
other, and the two dipole moments then interact

5.electrode e the surface retention of solid, liquid, or gas molecules, atoms, or ions by a
solid or liquid

6.voltage f a property of some elementary particles that gives rise to an interaction

between them and consequently to a host of material phenomena described
as electrical

7.interfacial g a mixture of fine, nonsettling particles of any solid within a liquid or gas
boundary

8.adsorption h isolated electrons or positrons or atoms or molecules which by loss or gain

of one or more electrons have aquired a net electric charge

9.suspension i the study of the laws that govern the conversion of energy from one form to
another, the direction in which heat will flow, and the availability of energy to
do work

10. van der Waals j a single, homogeneous liquid, solid, or gas phase that is a mixture in which
attractions the components are uniformly distributed throughout the mixture

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READING

9.1.3. Galvanic cells and electrodes

Read this text below about galvanic cells and electrodes. Parts of some sentences have been removed
from the text. Choose the most appropriate part from the list (A-H) for each gap (1-7) in the text.
There is an example at the beginning.

Some video lectures (Chemistry Tutorial 12.2a,b,c,d) on the above topic by Mark Rosengarten can
help you better understand the role of the galvanic cell and the different electrodes.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bCsLLtufzUU&index=127&list=PL81D400586C044127

It is physically impossible to measure the potential difference between a piece of metal and the
solution (0) _C_____ . We can, however, measure the difference between the potentials of two
electrodes that dip into the same solution, or more usefully, are in two different solutions. In the
latter case, each electrode-solution pair constitutes an oxidation-reduction half cell, and we are
measuring the sum of the two half-cell potentials.

This arrangement is called a galvanic cell. A typical cell

might consist of two pieces of metal, one zinc and the
other copper, each immersed in a solution (1) ______ .
The two solutions are separated by a porous barrier that
prevents them from rapidly mixing (2) ______ .

If we connect the zinc and copper by means of a metallic

conductor, the excess electrons that remain when
Zn2+ ions emerge from the zinc in the left cell would be
able to flow through the external circuit and into the
right electrode, (3) ______ which become "discharged",
that is, converted into Cu atoms at the surface of the
copper electrode. The net reaction is the oxidation of
zinc by copper(II) ions:

Zn(s) + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu(s)

but this time, the oxidation and reduction steps (half reactions) take place in separate locations:

left electrode: Zn(s) → Zn2+ + 2e– oxidation

right electrode: Cu2+ + 2e–→ Cu(s) reduction

Electrochemical cells allow measurement and control of a redox reaction.

The reaction can be started and stopped (4) ______ . If we place a variable resistance in the circuit,
we can even control the rate of the net cell reaction by simply turning a knob. (5) ______ , we can
force the reaction to proceed in its non-spontaneous, or reverse direction.

153
By placing an ammeter in the external circuit, we can measure the amount of electric charge that
passes through the electrodes, and thus the number of moles of reactants (6) ______.

Electric charge q is measured in coulombs. The amount of charge carried by one mole of electrons is
known as the faraday, which we denote by F. Careful experiments have determined that 1 F =
96467 c. For most purposes, you can simply use 96,500 coulombs as the value of the faraday.

When we measure electric current, we are measuring the rate (7) ______ . A current of one ampere
corresponds to the flow of one coulomb per second.

A that get transformed into products in the cell reaction.

B by connecting or disconnecting the two electrodes.
C in which it is immersed

D but allows ions to diffuse through

E at which electric charge is transported through the circuit

F containing a dissolved salt of the corresponding metal
G by connecting a battery or other source of current to the two electrodes
H where they could be delivered to the Cu2+ ions

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READING

9.1.4. Electrodes and electrode reactions

Read the following text about electrodes and electrode reactions and then answer the questions that
follow.

An electrode reaction refers to the net oxidation or reduction process that takes place at an
electrode. This reaction may take place in a single electron-transfer step, or as a succession of two or
more steps. The substances that receive and lose electrons are called the electroactive species.

Fig. 4: Electron transfer at an anode

This process takes place within the

very thin interfacial region at the
electrode surface, and involves
quantum-mechanical tunneling of
electrons between the electrode and
the electroactive species. The work
required to displace the H2O
molecules in the hydration spheres of
the ions constitutes part of
the activation energy of the process.

In the example of the Zn/Cu cell we have been using, the electrode reaction involves a metal and its
hydrated cation; we call such electrodes metal-metal ion electrodes. There are a number of other
kinds of electrodes which are widely encountered in electrochemistry and analytical chemistry.

1. How does an electrode reaction take place?

2. What are the substances that receive and lose electrons called?

3. Where does this process take place?

4. What does the electrode reaction involve in the example of the Zn/Cu cell?

5. What do we call such electrodes?

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LANGUAGE USE

9.1.4.1. Ion-ion electrodes

You are going to read a text about ion-ion electrodes. Use the word at the end of each gap to form a
new word with which to fill the gap.

Many electrode reactions involve only ______ (ion) species, such as Fe2+ and Fe3+. If neither of the
electroactive species is a metal, some other metal must serve as a conduit for the supply or ______
(remove) of electrons from the system. In order to avoid ______ (complicate) that would arise from
electrode reactions ______ (involve) this metal, a relatively inert substance such as platinum is
______ (common) used. Such a half cell would be represented as

Pt(s) | Fe3+(aq), Fe2+(aq) || ...

and the half-cell reaction would be

Fe2+(aq) → Fe3+ (aq) + e–

The reaction occurs at the surface of the electrode (Fig 4 above). The electroactive ion diffuses to the
electrode surface and adsorbs (attaches) to it by van der Waals and ______ (coulomb) forces. In
doing so, the waters of hydration that are normally attached to any ionic species must be displaced.
This process is always endothermic, sometimes to such an extent that only a small fraction of the
ions be able to contact the surface ______ (close) enough to undergo electron transfer, and the
reaction will be slow. The actual electron-transfer occurs by quantum-mechanical ______ (tunnel).

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SPEAKING

9.1.4.2. Gas electrodes and Insoluble–salt electrodes

After watching the video at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=62RqJpsNreE (Potential of different
electrodes experiment)

and reading the short text below, discuss the significance of electrodes with a partner or in a small
group. The following ideas might help you:

the role of platinum

the oxidation and reduction of silver
application in electrochemical measurements

Some electrode reactions involve a gaseous species such as H2, O2, or Cl2. Such reactions must also
be carried out on the surface of an electrochemically inert conductor such as platinum. A typical
reaction of considerable commercial importance is

Cl–(aq) → ½ Cl2(g) + e–

Similar reactions involving the oxidation of Br2 or I2 also take place at platinum surfaces.

A typical insoluble–salt electrode consists of a silver wire covered with a thin coating of silver
chloride, which is insoluble in water. The electrode reaction consists of the oxidation and reduction
of the silver:

AgCl(s) + e– → Ag(s) + Cl–(aq)

The half cell would be represented as

... || Cl– (aq) | AgCl (s) | Ag (s)

Although the usefulness of such an electrode may not be immediately apparent, this kind of
electrode finds very wide application in electrochemical measurements.

Read more about electrodes and electrolytes at http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-

between-electrode-and-vs-electrolyte/.

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READING and VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

After reading the text above, match the highlighted terms (1-6) in the text to the given definitions (a-
f).

1. species a a chemical entity or molecular particle

2. conductor b sg that allows electricity or heat to travel along it or through it

3. platinum c a silver-grey metal that does not change colour or lose its brightness

4. coating d a thin layer of sg that covers a surface

5. insoluble e sg incapable of being dissolved in another material

6. half cell f an electrode in contact with a solution of ions, forming part of a cell

VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

It is very useful to know how we can form different parts of speech. Insert the missing forms of the
words in the table. All the words are taken from the text above (Gas electrodes and Insoluble–salt
electrodes).

VERB NOUN ADJECTIVE ADVERB

- electrochemically

reaction

commercial

oxidation

usefulness

application -

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LANGUAGE USE

9.1.4.3. Reference electrodes

You are going to read a text about reference electrodes.The words in the three sentences below are
jumbled up. Your task is to form the correct sentence. Each sentence has been removed from this
text. You are given the first word in each case.

In most electrochemical experiments our interest is concentrated on only one of the electrode
reactions. Since all measurements must be on a complete cell involving two electrode systems, it is
common practice to employ a reference electrode as the other half of the cell. The major
requirements of a reference electrode are that it be easy to prepare and maintain, and that its
potential be stable. The last requirement essentially means that the concentration of any ionic
species involved in the electrode reaction must be held at a fixed value. The most common way of
accomplishing this is to use an electrode reaction involving a saturated solution of an insoluble salt of
the ion. One such system, the silver-silver chloride electrode has already been mentioned:

Ag | AgCl(s) | Cl–(aq) || ...

Ag(s) + Cl–(aq) →AgCl(s) + e–

This electrode usually takes the form of a piece of silver wire coated with AgCl. The coating is done by
making the silver the anode in an electrolytic cell containing HCl; the Ag+ ions combine with Cl– ions
as fast as they are formed at the silver surface.

159
The other common reference electrode is the calomel electrode; calomel is the common name for
mercury(I) chloride.

Hg | Hg2+(aq) | KCl || ... Hg(l) + Cl– → ½ HgCl2(s) + e–

The potentials of both of these electrodes have been very accurately determined against the
hydrogen electrode. The latter is seldom used in routine electrochemical measurements because it is
more difficult to prepare; the platinum surface has to be specially treated by preliminary electrolysis.
Also, there is need for a supply of hydrogen gas which makes it somewhat cumbersome and
hazardous.

1. One has such, silver-silver mentioned system electrode the chloride been already.

2. The electrode is common the electrode other calomel reference.

3. The has by preliminary surface to electrolysis treated platinum be specially.

http://www.intechopen.com/source/html/45526/media/image24.jpeg

WRITING

This is a schematic representation of a three-electrode electrochemical cell. Describe what you can
see in the above figure in 100 words.

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SPEAKING

Watch the following video and discuss the above topic with a partner or in a small group:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JOR8DWH2PXE ( How to make an Ag/AgCl Reference Electrode)

The following ideas might help you in doing so:

major requirements of a reference electrode

the silver-silver chloride electrode
characterization of the electrode above
the calomel electrode

http://www.all-about-ph.com/images/reference-electrode-design.jpg

161
READING and VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

9.1.5. Electrolysis
Read the text about electrolysis and fill the gaps in the text with words from the box.

electrical work, platinum wire, oppositely-charged electrode, compounds, aqueous solutions,

combustible matter, non-spontaneous, alkali, decomposition, metallic lustre

Electrolysis refers to the ______ of a substance by an electric current. The electrolysis of sodium and
potassium hydroxides, first carried out in 1808 by Sir Humphrey Davey, led to the discovery of these
two metallic elements and showed that these two hydroxides which had previously been considered
un-decomposable and thus elements, were in fact ______:

"By means of a flame which was thrown on a spoon containing potash, this ______ was kept for
some minutes at a strong red heat, and in a state of perfect fluidity." One pole of a battery of copper-
zinc cells was connected to the spoon, and the other was connected to ______ which dipped into
the melt. "By this arrangement some brilliant phenomena were produced. The potash appeared to
be a conductor in a high degree, and as long as the communication was preserved, a most intense
light was exhibited at the negative wire, and a column of flame, which seemed to be owing to the
development of ______, arose from the point of contact." The flame was due to the combustion in
the air of metallic potassium. In another experiment, Davey observed "small globules having a high
______, precisely similar in visible characters to quicksilver, some of which burnt with explosion and
bright flame, as soon as they were formed, and others remained, and were merely tarnished, and
finally covered by a white film which formed on their surfaces."

Electrolysis of molten alkali halides is the usual industrial method of preparing the alkali metals:

cathode: Na+ + e– → Na(l) E° = –2.71 v

anode: Cl– → ½ Cl2(g) + e– E° = –1.36 v

net: Na+ + Cl– → Na(l) + ½ Cl2(g) E° = –4.1 v

Ions in ______ can undergo similar reactions. Thus if a solution of nickel chloride undergoes
electrolysis at platinum electrodes, the reactions are

cathode: Ni2+ + 2 e– → Ni(s) E° = –0.24 v

anode: 2 Cl– → Cl2(g) + 2 e– E° = –1.36 v

net: Ni2+ + 2 Cl– → Ni(s) + Cl2(g) E° = –1.60 v

Both of these processes are carried out in electrochemical cells which are forced to operate in the
"reverse", or ______ direction, as indicated by the negative for the above cell reaction. The free

162
energy is supplied in the form of ______ done on the system by the outside world (the
surroundings). This is the only fundamental difference between an electrolytic cell and the galvanic
cell in which the free energy supplied by the cell reaction is extracted as work done on the
surroundings.

A common misconception about electrolysis is that "ions are attracted to

the ______ electrode." This is true only in the very thin interfacial region
near the electrode surface. Ionic motion throughout the bulk of the
solution occurs mostly by diffusion, which is the transport of molecules in
response to a concentration gradient. Migration— the motion of a
charged particle due to an applied electric field, is only a minor player,
producing only about one non-random jump out of around 100,000
random ones for a 1 volt cm–1 electric field. Only those ions that are near the interfacial region are
likely to undergo migration.

http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/elchem/ec1.html

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WRITING

On the basis of the process flow diagram below, write a summary of the different electrochemical
processes. Use every piece of information in the diagram. Write 120 words.

http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/elchem/ec1.html

164
10. UNIT 10. NANOTECHNOLOGY (CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING)

165
LANGUAGE USE

10.1. Origins
You are going to read a text about the origins of nanotechnology.Use the word at the end of each
gap to form a new word with which to fill the gap.

The history of nanotechnology traces the development of the concepts and experimental work
______ (fall) under the broad category of nanotechnology. Although nanotechnology is a relatively
recent development in scientific research, the development of its central concepts happened over a
longer period of time. The ______ (emerge) of nanotechnology in the 1980s was caused by the
convergence of experimental advances such as the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope in
1981 and the discovery of fullerenes in 1985, with the ______ (elucidate) and popularization of a
conceptual framework for the goals of nanotechnology beginning with the 1986 publication of the
book Engines of Creation. The field was subject to growing public awareness and controversy in the
early 2000s, with prominent debates about both its potential ______ (imply) as well as the feasibility
of the applications envisioned by advocates of molecular nanotechnology, and with governments
moving to promote and fund research into nanotechnology. The early 2000s also saw the beginnings
of ______ (commerce) applications of nanotechnology, although these were limited to bulk
applications of nanomaterials rather than the ______ (transform) applications envisioned by the
field.

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 10.2. Fundamental concepts
READING

10.2.1. What is nano?

Read the following text and then answer the questions that follow.

Nanotechnology is the engineering of functional systems at the molecular scale. This covers both
current work and concepts that are more advanced. In its original sense, nanotechnology refers to
the projected ability to construct items from the bottom up, using techniques and tools being
developed today to make complete, high performance products.

One nanometer (nm) is one billionth, or 10−9, of a meter. By comparison, typical carbon-carbon
bond lengths, or the spacing between these atoms in a molecule, are in the range 0.12–0.15 nm, and
a DNA double-helix has a diameter around 2 nm. On the other hand, the smallest cellular life-forms,
the bacteria of the genus Mycoplasma, are around 200 nm in length. By convention, nanotechnology
is taken as the scale range 1 to 100 nm following the definition used by the National Nanotechnology
Initiative in the US. The lower limit is set by the size of atoms (hydrogen has the smallest atoms,
which are approximately a quarter of a nm diameter) since nanotechnology must build its devices
from atoms and molecules. The upper limit is more or less arbitrary but is around the size that
phenomena not observed in larger structures start to become apparent and can be made use of in
the nano device. These new phenomena make nanotechnology distinct from devices which are
merely miniaturised versions of an equivalent macroscopic device; such devices are on a larger scale
and come under the description of microtechnology.

To put that scale in another context, the comparative size of a nanometer to a meter is the same as
that of a marble to the size of the earth. Or another way of putting it: a nanometer is the amount an
average man's beard grows in the time it takes him to raise the razor to his face.

Two main approaches are used in nanotechnology. In the "bottom-up" approach, materials and
devices are built from molecular components which assemble themselves chemically by principles of
molecular recognition. In the "top-down" approach, nano-objects are constructed from larger
entities without atomic-level control.

Areas of physics such as nanoelectronics, nanomechanics, nanophotonics and nanoionics have

evolved during the last few decades to provide a basic scientific foundation of nanotechnology.

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1. What kind of engineering is nanotechnology?

2. Concerning the size range, how is the lower limit set ?

3. What is typical of the upper limit?

4. What makes nanotechnology distinct from devices which are merely miniaturised versions of an
equivalent macroscopic device?

5. How many approaches are used in nanotechnology?

6. What provides the basic scientific foundation of nanotechnology?

VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

Insert the missing forms of the words in the table. All the words are taken from the text above (What
is nano?).

VERB NOUN ADJECTIVE ADVERB

functional

- molecule -

developed -

observed -

evolve

approximately

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169
VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

10.2.2. Larger to smaller: a materials perspective

You are going to read a text about a materials perspective. Match the words (1-10) from the text
with their synonyms (a-j).

Several phenomena become pronounced as the size of the system decreases. These include
statistical mechanical effects, as well as quantum mechanical effects, for example the “quantum size
effect” where the electronic properties of solids are altered with great reductions in particle size. This
effect does not come into play by going from macro to micro dimensions. However, quantum effects
can become significant when the nanometer size range is reached, typically at distances of 100
nanometers or less, the so-called quantum realm. Additionally, a number of physical (mechanical,
electrical, optical, etc.) properties change when compared to macroscopic systems. One example is
the increase in surface area to volume ratio altering mechanical, thermal and catalytic properties of
materials. Diffusion and reactions at nanoscale, nanostructures materials and nanodevices with fast
ion transport are generally referred to nanoionics. Mechanical properties of nanosystems are of
interest in the nanomechanics research. The catalytic activity of nanomaterials also opens potential
risks in their interaction with biomaterials.

Materials reduced to the nanoscale can show different properties compared to what they exhibit on
a macroscale, enabling unique applications. For instance, opaque substances can become
transparent (copper); stable materials can turn combustible (aluminum); insoluble materials may
become soluble (gold). A material such as gold, which is chemically inert at normal scales, can serve
as a potent chemical catalyst at nanoscales. Much of the fascination with nanotechnology stems
from these quantum and surface phenomena that matter exhibits at the nanoscale.

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1.pronounced a growth

2.as well as b powerful

3.altered c mentioned

4.range d show

5.increase e poses

6.referred f example

7.opens g and

8.exhibit h definite

9. instance i changed

10. potent j area

READING

Read the text above again and answer the following questions.

1. What phenomena become pronounced as the size of the system decreases?

2. What does the quantum size effect involve?
3. When can quantum effects become significant?
4. What does nanoionics involve?
5. Where are the mechanical properties of nanosystems of interest?
6. What can be characteristic of materials reduced to the nanoscale?
7. Can you give examples of the previous phenomenon?
8. How does gold behave at the nanoscale?
9. Where does the peculiarity of nanotechnology come from?

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LANGUAGE USE

Below you can see the first part of the previous text again. Some words are missing from it. Write the
missing words on the lines 1-6 in the gaps. Use only one word in each gap.There is an example at the
beginning.

Several phenomena become pronounced as the size of the system (0)_ decreases _____. These
include statistical mechanical effects, as well as quantum mechanical effects, for example the
“quantum (1)______ effect” where the electronic properties of solids are altered with great
reductions in particle size. This effect does not come into play by going from macro to micro
(2)______. However, quantum effects can become significant when the nanometer size range is
reached, typically at (3)______ of 100 nanometers or less, the so-called quantum realm. Additionally,
a number of physical (mechanical, electrical, optical, etc.) properties change when compared to
macroscopic systems. One example is the increase in (4)______ area to volume ratio altering
mechanical, thermal and catalytic properties of materials. Diffusion and reactions at nanoscale,
nanostructures materials and nanodevices with fast (5)______ transport are generally referred to
nanoionics. Mechanical properties of nanosystems are of interest in the nanomechanics research.
The (6)______ activity of nanomaterials also opens potential risks in their interaction with
biomaterials.

http://www.nanopolis.hu/pic/nanometer.jpg

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READING

10.2.3. Simple to complex: a molecular perspective

You are going to read a text titled ’Simple to complex: a molecular perspective.’

Parts of some sentences have been removed from the text. Choose the most appropriate part from
the list (A-H) for each gap (1-7) in the text. There is an example at the beginning.

Modern synthetic chemistry has reached the point (0) __F____ to almost any structure. These
methods are used today to manufacture a wide variety of useful chemicals (1) ______. This ability
raises the question of extending this kind of control to the next-larger level, seeking methods to
assemble these single molecules into supramolecular assemblies consisting of many molecules
(2)______ .

These approaches utilize the concepts of molecular self-assembly and/or supramolecular chemistry
to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation (3) ______ . The concept of
molecular recognition is especially important: molecules can be designed so that a specific
configuration or arrangement is favored (4) ______ . The Watson–Crick basepairing rules are a direct
result of this, as is the specificity of an enzyme being targeted to a single substrate, or the specific
folding of the protein itself. Thus, two or more components can be designed to be complementary
and mutually attractive (5) ______ .

Such bottom-up approaches should be capable of producing devices in parallel and be much cheaper
than top-down methods, but could potentially be overwhelmed (6) ______ . Most useful structures
require complex and thermodynamically unlikely arrangements of atoms. Nevertheless, there are
many examples of self-assembly (7) ______ in biology, most notably Watson–Crick basepairing and
enzyme-substrate interactions. The challenge for nanotechnology is whether these principles can be
used to engineer new constructs in addition to natural ones.

A through a bottom-up approach

B so that they make a more complex and useful whole.

C arranged in a well defined manner.

D as the size and complexity of the desired assembly increases

E based on molecular recognition

F where it is possible to prepare small molecules

G such as pharmaceuticals or commercial polymers
H due to non-covalent intermolecular forces

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READING

10.2.4. Molecular nanotechnology: a long-term view

You are going to read a text about molecular nanotechnology. The paragraphs of the text are mixed
up. Put the paragraphs ( A-F) into the correct order.

A When the term "nanotechnology" was independently coined and popularized by Eric Drexler (who
at the time was unaware of an earlier usage by Norio Taniguchi) it referred to a future manufacturing
technology based on molecular machine systems. The premise was that molecular scale biological
analogies of traditional machine components demonstrated molecular machines were possible: by
the countless examples found in biology, it is known that sophisticated, stochastically optimised
biological machines can be produced.

B An experiment indicating that positional molecular assembly is possible was performed by Ho

and Lee at Cornell University in 1999. They used a scanning tunneling microscope to move an
individual carbon monoxide molecule (CO) to an individual iron atom (Fe) sitting on a flat silver
crystal, and chemically bound the CO to the Fe by applying a voltage.

C This led to an exchange of letters in the ACS publication Chemical & Engineering News in 2003.
Though biology clearly demonstrates that molecular machine systems are possible, non-biological
molecular machines are today only in their infancy. Leaders in research on non-biological molecular
machines are Dr. Alex Zettl and his colleagues at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories and UC Berkeley.
They have constructed at least three distinct molecular devices whose motion is controlled from the
desktop with changing voltage: a nanotube nanomotor, a molecular actuator, and a
nanoelectromechanical relaxation oscillator.

D Molecular nanotechnology, sometimes called molecular manufacturing, describes engineered

nanosystems (nanoscale machines) operating on the molecular scale. Molecular nanotechnology is
especially associated with the molecular assembler, a machine that can produce a desired structure
or device atom-by-atom using the principles of mechanosynthesis. Manufacturing in the context of
productive nanosystems is not related to, and should be clearly distinguished from, the conventional
technologies used to manufacture nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles.

E It is hoped that developments in nanotechnology will make possible their construction by some
other means, perhaps using biomimetic principles. However, Drexler and other researchers have
proposed that advanced nanotechnology, although perhaps initially implemented by biomimetic
means, ultimately could be based on mechanical engineering principles, namely, a manufacturing
technology based on the mechanical functionality of these components (such as gears, bearings,
motors, and structural members) that would enable programmable, positional assembly to atomic
specification.

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F In general it is very difficult to assemble devices on the atomic scale, as one has to position atoms
on other atoms of comparable size and stickiness. Another view, put forth by Carlo Montemagno, is
that future nanosystems will be hybrids of silicon technology and biological molecular machines.
Richard Smalley argued that mechanosyntheses are impossible due to the difficulties in mechanically
manipulating individual molecules.

SPEAKING

Look at paragraph F above again and discuss in a small group how you can imagine the hybrids of
silicon technology and biological molecular machines. Focus on the following ideas:

three distinct molecular devices (nanotube nanomotor, molecular actuator,

nanoelectromechanical relaxation oscillator)
motion is controlled from the desktop with changing voltage

http://www.wonderwhizkids.com/wwkimages/nanotechnology/Cancer_Nanotechnology.jpg

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 10.3. Current research
LISTENING and SPEAKING

10.3.1. Nanomaterials
Listen to the video recording at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uLvjZ_TTrDM

on nanoengineering supermaterials and read this short text below. Then discuss the topic of
nanomaterials on the basis of the questions that follow.

What are the functions of subfields that the nanomaterials field includes?
What science has resulted in many materials which may be useful in nanotechnology?
Where do you think nanopillars are used?

The nanomaterials field includes subfields which develop or study materials having unique properties
arising from their nanoscale dimensions.

Interface and colloid science has given rise to many materials which may be useful in
nanotechnology, such as carbon nanotubes and other fullerenes, and various nanoparticles and
nanorods. Nanomaterials with fast ion transport are related also to nanoionics and nanoelectronics.

Nanoscale materials can also be used for bulk applications; most present commercial applications of
nanotechnology are of this flavor.

Progress has been made in using these materials for medical applications.

Nanoscale materials such as nanopillars are sometimes used in solar cells which combats the cost of
traditional Silicon solar cells.

Development of applications incorporating semiconductor nanoparticles to be used in the next

generation of products, such as display technology, lighting, solar cells and biological imaging.

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WRITING

10.3.2. Bottom-up approaches, Top-down approaches, Functional approaches and

Biomimetic approaches
Do some research into (1) bottom-up ,(2) top-down , (3) functional and (4) biomimetic approaches
using information from the internet and these short texts below. Then write a report in which you
describe them and provide some examples of the areas they are used in.

(1) These seek to arrange smaller components into more complex assemblies.

DNA nanotechnology utilizes the specificity of Watson–Crick basepairing to construct well-defined

structures out of DNA and other nucleic acids.

Approaches from the field of "classical" chemical synthesis (inorganic and organic synthesis) also aim
at designing molecules with well-defined shape (e.g. bis-peptides).

More generally, molecular self-assembly seeks to use concepts of supramolecular chemistry, and
molecular recognition in particular, to cause single-molecule components to automatically arrange
themselves into some useful conformation.

Atomic force microscope tips can be used as a nanoscale "write head" to deposit a chemical upon a
surface in a desired pattern in a process called dip pen nanolithography. This technique fits into the
larger subfield of nanolithography.

(2) These seek to create smaller devices by using larger ones to direct their assembly.

Many technologies that descended from conventional solid-state silicon methods for fabricating
microprocessors are now capable of creating features smaller than 100 nm, falling under the
definition of nanotechnology. Giant magnetoresistance-based hard drives already on the market fit
this description, as do atomic layer deposition (ALD) techniques. Peter Grünberg and Albert Fert
received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2007 for their discovery of Giant magnetoresistance and
contributions to the field of spintronics.

Solid-state techniques can also be used to create devices known as nanoelectromechanical systems
or NEMS, which are related to microelectromechanical systems or MEMS.

Focused ion beams can directly remove material, or even deposit material when suitable precursor
gasses are applied at the same time. For example, this technique is used routinely to create sub-100
nm sections of material for analysis in Transmission electron microscopy.

Atomic force microscope tips can be used as a nanoscale "write head" to deposit a resist, which is
then followed by an etching process to remove material in a top-down method.

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(3) These seek to develop components of a desired functionality without regard to how they might
be assembled.

Molecular scale electronics seeks to develop molecules with useful electronic properties. These could
then be used as single-molecule components in a nanoelectronic device. For an example see
rotaxane.

Synthetic chemical methods can also be used to create synthetic molecular motors, such as in a so-
called nanocar.

(4) Bionics or biomimicry seeks to apply biological methods and systems found in nature, to the
study and design of engineering systems and modern technology. Biomineralization is one example
of the systems studied.

Bionanotechnology is the use of biomolecules for applications in nanotechnology, including use of

viruses and lipid assemblies. Nanocellulose is a potential bulk-scale application.

https://www.scienceopen.com/document_file/6260ddf4-eff6-41c3-8140-
c5441f091495/PubMedCentral/image/pone.0084287.g001

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READING

10.3.3. Speculative
You are going to read a text about speculative approaches and fill the gaps in the text with phrases
from the box.

innovative materials, programmable matter, manipulating single molecules, picotechnology,

societal implications, exponential growth, self-sufficient machines, atomically precise

These subfields seek to anticipate what inventions nanotechnology might yield, or attempt to
propose an agenda along which inquiry might progress. These often take a big-picture view of
nanotechnology, with more emphasis on its ______ than the details of how such inventions could
actually be created.

Molecular nanotechnology is a proposed approach which involves ______ in finely controlled,

deterministic ways. This is more theoretical than the other subfields, and many of its proposed
techniques are beyond current capabilities.

Nanorobotics centers on ______ of some functionality operating at the nanoscale. There are hopes
for applying nanorobots in medicine, but it may not be easy to do such a thing because of several
drawbacks of such devices. Nevertheless, progress on ______ and methodologies has been
demonstrated with some patents granted about new nanomanufacturing devices for future
commercial applications, which also progressively helps in the development towards nanorobots
with the use of embedded nanobioelectronics concepts.

Productive nanosystems are "systems of nanosystems" which will be complex nanosystems that
produce ______ parts for other nanosystems, not necessarily using novel nanoscale-emergent
properties, but well-understood fundamentals of manufacturing. Because of the discrete (i.e. atomic)
nature of matter and the possibility of ______, this stage is seen as the basis of another industrial
revolution. Mihail Roco, one of the architects of the USA's National Nanotechnology Initiative, has
proposed four states of nanotechnology that seem to parallel the technical progress of the Industrial
Revolution, progressing from passive nanostructures to active nanodevices to complex
nanomachines and ultimately to productive nanosystems.

______ seeks to design materials whose properties can be easily, reversibly and externally controlled
though a fusion of information science and materials science.

Due to the popularity and media exposure of the term nanotechnology, the words ______ and
femtotechnology have been coined in analogy to it, although these are only used rarely and
informally.

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READING

10.3.4. Tools and techniques

You are going to read a text about tools and techniques. Some sentences are missing from the text.
Choose from the list (A-G) the most appropriate sentence for each gap (1-6) in the text.There is an
example at the beginning.

There are several important modern developments. The atomic force microscope (AFM) and the
Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) are two early versions of scanning probes that launched
nanotechnology. (0) __F____ Although conceptually similar to the scanning confocal microscope
developed by Marvin Minsky in 1961 and the scanning acoustic microscope (SAM) developed by
Calvin Quate and coworkers in the 1970s, newer scanning probe microscopes have much higher
resolution, since they are not limited by the wavelength of sound or light.

The tip of a scanning probe can also be used to manipulate nanostructures (a process called
positional assembly). Feature-oriented scanning methodology suggested by Rostislav Lapshin
appears to be a promising way to implement these nanomanipulations in automatic mode. (1)
______

Various techniques of nanolithography such as optical lithography, X-ray lithography dip pen
nanolithography, electron beam lithography or nanoimprint lithography were also developed. (2)
______

Another group of nanotechnological techniques include those used for fabrication of nanotubes and
nanowires, those used in semiconductor fabrication such as deep ultraviolet lithography, electron
beam lithography, focused ion beam machining, nanoimprint lithography, atomic layer deposition,
and molecular vapor deposition, and further including molecular self-assembly techniques such as
those employing di-block copolymers. The precursors of these techniques preceded the nanotech
era, and are extensions in the development of scientific advancements rather than techniques which
were devised with the sole purpose of creating nanotechnology and which were results of
nanotechnology research.

The top-down approach anticipates nanodevices that must be built piece by piece in stages, much as
manufactured items are made. (3) ______ Atomic force microscopes and scanning tunneling
microscopes can be used to look at surfaces and to move atoms around. By designing different tips
for these microscopes, they can be used for carving out structures on surfaces and to help guide self-
assembling structures. By using, for example, feature-oriented scanning approach, atoms or
molecules can be moved around on a surface with scanning probe microscopy techniques. (4)
______

In contrast, bottom-up techniques build or grow larger structures atom by atom or molecule by
molecule. These techniques include chemical synthesis, self-assembly and positional assembly. (5)
______ Another variation of the bottom-up approach is molecular beam epitaxy or MBE.
Researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories like John R. Arthur. Alfred Y. Cho, and Art C. Gossard
developed and implemented MBE as a research tool in the late 1960s and 1970s. Samples made by
MBE were key to the discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect for which the 1998 Nobel Prize

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in Physics was awarded. (6) ______ Important for research on semiconductors, MBE is also widely
used to make samples and devices for the newly emerging field of spintronics.

However, new therapeutic products, based on responsive nanomaterials, such as the

ultradeformable, stress-sensitive Transfersome vesicles, are under development and already
approved for human use in some countries.

A Dual polarisation interferometry is one tool suitable for characterisation of self assembled thin
films.

B However, this is still a slow process because of low scanning velocity of the microscope.

C MBE allows scientists to lay down atomically precise layers of atoms and, in the process, build up
complex structures.

D Scanning probe microscopy is an important technique both for characterization and synthesis of
nanomaterials.

E Lithography is a top-down fabrication technique where a bulk material is reduced in size to

nanoscale pattern.

F There are other types of scanning probe microscopy.

G At present, it is expensive and time-consuming for mass production but very suitable for
laboratory experimentation.

Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)

http://www.ihp-
microelectronics.com/fileadmin/user_upload/editor_uploads/grzela/Technical_Basis/VT-
STM_Large.jpg

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LANGUAGE USE

10.3.5. Applications
You are going to read about applications. Some words are missing from the text. Write the missing
words on the lines 1-11 in the gaps. Use only one word in each gap.There is an example at the
beginning.

As of August 21, 2008, the Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies estimates that over 800
manufacturer-identified nanotech products are publicly available, with new ones hitting the market
at a pace of 3–4 per week. The project (0) _lists_____ all of the products in a publicly accessible
online database. Most applications are limited to the use of "first generation" passive nanomaterials
which includes titanium dioxide in sunscreen, cosmetics, surface coatings, and (1) ______ food
products; Carbon allotropes used to produce gecko tape; silver in food packaging, clothing,
disinfectants and household appliances; zinc (2) ______ in sunscreens and cosmetics, surface
coatings, paints and outdoor furniture varnishes; and cerium oxide as a fuel catalyst.

Further applications allow tennis balls to last longer, golf balls to fly straighter, and even bowling
balls to become more (3) ______ and have a harder surface. Trousers and socks have been infused
with nanotechnology so that they will last longer and keep people cool in the summer. Bandages are
being infused with silver nanoparticles to heal cuts faster. (4) ______ are being manufactured with
nanomaterials so they may need fewer metals and less fuel to operate in the future. Video game
consoles and personal computers may become cheaper, faster, and contain more memory thanks to
nanotechnology. Nanotechnology may have the (5) ______ to make existing medical applications
cheaper and easier to use in places like the general practitioner's office and at home.

The National Science Foundation (a major distributor for nanotechnology research in the United
States) funded researcher David Berube to study the field of nanotechnology. His (6) ______ are
published in the monograph Nano-Hype: The Truth Behind the Nanotechnology Buzz. This study
concludes that much of what is sold as “nanotechnology” is in fact a recasting of straightforward
materials science, which is leading to a “nanotech industry built solely (7) ______ selling nanotubes,
nanowires, and the like” which will “end up with a few suppliers selling low margin products in huge
volumes." Further applications which require actual manipulation or arrangement of nanoscale
components await further research. (8) ______ technologies branded with the term 'nano' are
sometimes little related to and fall far short of the most ambitious and transformative technological
goals of the sort in molecular manufacturing proposals, the term still connotes such ideas. (9)
______ Berube, there may be a danger that a "nano bubble" will form, or is forming already, from
the use of the term by scientists and entrepreneurs to garner funding, regardless (10) ______
interest in the transformative possibilities of more ambitious and far-sighted work.

Researchers have successfully used DNA origami-based nanobots (11) ______ of carrying out logic
functions to achieve targeted drug delivery in cockroaches. It is said that the computational power of
these nanobots can be scaled up to that of a Commodore 64.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology

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