DATA ANALYSIS

(PROCESS, METHODS AND TYPES)

DATA ANALYSIS

Data analysis refers to the process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and

modeling data with the goal of discovering useful information, drawing conclusions, and
supporting decision-making.
It involves applying various statistical and computational techniques to interpret
and derive insights from large datasets. The ultimate aim of data analysis is to convert raw
data into actionable insights that can inform business decisions, scientific research, and other
endeavors.

DATA ANALYSIS PROCESS

The following are step-by-step guides to the data analysis process:

1.DEFINE THE PROBLEM

2.COLLECT THE DATA
3.CLEAN AND ORGANIZE THE DATA
4.ANALYZE THE DATA
5.INTERPRET THE RESULT
6.COMMUNICATE THE FINDINGS
7.TAKE ACTIONS

1. DEFINE THE PROBLEM

The first step in data analysis is to clearly define the problem or question that needs to
be answered. This involves identifying the purpose of the analysis, the data required, and
the intended outcome.
2.COLLECT THE DATA
The next step is to collect the relevant data from various sources. This may involve collecting
data from surveys, databases, or other sources. It is important to ensure that the data
collected is accurate, complete, and relevant to the problem being analyzed.
3.CLEAN AND ORGANIZE THE DATA
Once the data has been collected, it needs to be cleaned and organized. This involves
removing any errors or inconsistencies in the data, filling in missing values, and
ensuring that the data is in a format that can be easily analyzed.
4.ANALYZE THE DATA
The next step is to analyze the data using various statistical and analytical techniques.
This may involve identifying patterns in the data, conducting statistical tests, or using
machine learning algorithms to identify trends and insights.
5.INTERPRET THE RESULT
After analyzing the data, the next step is to interpret the results. This involves drawing
conclusions based on the analysis and identifying any significant findings or trends.
6.COMMUNICATE THE FINDINGS
Once the results have been interpreted, they need to be communicated to stakeholders.
This may involve creating reports, visualizations, or presentations to effectively
communicate the findings and recommendations.
7.TAKE ACTIONS
The final step in the data analysis process is to take action based on the findings. This
may involve implementing new policies or procedures, making strategic decisions, or
taking other actions based on the insights gained from the analysis.
TYPES OF DATA ANALYSIS
 DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS
This type of analysis involves summarizing and describing the main
characteristics of a dataset, such as the mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and
range.
 INFERENTIAL ANALYSIS
This type of analysis involves making inferences about a population based on
a sample. Inferential analysis can help determine whether a certain relationship or
pattern observed in a sample is likely to be present in the entire population.
 DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS
This type of analysis involves identifying and diagnosing problems or issues
within a dataset. Diagnostic analysis can help identify outliers, errors, missing data, or
other anomalies in the dataset.
 PREDICTIVE ANALYSIS
This type of analysis involves using statistical models and algorithms to
predict future outcomes or trends based on historical data. Predictive analysis can
help businesses and organizations make informed decisions about the future.
 PRESCIPTIVE ANALYSIS
This type of analysis involves recommending a course of action based on the
results of previous analyses. Prescriptive analysis can help organizations make data-
driven decisions about how to optimize their operations, products, or services.
 EXPLORATORY ANALYSIS
This type of analysis involves exploring the relationships and patterns
within a dataset to identify new insights and trends. Exploratory analysis is often used
in the early stages of research or data analysis to generate hypotheses and identify
areas for further investigation.

DATA ANALYSIS METHODS

 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
This method involves the use of mathematical models and statistical tools to
analyze and interpret data. It includes measures of central tendency, correlation analysis,
regression analysis, hypothesis testing, and more.
 MACHINE LEARNING
This method involves the use of algorithms to identify patterns and relationships
in data. It includes supervised and unsupervised learning, classification, clustering, and
predictive modeling.
 DATA MINING
This method involves using statistical and machine learning techniques to
extract information and insights from large and complex datasets.
 TEXT ANALYSIS
This method involves using natural language processing (NLP) techniques to
analyze and interpret text data. It includes sentiment analysis, topic modeling, and entity
recognition.
 NETWORK ANALYSIS
This method involves analyzing the relationships and connections between
entities in a network, such as social networks or computer networks. It includes social network
analysis and graph theory.
 TIME SERIES ANALYSIS
This method involves analyzing data collected over time to identify patterns
and trends. It includes forecasting, decomposition, and smoothing techniques.
  SPATIAL ANALYSIS
This method involves analyzing geographic data to identify spatial patterns and
relationships. It includes spatial statistics, spatial regression, and geospatial data visualization.
 DATA VISUALIZATION
This method involves using graphs, charts, and other visual representations
to help communicate the findings of the analysis. It includes scatter plots, bar charts, heat maps,
and interactive dashboards.
 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
This method involves analyzing non-numeric data such as interviews,
observations, and open-ended survey responses. It includes thematic analysis, content
analysis, and grounded theory.
 MULTI-CRITERIA DECISION ANALYSIS
This method involves analyzing multiple criteria and objectives to support
decision-making. It includes techniques such as the analytical hierarchy process, TOPSIS, and
ELECTRE.

DATA ANALYSIS TOOLS

 MICROSOFT EXCEL
A widely used spreadsheet program that allows for data organization, analysis,
and visualization.
 SQL
A programming language used to manage and manipulate relational databases
 R
An open-source programming language and software environment for statistical
computing and graphics.
 PYTHON
A general-purpose programming language that is widely used in data analysis
and machine learning.
 TABLEAU
A data visualization software that allows for interactive and dynamic
visualizations of data.
 SAS
A statistical analysis software used for data management, analysis, and reporting
 SPSS
A statistical analysis software used for data analysis, reporting, and modeling.
 MATLAB
A numerical computing software that is widely used in scientific research and
engineering
 RAPIDMINER
A data science platform that offers a wide range of data analysis and machine
learning tools.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DATA ANALYSIS

 OBJECTIVE
Data analysis should be objective and based on empirical evidence, rather than
subjective assumptions or opinions.
 SYSTEMATIC
Data analysis should follow a systematic approach, using established methods
and procedures for collecting, cleaning, and analyzing data.
 ACCURATE
Data analysis should produce accurate results, free from errors and bias. Data
should be validated and verified to ensure its quality.
  RELEVANT
Data analysis should be relevant to the research question or problem being
addressed. It should focus on the data that is most useful for answering the research question
or solving the problem.
 COMPREHENSIVE
Data analysis should be comprehensive and consider all relevant factors that
may affect the research question or problem
 TIMELY
Data analysis should be conducted in a timely manner, so that the results are
available when they are needed.
 REPRODUCIBLE
Data analysis should be reproducible, meaning that other researchers should be
able to replicate the analysis using the same data and methods.
 COMMUNICABLE
Data analysis should be communicated clearly and effectively to stakeholders
and other interested parties. The results should be presented in a way that is understandable
and useful for decision-making.

DATA ANALYSIS LIMITATIONS

 DATA QUALITY
The quality of data can impact the accuracy and reliability of analysis results. If
data is incomplete, inconsistent, or outdated, the analysis may not provide meaningful insights.
 LIMITED SCOPE
Data analysis is limited by the scope of the data available. If data is incomplete or
does not capture all relevant factors, the analysis may not provide a complete picture.
 HUMAN ERROR
Data analysis is often conducted by humans, and errors can occur in data
collection, cleaning, and analysis
 COST
Data analysis can be expensive, requiring specialized tools, software, and
expertise.
 TIME-CONSUMING
Data analysis can be time-consuming, especially when working with large
datasets or conducting complex analyses.
 OVERRELIANCE ON DATA
Data analysis should be complemented with human intuition and expertise.
Overreliance on data can lead to a lack of creativity and innovation.
 PRIVACY CONCERNS
Data analysis can raise privacy concerns if personal or sensitive information is
used without proper consent or security measures.
 BASIC STATISTICS

WHY STUDY STATISTICS?

We all are consumers of statistics. It is now part of our daily life. From news
media to social media, we see constant flow of numbers and information telling us about our
economy, game results, performance of businesses, weather forecasts, etc. As users of such
information, it is difficult for us to process them and be critical in our judgment about them.
Statistics are used not only to inform us but also to influence us. Statistics
don’t lie, but liars use statistics.
Statistics also play a role in the process of scientific inquiry. As you gather your
research data, you will have to derive useful and usable information from them. Statistics will
help you explore, understand, and interpret your research data.

TERMS
 POPULATION
The collection of all units. The whole group of people, items, or element of
interest. Parameter - a number that summarizes variation or covariation in
a population
 SAMPLE
A subset of the population that researchers select and include in their study.
Statistic - a number that summarizes variation or covariation in a sample.

TASK OF STATISTICS
 DESCRIBING VARIATION AND COVARIATION
To summarize large amounts of information in such a way that we can
quickly, accurately, and honestly communicate about the main patterns that are present in
the data (e.g. frequency distribution, central tendency, dispersion, distributional shape.)
 INFERRING TO THE POPULATION
To make inferences about the variation and covariation in a population,
based on the information available from a sample drawn randomly from that population.
 TESTING HYPOTHESIS
To assess whether a set of observations is consistent with a theory
(confirmatory). It begins with speculation based on prior knowledge. Then, we evaluate
whether the evidence from the sample is consistent with our expectations.

 PREDICTING
To make predictions. We create a model that describes our knowledge of how
one or more causes (independent variables) produce an outcome (dependent variable). We use
the model to describe the patterns we see in our sample. Then, we evaluate whether our model
does well in describing the sample data using the adequacy of the goodness of fit.

STATISTICS IN THE RESEARCH REPORT

 THE RESEARCH REPORT
 Research reports generally begin with a clear statement of the aim, objective or
purpose of the study. Hypotheses or expected patterns are clearly stated in a testable format.
The research problem answers the question: What does the researcher wish to explain, predict,
or investigate?
A typical research problem could be stated as : “The aim of this research is to
investigate whether divorce men are more likely to commit suicide than divorced women.”
 METHODS
In this section, the researcher indicates the type and source/s of data, which
variables will be used, and how they will be measured.
This also indicates what statistical technique to be used in order to test
hypotheses and answer the research problem and states the appropriateness of such technique
 RESULTS
After analyzing the data, findings are presented in this section. Depending on the
research problem and statistical technique used, the researcher presents his/her results with
the aid of statistical tables and charts.
This section must indicate which hypotheses are supported by the data analysis
and which ones are not. Results must be interpreted in an objective manner and written as
clearly as possible
 DISCUSSION
Here, the researcher summarizes the findings and then goes on to place
them within the context of the research problem and any relevant theories. This also
indicates the implications of the findings for past and future research. Is it consistent with other
studies? Why or why not?
It is also good to point out unique contributions made by the research what do
we know as a result of this study that we do not know beforehand?
One must also acknowledge any limitation of the study and offer caution about
the extent to which results might be generalized.

VARIABLES
If we have specified the population of interest for a specific research question, we can
think of what is of interest about our observations.
A particular feature of these observations can be collected in a statistical variable. It is
a characteristic or attribute that can take on different values.
Any information we are interested in may be captured in such a variable.
For example, if our observations refer to human beings, our variable may describe
marital status, gender, age, or anything else which may relate to a person. We can be interested
in many different features, each of them collected in a different variable.

VARIABLES (QUALI & QUANTI)

 QUALITATIVE VARIABLE
Variables which take value that cannot be ordered in a logical or natural way.
o color of the eye
o name of a political party
o type of transport used to travel to work
 QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE
Variables that represent measurable quantities and can be ordered in a
logical and natural way.
o size of shoes
o price for houses
o weight of a person
VARIABLES (DISCRETE & CONTINUOUS)
 DISCRETE VARIABLE
Variables which can only take a finite number of values. All qualitative
variables are discrete. But also, quantitative variables can be discrete.
 CONTINUOUS VARIABLE
Variables which can take an infinite number of values.
Examples are the time it takes to travel to university and the distance between
two planets. Sometimes, it is said that continuous variables are variables which are “measured
rather than counted”.

VARIABLES (DEPENDENT & INDEPENDENT)

 DIPENDENT VARIABLE
A variable that a researcher wishes to explain or predict. Also called
outcome or response variable.
 INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
A variable that is believed to explain or predict the variation in the dependent
variable. Also called explanatory variable, predictor, or predictor variable.
For example, it is hypothesized that educational attainment influences one’s
earnings. Here, educational attainment is the independent variable and the earnings would be
the dependent variable.
VARIABLES (GROUPED OR CATEGORICAL)
 GROUP/CATEGORICAL VARIABLE
Data that are available in grouped form.
o sex
o age group
o educational attainment
 BINARY/DICHOTOMOUS VARIABLE
Any grouped/categorical variable that can only take two values.
o sex
o smoking or not smoking
 POLYCHOTOMOUS VARIABLE
Any grouped/categorical variable that has more than two categories.
o religion

LEVELS OR SCALE OF MEASUREMENT

 NOMINAL SCALE
The values of a nominal variable cannot be ordered.
Examples are the gender of a person (male-female) or the status of an
application (pending-not pending).
 ORDINAL SCALE
The values of an ordinal variable can be ordered but the differences between
these values cannot be interpreted in a meaningful way.
Example, for education level (none-primary education secondary education-
university degree), the differences between the values cannot be interpreted
Another example, the values for the satisfaction with a product (unsatisfied-
satisfied-very satisfied) can be ordered, but the differences between “unsatisfied-satisfied” and
“satisfied-very satisfied” cannot be compared in a numerical way.
  CONTINOUS SCALE
The values of a continuous variable can be ordered. Furthermore, the
differences between these values can be interpreted in a meaningful way.
For instance, the height of a person refers to a continuous variable because the values
can be ordered 170 cm, 171 cm, 172 cm,... and differences between these values can be
compared (the difference between 170 and 171 cm is the same as the difference between 171
and 172 cm)
Sometimes, the continuous scale is divided further into subscales.
o Interval Scale: With difference between values but not ratios
o Ratio Scale: Both differences and ratios can be interpreted
o Absolute (Count) Scale: Similar to ratio but values are in “natural” units

TABULATION & PRESENTATION OF DATA

 FREQUENCY
Refers to the number of times an event or observation happened in
an experiment or study. It is a statistical concept that measures how often a value or an
event occurs.

TYPES OF FREQUENCY
There are 2 types of frequency:
1.Absolute Frequency
2.Relative Frequency

1.Absolute Frequency
Absolute frequency refers to the number of times an event occurs in a given
dataset.
2.Relative Frequency
Relative frequency is the proportion of times that event occurs relative to the total
number of events in the dataset. (in percentage)
 CENTRAL TENDENCY
This helps you find the middle, or the average, of a dataset.
The 3 most common measures of central tendency are the mean,
median, and mode.
o MEAN - the sum of all values divided by the total number of values
o MEDIAN - the middle number in an ordered dataset
o MODE - the most frequent value
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
The introduction to a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for
the reader. It has several key goals:
o Present your topic and get the reader interested
o Provide background or summarize existing research
o Position your own approach
o Detail your specific research problem and problem statement
o Give an overview of the paper’s structure

Research paper introduction is the first section of a research paper that provides an
overview of the study, its purpose, and the research question(s) or hypothesis(es) being
investigated.
It typically includes background information about the topic, a review of previous
research in the field, and a statement of the research objectives.
The introduction is intended to provide the reader with a clear understanding of the
research problem, why it is important, and how the study will contribute to existing
knowledge in the field. It also sets the tone for the rest of the paper and helps to establish the
author’s credibility and expertise on the subject.

HOW TO WRITE A GOOD INTRODUCTION

 START WITH A HOOK - Begin your introduction with an attention-grabbing

statement, a question, or a surprising fact that will make the reader interested in
reading further.
 PROVIDE BACKGROUND INFORMATION - After the hook, provide background
information on the topic. This information should give the reader a general idea of
what the topic is about and why it is important.
 STATE THE RESEARCH PROBLEM - Clearly state the research problem or
question that the paper addresses. This should be done in a concise and
straightforward manner.
- After stating the research problem, clearly state the research objectives. This will
give the reader an idea of what the paper aims to achieve.
 PROVIDE A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PAPER - At the end of the introduction,
provide a brief overview of the paper. This should include a summary of the main
points that will be discussed in the paper.
 REVISE AND REFINE - Finally, revise and refine your introduction to ensure that it is
clear, concise, and engaging.
The introduction is written in present tense.
OVERALL, A GOOD INTRODUCTION PRESENTS WHY THE STUDY IS NEEDED.

PARTS OF INTRODUCTION
1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
2. RATIONALE
3. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
5. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
6. RESEARCH GAP
 7. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
8. SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The background of the study section furnishes the reader with historical
context and antecedent knowledge pertinent to the architectural thesis, fostering a deeper
understanding of the subject matter.
This section provides an overview of the topic of the research paper, including
relevant background information and any previous research that has been done on the
topic. It helps to give the reader a sense of the context for the study.

 RATIONALE
The rationale expounds the motives and reasons underpinning the selection of
the thesis topic, substantiating its significance and relevance within the realm of
architectural research.

 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The statement of the problem articulates the specific architectural inquiry that
the thesis endeavors to address, expounding its nature and scope.
This section identifies the specific problem or issue that the research paper is
addressing. It should be clear and concise, and it should articulate the gap in knowledge
that the study aims to fill.
This section also states the research question or hypothesis that the study
aims to answer. It should be specific and focused, and it should clearly connect to the
problem statement.

 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The objective of the study enumerates the precise aims and goals of the
architectural research, providing a clear and unambiguous direction for the
investigation

 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of the study section presents the broader implications and
relevance of the research in contributing to the discipline of architecture, its practical
applications, and the academic or professional community.
This section explains why the research is important and what the potential
implications of the study are. It should highlight the contribution that the research makes
to the field.

 RESEARCH GAP
 The research gap section identifies areas within the existing body of
knowledge where there is lack of information, explaining the void that the thesis seeks to
fill.

 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The conceptual framework visually and textually presents the key theoretical
constructs and interrelationships that underlie the architectural thesis, offering a structural
scaffold for the research.

 SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

The scope and delimitation section stipulates the confines and parameters of
the study, explicitly defining what is encompassed and excluded, thereby framing the
research within a specific boundary.