5 Screw Design

The optimum screw design depends on the poly- advantage of a general-purpose screw is that it can
mer being processed, throughput rate, mixing produce any product with any polymer and can be run
requirements, venting, and die design. Figure 5.1 is at any time on any extruder with minimal supervi-
an extruder and screw cross-section that shows the sion, equipment setup, or product attention during
melting mechanism, and polymer processes [1] pre- production. Unfortunately, in the real world, a screw
sented in Chapters 3 and 4. A well-designed screw is designed to run high-density polyethylene or poly-
critical to optimize productivity, extruder control, propylene does not work well with polycarbonate,
and product yields. Improper screw designs can lead polyethylene terephthalate, or nylon. A general-
to high-frequency instabilities caused by melt purpose screw designed to process all polymers does
temperature or pressure variations in the extruder. not exist. A given screw design may produce
High-frequency instabilities are defined as process a product with most polymers; however, the process
variations from 1 to 10 s or more. Although control is not optimized for maximum throughput rate with
systems with feedback loops can monitor and make a uniform stable melt temperature and pressure at
automatic corrections for temperature and pressure high throughput rates. If two extruders are available,
variations, high-frequency instabilities happen so it is better to produce materials that process well with
quickly that process control schemes cannot respond. a particular screw design on one machine and another
If the melt temperature varied every 5 s, barrel heater formulation that processes better with a different
temperature controllers cannot respond fast enough screw design on the second extruder. Assume that
to correct this problem. In addition, the extruder high-density polyethylene (HDPE) is run 80% of the
barrel, screw, and polymer system are too massive for time and polycarbonate (PC) 20% of the time; the
temperature changes to occur quickly. Changes screw that produces HDPE at the highest throughput
between set point and actual temperatures depend on rate with the most stable process and the highest yield
longer time frames. is used. When running PC, the screw can be replaced
Companies with extrusion operations are inter- with a screw designed for PC. If this is not practical
ested in purchasing general-purpose screws that because the PC run size is too small and/or the time to
process all their polymer formulations in the plant at change the screw is too long, group all the PC
high rates, with good yield, great temperature production together at one time and make enough
control, uniform mixing, and pumping capability to material for 3e6 months to justify the downtime
generate sufficient and uniform die pressure. The required to pull the screw and replace it with a PC

Figure 5.1 Cross-section of extruder

showing screw elements and polymer
processing.

Extrusion. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4377-3481-2.00005-3
Copyright Ó 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 71
72 E XTRUSION

screw. Assuming neither of these options is practical, L/D, leading to different throughput capabilities. In
run the PC production at a lower throughput rate, 1997, HPM introduced a 2.5-in. diameter extruder
obtaining the most stable process possible with the combining a high torque motor (500 hp) with
best yield. There is no such thing as a general- a 50:1 L/D and a 1000-rpm screw speed to produce
purpose screw that processes all polymer combina- 2000 lb/h. If the screw is designed to melt more
tions at high throughputs with a good polymer melt material than the extruder motor torque can process,
stability in high yields. If the screw is not optimum motor horsepower will limit the process output, never
for the material being processed, it is normally better allowing the extruder screw to operate at the
to run a lower throughput rate with a higher first- maximum efficiency.
quality yield than to run at high rates making If venting is required, a multistage screw can be
borderline-acceptable product or scrap. used. The vent port location determines the devola-
Several factors to consider when purchasing a new tilization section position on the screw. Screw design
screw include the following: specifications for the feed and metering section
channel depths in the first stage are based on motor

output requirements horsepower, feed type (powder versus pellet), and

venting requirements extruder L/D to properly melt a particular polymer at

feed section geometry the desired throughput rate. The second stage

metering section channel depth metering section is designed to provide sufficient

formulation being processed pumping capacity to maintain zero pressure in the

polymer rheology devolatilization zone; otherwise, polymer will flow
out of the vent port.
The total output capacity is determined more by If a grooved feed section is present, the screw
the extruder diameter, motor torque, and screw speed characteristics change considerably. Grooved feed
limits than by the screw design. A properly designed extruders have significantly higher solids conveying
screw allows the maximum screw speed with the rates, generating pressures in the feed section that are
motor torque capacity to produce the highest as high as 10,000e20,000 psi. Since the additional
throughput possible. Feed and metering channel solid (solid pellets in the grooved channels plus the
depths relate to how much material can be fed and original pellets in the screw channel) is fed into the
melted in the extruder with the available motor feed zone, the screw compression in the transition
torque. Figure 5.2 shows the output versus screw areas is reduced to ensure that the channel volume in
the screw metering section can handle the higher melt
volume. This leads to screw compression ratios
closer to 1.5:1 than to 3:1 or 4:1, preventing over-
feeding in the metering section. Due to the high
solids conveying in the feed section, it is not neces-
sary to have as efficient pumping in the metering
section to generate sufficient die pressure. High
output rates provide less time for efficient melting
and mixing. Therefore, very efficient mixing devices
are required to provide a homogeneous melt.
With smooth bore feed sections, the feedstock
bulk density is important in determining the feed
section channel depth. Bulk densities at least 50% of
the actual melt density are easily conveyed with feed
channel depths of 0.1e0.2 times the screw diameter
and compression ratios of 2:1e3:1. Feed material
Figure 5.2 Typical extruder throughput rates based
bulk density <50% of the melt or solid density
on screw diameter.
requires deeper feed channels and compression ratios
of the order of 3:1e5:1. Bulk densities <30% of the
diameter for a particular system. Most extruders have melt density may not extrude well without a crammer
differences in the motor torque, screw speed, and feeder coupled with a special screw design.
5: S CREW D ESIGN 73

The metering section design depends on the pump is used, a deeper channel in the screw metering
polymer rheological properties and the pressure section generates a higher throughput. Figure 5.5
required in the die. The optimum metering section
depth is dependent on matching the die restrictions to
the metering channel depth [2e4]. Figure 5.3 shows

Melt pump
Static mixer Screen chager
Die

Figure 5.5 Die, static mixer, melt pump, and screen

changer on display at NPE 2012. (For color version
of this figure, the reader is referred to the online
version of this books.)
shows from the right to the left a hydraulic screen
Figure 5.3 Effect of head pressure on output with changer, a melt pump, static mixer with the melt pipe
different die restrictions and metering channel depths. cut away and a sheet die. Figure 5.6 shows an opened
gear pump with herringbone gears.
the output versus the head pressure with different die
restrictions using either a deep or shallow metering
channel depth. A low restriction die, curve A, has
a higher output with a deep metering channel where it
intersects with curve D, compared to a shallow
channel depth screw where curves A and B intersect.
A high restriction die, curve C, has a higher
throughput with a shallow screw metering section
channel depth compared to a deep channel. If a gear
pump is used, the extruder screw does not need to
generate high pressure as the gear pump can provide
the required die pressure. Generally, when a gear

Optimum helix angle (°)

30
Figure 5.6 Open gear pump with herringbone gears.
25 (For color version of this figure, the reader is referred
to the online version of this books.)
20
Polymer rheology is an important property in
15 determining the appropriate screw design. For non-
Newtonian polymers, melt viscosity is a function of
10 the shear rate. However, all polymer melt viscosities
do not respond to the shear rate in the same manner.
5 The power law is the simplest representation of
pseudoplastic or shear thinning fluids over several
0 decades of shear. Most plastics exhibit a power law
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
index, n, of 0.25e0.90 (see Table 4.2 in Chapter 4).
Power law index
Low viscosity polymers require a shallow channel
Figure 5.4 Power law index versus optimum helix depth in the metering section to pump enough
angle in the metering section. material to the die at high pressure. Related to the
74 E XTRUSION

power law index, the optimum helix angle for the
screw flights in the transition section
screw flights in the metering section is shown in
screw flights in the metering section
Figure 5.4. Although numerous screws simply use
leading and trailing flight radii
a square pitch with a 17.66 helix angle, an optimum
single or multistage screw
helix angle in the metering section exists for each
mixing sections
polymer based on its power law index.
barrier flights
Pressure variations at the extruder end depend on
helix angle
the screw frequency or screw beat. Each time a flight
flight surface treatment
passes the feed throat, polymer flow is interrupted by
surface coating on screw
the flight, preventing the polymer from flowing freely
into the channel. Higher screw speeds generate Spalding [4] showed the importance of proper
a quicker screw beat. At 120 rpm, there are two beats leading and training flight radii on polymer degrada-
per second, whereas at 60 rpm, only one screw beat tion. He recommends that for the metering section and
per second occurs. Pressure variations also exist most materials, the radii should be at least half to three-
between the pushing and trailing flights on the screw.
These pressure variations are obvious in a pressure
versus time curve measured at the extruder end prior
to the breaker plate (see Figure 3.45 in Chapter 3).
Melt temperature variations occur in the extruder
where high viscous heat generation occurs. Since
plastics are great insulators and the extruder barrel
and screw mass are so large, it is difficult to remove
excess viscous heat from the polymer inside the Figure 5.7 Degradation at the pushing flight radius
extruder. Hot spots in the extruder, adapter, or die can for LLDPE and a 152.4-mm diameter extruder with
contribute to nonuniform melt temperatures, leading an 18-mm deep channel and a 5-mm flight radius.
to differences in viscosity and polymer flow. (For color version of this figure, the reader is referred
When purchasing a new screw with a different to the online version of this book.)
design for a current extruder or application, identify fourths the depth of the channel and up to about 2.5
the objectives to be accomplished with the new screw times the channel depth. Figure 5.7 from their article
that cannot be done with the current screw. Do not shows the degradation at the pushing flight radius for
change the screw design just to change screw designs LLDPE and a 152.4-mm diameter extruder with an
or because a supplier has approached you with the 18-mm-deep channel and a 5-mm flight radius.
newest and greatest technology that will solve all your It is important to use experience and supplier
extrusion problems. After outlining the objectives to recommendations to select the proper flight radii to
be accomplished with both the current and new avoid degradation in these low flow areas. Spirex
screws, go to the vendor’s laboratory and run tests. recommends in their “The Spirex Difference”! CD
Determine new screw performance with the resin [5] that the flight radii connecting the flight with the
system and product currently being used to verify that screw root should not be less than half of the flight
the predicted extruder performance is realized. A depth, up to 1-in. or 25-mm radius.
machine shop may be a suitable place to duplicate or
repair a screw; it is not necessarily the best place to
obtain a radically new screw design. When ordering 5.1 Barrier Screw
a new screw, the following variables are specified:
A so-called “standard” screw with a single flight is

extruder diameter a good conveyor of solid pellets in the feed section,

extruder manufacturer (needed to understand provides a uniform melt, and mixes most plastics. Its
extruder L/D, shank, and keyway specifications) limitations occur with difficult-to-melt polymers where

L/D

compression ratio
the screw controls the production rate (cannot

feed flight depth obtain higher rates because the screw cannot

screw flights in the feed section melt enough material)
5: S CREW D ESIGN 75

better mixing is required for improved product

homogenization

higher screw speeds generate too much viscous
heat

Figure 5.10 Barrier flight in transition section with

melt model.
Figure 5.8 Standard single flighted screw.
screw with the associated melting model. The barrier
Figure 5.8 shows a basic single flighted screw or secondary flight coming off the primary flight is
design, and Figure 5.9 shows a melting model slightly smaller in diameter, so molten polymer flows
across the flight and is collected in a separate melt
pool in the secondary channel. Solid remaining in the
primary channel becomes compressed against the
barrel wall, where viscous and conductive heating
continues to form a new melt film. There is no chance
of solid bed breakup, as the entire solid has to be
Figure 5.9 Melt model on single flighted screw.
melted and moved across the barrier or secondary
flight into the new channel before it can exit the
associated with the basic screw. The feed section starts transition zone. At the end of the transition zone, the
solid conveying and resin heating. In the transition primary flight and its channel completely disappear,
zone, the preheated resin is compressed against the and the secondary flight or the barrier flight that
barrel wall, resulting in solid sliding against the barrel formed the new secondary channel in the transition
wall. Combining this sliding friction with the barrel section becomes the only channel in the metering
conductive heating, a melt film is created at the section. All the polymer entering the metering
barrel surface. In the middle of the transition zone, section has to cross the barrier flight in the transition
with additional melting and compression, the polymer zone, preventing any solid from entering the meter-
is divided into three distinct areas: ing section. Barrier flights in the transition section are
designed to improve melting performance.

a compacted solid bed Figure 5.11 shows a melting model diagram

melt film at the barrel wall associated with a Spirex Meltpro screw. The advan-

polymer melt pool

In the transition zone, as the channel depth

decreases, there is the potential for solid bed breakup.
In the metering section, the plastic is pumped to the
Figure 5.11 Spirex Meltpro screw melting model and
discharge end. Potential problems occur if unmelted
transition section channel design.
pellets are floating in the melt from solid bed
breakup. Unmelted pellets in the metering section
cause nonuniform melt, poor color, or other additive tage of this barrier versus the one shown in
mixing, and inferior properties. Laminar polymer Figure 5.10 is that the solid bed width is kept as wide
flow in the metering channel leads to poor mixing. as possible. Melting capacity, discussed in Chapter 4,
Melting efficiency can be improved by using is directly related to the solid bed width (the wider the
multiple flights in the transition section with more solid bed, the higher the melting rate). The solid is
flight clearance between the barrel wall and the compressed in the transition section as the channel
secondary flight. Barrier flights improve the melting becomes shallower, keeping the solid against the
efficiency while eliminating solid bed breakup. barrel wall. Melt collects in the secondary channel,
Figure 5.10 shows the transition section of a barrier which becomes progressively deeper as the channel
76 E XTRUSION

depth in the melt section gets shallower. In the available in the transition section, they all improve
metering zone, the secondary channel formed by the the melting capacity and eliminate solid bed breakup.
barrier flight is transformed to the normal channel Barriers in the metering section are designed to
width and depth. improve mixing, as all melt exiting the extruder must
Other transition barrier flights are shown in flow across the barrier to provide dispersive and/or
Figure 5.12. Although many barrier designs are distributive mixing. Screws with no barrier in the

Figure 5.12 Transition section barriers [6].

5: S CREW D ESIGN 77

transition section but having a barrier in the metering

section prevent any solid resulting from solid bed
breakup from reaching the die. Barriers in both the
transition and metering section are designed to
provide efficient melting and good mixing.
Figure 5.13 shows a barrier in the metering section.

Figure 5.15 Dulmage mixing section.

A Flex flight mixing screw patented by Spirex

Figure 5.13 Barrier in metering section for mixing.
Corporation is useful for both distributive and
dispersive mixing. A barrier flight that is not parallel
5.2 Mixing Screw to the primary flight is introduced in the metering
section (Figure 5.16). The barrier creates two chan-
There are many patented mixing sections intended
to provide dispersive mixing, distributive mixing, or
both. Some screw elements were covered briefly in
Chapter 4. The best mixing section to use depends on
the process, the rate, and the materials being mixed.
A PulsarÒ mixing section from Spirex Corpora-
tion is shown in Figure 5.14. This mixing section is

Figure 5.16 Spirex Flex flight mixing section [6].

Source: Plasticating Components Technology, Spirex
Ò Corporation, Youngstown, OH, 1977.
Figure 5.14 Pulsar mixing section from Spirex
Corporation.
nels of a constantly changing width within the orig-
touted to be particularly effective with temperature- inal channel width. Molten resin is squeezed over the
sensitive resins such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC). barrier as the channel width decreases into the wider
The metering channel is divided into alternating channel, causing a tumbling and mixing action.
sections that are deeper or shallower than the average Optimization for different resins is obtained by
metering channel depth. Molten polymer is moved changing the clearance between the barrier flight and
from one channel to another as it is pumped through the barrel wall. The Flex flight eliminates the high
the metering section. Constant directional changes shear area normally associated with a barrier screw,
provide excellent mixing and melt uniformity. As because the primary flight never ends in the transition
with all good mixing sections, there are no dead to a secondary channel or barrier flight. One distinct
spots. advantage of the Flex flight is that it can be added to
A Dulmage mixing section, named after Fred an existing screw by welding the flight into the
Dulmage of The Dow Chemical Company, is shown in metering section.
Figure 5.15. A Dulmage mixing section can be at the Mixing pins were one of the first distributive
screw end or incorporated as an integral part of the mixers due to the ease of inserting metal dowel pins
screw, normally several flights from the discharge end. radially in the root of an existing screw in a plant
Multiple Dulmage sections provide discharge and environment. Screws did not have to be sent to
recombination many times to improve distributive a fabricator or machine shop. The second advantage
mixing. Dulmage mixers are frequently used in foam is that the processing effect on the product can be
processing. determined almost immediately. Pins interrupt the
78 E XTRUSION

laminar flow in the channel by dividing and recom- screw end to provide time to dissipate the shear heat
bining the melt. Typical pin arrangement may have generated by the polymer crossing the discharge
a row of pins at the entrance to the metering section, land. Maddock mixing sections also come in Spiral
a second group halfway through the metering section Maddock, where the channels rotate partway around
length, and finally a row of pins one flight before the the screw rather than being parallel to the screw axis,
screw end. Figure 5.17 shows a screw with three sets as shown in Figure 5.18.
of pins in the metering section. A Saxton mixer is a good distributive mixer
developed by Ronald Saxton in 1961. A melt channel
going in the opposite direction interrupts secondary
flights with a different helix angle than the primary
flight. The dividing and recombining of the melt
stream make this an efficient distributive mixer.
Flighted interruptions do prevent positive forward
Figure 5.17 Pin mixers. conveyance of the melt stream. The total number of
minor flights can be modified to vary the mixing for
different applications. Figure 5.19 shows two draw-
A Maddock mixer, developed by Bruce Maddock
ings of a Saxton mixer.
of Union Carbide Corporation, is also called a Union
Carbide mixer or Leroy mixer. The mixer is a series
of grooves parallel to the screw length that are open
on alternating ends to the feed and discharge. Melt is
pumped from the metering section into one groove,
where it passes over a barrier and exits from the
discharge groove toward the die. The barrier radial
clearance to the barrier wall between the entrance
and discharge groove is greater than the normal flight
clearance. The radial clearance between the
discharge groove and the next entrance groove is the
same as the screw flight clearance. The barrier lands Figure 5.19 Saxton mixers [6].
are called mixing or discharge lands, while the land Source: Plasticating Components Technology, Spirex
between the discharge and next entrance land is Corporation, Youngstown, OH, 1977.
called the wiping land, as it wipes the barrel clean of
polymer. Polymer going across the discharge land
Double and triple wave screws are patented by
is subject to high shear, generating significant
HPM Corporation. The double and triple waves have
viscous heat as the polymer is mixed. Figure 5.18
two and three equal channel widths, respectively,
within the main channel, separated by a barrier flight
between the channels. The melt moves back and forth
across the barrier between the deep and shallow
section in a particular channel, making up the wave.
The wave can be in the transition section to improve
the melting efficiency and/or in the metering section
to improve both the distributive and dispersive mixing
[8]. In the metering section, good melt homogeniza-
tion and mixing occur, with the compressing wave
Figure 5.18 Maddock mixer at end of screw and in moving the melt across the barrier into the neigh-
the metering section [7]. boring channel. When the second channel wave
Source: Feedscrews, Davis-Standard Corporation,
compresses the melt, it moves back across the barrier.
Pawcatuck, CT, 1997.
This action reduces the work on the melt, resulting in
better temperature control. Wave screws were origi-
shows a Maddock mixer at the screw end. Frequently, nally designed for rigid PVC, but have found use in all
a Maddock mixer may be incorporated before the applications. Figure 5.20 shows a double wave screw.
5: S CREW D ESIGN 79

Ò
Figure 5.22 Barr E.T. melting section.

supplier has done internal studies and development

Figure 5.20 Double wave screw from HPM [8]. work to define their “optimum screw design”. The
Source: Plastics Tech., June 1981, p. 15. optimum screw for your plant depends on the
following:
A double or triple wave through the transition and

the polymer being processed
metering section can be combined with a dispersive

die design
mixer, e.g. a Maddock, near the screw end to provide

melt temperature
more mixing if required by the application.

throughput rate
A Spirex Z mixer, shown in Figure 5.21 [6], has

melt pressure
primary flights interrupted by shallow plateaus that
Trials with new screw designs are recommended
before purchase to verify that the screw design
selected meets your processing demands.
New screw designs are modeled by a computer to
predict the output rate, melt temperature, and die
pressure. The appropriate screw design for your
application depends on past experiences, experi-
mental trials to support computer modeling, output
Figure 5.21 Spirex Corporation Z mixer. stability tests, melt limitations, and extruder venting.
It is possible to process only the polymer that can be
move the melt up and down between shallow and effectively melted in the transition section. If the
deep valleys in the metering section. Interruptions in transition section is too short, excessive shear heat
the primary flights allow the polymer to flow from can be generated as the screw overfeeds the metering
one primary valley to another, providing distributive section because the entire polymer is not melted.
mixing among the many valleys. Polymer factors affecting screw design are as
A Barr E.T.Ò screw (Figure 5.22) has a patented follows:
low shear mixing geometry in the metering section.
Approximately 70e80% of the polymer is melted by
melt viscosity
high shear, and the remaining solid is melted in the
melting rate (determined by heat capacity and
E.T.Ò section. Utilizing the natural drag force of thermal conductivity)
screw rotation, the remaining pellets are mixed with
solids conveying rate (friction factor)
the hotter melt. Heat conducted from the hotter melt
lubricants in the polymer or formulation
to the remaining pellets completes the melting
material flow in the feed hopper
process at low shear rates. This allows a lower melt
bulk density
temperature and a higher energy efficiency.
polymer temperature limitations
Many other mixing elements and screw types are
any chemical or physical changes occurring
available from screw and extruder suppliers. Each during processing
80 E XTRUSION

5.3 Screw Wear a momentary weld between the two surfaces. As the
weld separates, metal is removed. This metal can
There are many factors affecting screw and barrel slide on the screw root, causing abrasive wear of the
wear [9]: screw root. Proper extruder alignment along with
compatible barrel and screw materials can virtually

cold starting the extruder screw eliminate adhesive wear between the barrel and

running the screw with no plastic present screw flights.

processing the wrong material (corrosive poly- Minimizing wear depends on identifying the
mer on a screw not designed for corrosive wearing mechanism and eliminating the root cause.
material) Screw surface modification to minimize abrasive

nonuniform barrel heating wear is accomplished by welding harder materials to

poor barrel support the screw surface, surface treatment of the base

improper screw, barrel, and drive alignment material, plating with nickel or chrome, or spraying

screw straightness hard alloys onto the surface. Base materials used for

abrasive additives or reinforcements in the poly- most screws include the following:
mer formulation

wrong screw or barrel materials
alloy steels (AISI 4140, AISI 4340, and Nitral-

excessive die weight on the end of the barrel loy 135-M)

corrosion caused by polymer and/or additive
tool steel (CPM-10V, CPM-T440V, CPM-9V,
degradation D-2, and H-13)

stainless steel (304, 316, 17-4 PH, and 15-5 PH)
The three screw wear mechanisms are as follows:
specialty high-temperature metals (Duranickel
301, Inconel 718, and Hastelloy C-276)

abrasive

corrosive Many alloys can be welded to the flights to prevent

adhesive or reduce flight wear. With very abrasive fillers, e.g.
glass fibers, cost justification exists to weld hard
Abrasive wear is caused by continuous contact of materials to the screw root, and sides of flights in the
hard abrasive particles (e.g. glass fibers, glass-filled feed and transition zones. Due to the nature of
materials, silica, calcium carbonate, talc, and flame adhesive wear, hard surface coated materials (e.g.
retardants) with the screw at a high temperature and Stellite-6, Stellite 12, Colmonoy 6, Colmonoy 56,
pressure. Particle size, shape, hardness, and loading Colmonoy 83, Colmonoy 88, Coltung 1, Certanium
directly correlate to the degree and rate of abrasive 27B, and Stody 101HC) are welded to the top of the
wear. Screw hardness is critical to minimize abrasive screw flights to form a wear-resistant surface in
wear. Glass fibers wear the screw root at the pushing contact with the extruder barrel.
flight edge in the transition and feed sections. Surface treatments coat the entire screw, not just
Corrosive wear is caused by the chemical attack of the top of the flights. Surface treatments improve
any component in the formulation to the screw root, both wear and corrosion resistance, but they are not
resulting in a pitted surface. Chemicals attacking the as effective in treating wear as welding hardened
screw root can come from polymer degradation, alloys to the surface. The driving factor is cost,
flame retardant additives, fluorinated polymers, etc. with surface treatment being significantly less
Normally, chemical attack is in the metering section, expensive than welding alloys to screw flights or
where the formulation is at its highest temperature surfaces. Surface treatments include nitriding,
for the longest time, creating a higher possibility of flame hardening, age hardening, Dynablue, and ion
degradation products for chemical attack. Chemical nitriding. Table 5.1 compares different surface
attack may remove coatings designed to minimize treatments.
abrasive wear and eat into the screw base material. Screw surface plating is done with chrome,
Adhesive attack results from metalemetal contact nickel, or Nye-CarbÒ (silicon carbide particles
leading to galling. Screw rotation can cause suspended in a nickelephosphorous matrix) to
momentary contact between the screw flight and the reduce corrosion or improve processing. Chrome is
barrel wall at high pressures, resulting in the most common plating material and is deposited
5: S CREW D ESIGN 81

Table 5.1 Comparison of Surface Treatments [10]

Hardness Hardness Abrasive Corrosion Adhesive

Method Cost
(Rockwell C) Depth (in.) Resistance Resistance Resistance
Nitriding 60e70 0.010e0.030 C 8 5 7
Dynablue 65e70 0.005e0.010 C 10 6 8
Ion >70 0.010e0.030 1.75C 10 6 8
nitriding
Flame 50e55 0.015e0.250 0.5C 5 4 5
hardening
Age 35e45 Fully hard 4C 8 8 8
hardening
Comparison number based on 10 ¼ best, 1 ¼ worst; C ¼ average cost of nitriding.
Source: V. Anand, K. Das, Plastics Machinery & Equipment, December 1993, p. 21.

on the screw root and the flight sides from 0.001 to Table 5.2 shows some common polymers with their
0.0015 in. thick. Wear resistance improvement abrasive and corrosive characteristics toward screws
from chrome is minimal; most chrome plating is and barrels, recommended screw flight material, and
done to facilitate screw cleaning. Corrosion resis- hard flight facing. Screw and barrel materials need to
tance is not significantly improved because chrome be matched to obtain optimum wear resistance. The
has microporosity. Nickel plating provides about correct screw material combination for a given poly-
the same results as chrome does, with the exception mer may not be the same when compounding glass
of improved corrosion resistance to fluoropolymers. fibers into that same polymer matrix.
Nickel is normally applied using the electroless
nickel process, providing a denser coating and
better corrosion resistance than plating. Electro 5.3.1 Worn Screws
Coating Inc. of Houston, Texas, patented the Nye- A new screw needs to be benchmarked with
Carb process, which works with small diameter a given resin formulation when it is first installed in
screws. the extruder. Generate graphs that show how the
Spraying hard surfacing alloys onto the screw root screw speed with a given temperature profile affects
and sides of the flights works well with new screws, throughput rate, melt temperatures, head pressure
but it is not economical to do with rebuilt screws generated with a standard die configuration, motor
because the entire initial surfacing alloy must be load, and melt stability over time. Wagner [11] gives
removed. Many alloys can be sprayed onto the screw, a method for characterizing single screw extruder
including U-car, high velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF), and performance. Periodically, the screw needs to be
powder flame spray. U-car is a patented process from benchmarked with the same resin formulation and
Union Carbide Corporation in which different alloys extruder configuration to determine if any process
are applied to the screw root with a D-gun that shoots variations from the original parameters are occurring
the powder alloys at hypersonic speed, producing due to screw wear. It is not always necessary to shut
bonding on impact. The HVOF process uses fuel gas down the extrusion system to measure performance.
and oxygen combustion to accelerate powder at One can use production data that focus on metrics
supersonic speeds before impinging on the screw such as pounds produced per time divided by extruder
root. Powder flame spray introduces the alloy powder revolutions per minute to track extrusion efficiency
into a burning oxygen-fuel gas stream, where the over time. Just measuring screw diameter for wear is
heated particles are carried by flame to the screw not sufficient. Minor wear may actually produce
root. Although this is the most common method used higher output and better operating conditions. While
for spraying hard alloys onto the screw root, it is throughput reduction is the primary result of screw
inferior to either U-car or HVOF because the bond to wear, melt and pressure stability may be as critical in
the screw root is not as strong. producing repeatable high tolerance products. If the
82 E XTRUSION

Table 5.2 Polymer Characteristics and Screw Materials

Flight Hardening
Polymer Abrasiveness Corrosiveness Base Material
Material
Nylon 6, LDPE Soft Not corrosive AISI 4140 Stellite 12, flame
hardened to 50 RC
Flexible PVC Soft Medium AISI 4140 Stellite 12
FEP Soft High Inconel 718; Hastelloy Stellite 12, age hardened
C-276; AISI 4140 to 39e42 RC
HDPE, PP, GP Medium Not corrosive AISI 4140 Colomony 56
PS
Rigid PVC Medium Medium AISI 4140; Nitralloy 135M Colomony 56
High loadings Medium High Inconel 718; Hastelloy Colomony 56, age
FR C-276 hardened to 39e43 RC
Glass filled High Not corrosive CPM-9V/10V; AISI D2 Heat treated to 39e43
RC
Clay filled PVC High Medium Nitralloy 135M Coltung 1
PTFE/TFE High High AISI 4140 Coltung 1
filled
PVC, polyvinyl chloride; HDPE, high-density polyethylene; PP, polypropylene.

melt pressure and temperature vary as a result of

screw wear, output stability will deviate from the
current mean, resulting in a higher standard deviation
associated with product dimensions. A process that
was in control, based on statistical process control
(SPC) data and 3 or 6 sigma capability, may become
out of control, or the process deviations may produce
more data near the upper or lower control limits. Over
time, a worn screw or barrel may turn a stable process
into a process that is just barely capable, or in some
cases a process that is incapable of producing the
product within SPC limits.
Figure 5.23(a) shows one way to measure screw
diameter wear with a micrometer and gauge block.
Another way is to use a special micrometer that has
the gauge block attached to the micrometer anvil.
Figure 5.23(b) shows the standard and digital screw
flight micrometer with an anvil bar as offered by
Plastic Process Equipment, Inc.
Screw root diameter can be measured directly with
the micrometer across the root or using a screw
channel depth measuring tool as shown in
Figure 3.17. A bent screw is sometimes difficult to
determine. Place the screw across a flat granite table
Figure 5.23 (a) Measuring screw wear with gauge
and measure the space beneath the screw as it is
block and micrometer. (b) Standard and digital screw
rolled across the table. If the screw is bent and raised
flight micrometer with an anvil bar by Plastic Process
off the granite table, the bending can be measured
Equipment, Inc.
with a feeler gauge. Verify that the distance between
5: S CREW D ESIGN 83

Table 5.3 Wexco Inlay Recommendations for Different Wear Environments

Wexco Inlay Wear Environments

Corrosion Resistant Alloys
555
Nickel base alloy with high chromium
Medium corrosion
for corrosion resistance against
Moderate abrasion
hydrochloric and other acids.

Dual-phase microstructure with
complex borides that provide excel-
lent wear resistance.

Rockwell C 50e55.

Meets FDA guidelines for suitable
bore materials for processing plas-
tics in food, medical, and pharma-
ceutical applications.
BO-22
For processing fluoropolymers and
Severe corrosion
other severely corrosive resins.
Medium abrasion

Nickel-rich, boron-base alloy that
Fluoropolymer and
contains molybdenum, chrome, and processes
is nickel enriched with complex containing halogens
borides and carbides.

High-temperature hardness
above Rockwell C 50 at 700  F.

BO-22 bimetallic liners are made
using a low-temperature hot
isostatic pressing process that allows
for an iron-free liner with no
porosities.

Molybdenum and its alloying
elements are superior in corrosion
resistance against halogen contain-
ing elements. This reduces the acid
attack on the liner as compared with
conventional nickelecobalt liners
made by competing manufacturers.

Meets FDA guidelines for suitable
bore materials for processing plas-
tics in food, medical, and pharma-
ceutical applications.
General-Purpose Alloys
CPM-10V
Lined Wexco bimetal tool steel cylin-
Moderate to heavy abrasion
ders combine an abrasion resistant
50-mm bore diameter
through-hardened crucible vanadium sizes
tool steel with Wexco’s patented
single-piece, nonsegmented liner
construction (patent # 6887322B2).
(Continued )
84 E XTRUSION

Table 5.3 Wexco Inlay Recommendations for Different Wear Environments (Continued )

Wexco Inlay Wear Environments

General-purpose applications up to
glass-filled abrasion conditions in
50-mm bore sizes.
666
Tough general-purpose nickel
General-purpose
echrome alloy liner with boron and
Moderate abrasion
silicon hardening agents.

Mild corrosion

Four times service life of nitride
barrels.

Rockwell C 60e63.
Dura 686XL (patent
Proprietary alloy chemistry formu-
Heavy duty general-purpose
pending) lated for high speed applications in
High screw speed
blow mold and injection molding
machinery.
Abrasion

Can be used for any molding or
Mild corrosion

extrusion applications for greater
durability versus a standard lining.
Heavy Duty Tungsten Carbide Alloys
777-Durocast
Durocast spherical-shaped
Heavy duty abrasion
tungstenecarbide alloy bound in
Medium corrosion
a chromiumenickel matrix to provide
superior abrasion and corrosion wear
In glass-filled resin
resistance. applications

Typically provides up to three times

the life of standard iron boron alloys
and up to eight times the wear life of
standard nitride type barrels.

Rockwell C 65 with microhardness
beyond C 70.

Meets FDA guidelines for suitable
bore materials for processing plas-
tics in food, medical, and pharma-
ceutical applications.
Durocast premium
Combines the 777 spherical tungsten
Heavy duty abrasion
carbide alloy with a 0.010 in.,
Medium corrosion
5-year wear guarantee from the date
sold.
0.010 in., 5-year wear
guarantee
The term “bimetallic” indicates that two different metals are inseparably bonded together in a high-temperature furnace. The two metals are
heated in a controlled furnace to temperatures >2000  F. After the inner alloy is melted, the cylinder is removed from the furnace and placed
onto centrifugal casting rolls with high velocity rotation to give a uniform inlay dispersion, density, thickness, and hardness. Subsequent
controlled cooling prevents distortion and transforms the metallic structure into a super hard uniform lining in the cylinder bore that is later
precision honed to ID specifications. Typical inlay thickness is 0.050 in. Double and triple inlay thicknesses are available for specific
applications. Wexco also offers several spun cast barrel-lining alloys (inlay) and bimetallic options that are produced through hot Isostatic
pressing (HIP) and single-piece CPM-10V Ò lined cylinders.
5: S CREW D ESIGN 85

Table 5.4 Typical Screw Compression Ratios 5.5 Screw Performance [13]
for Commercial Polymers
There is no such thing as a general-purpose screw
Material Compression Rate that processes all materials at peak efficiency. Some
ABS 2.75:1 general-purpose screws may run one polymer or
Nylon 6 3.9:1 formulation at optimum rates with good melt
stability, while the second polymer must be run at
Nylon 6,6 3.6:1
lower rates to produce an acceptable product. Work
LDPE 3.5:1 done by Ed Steward while at Davis-Standard [1,3]
LLDPE Variable pitch shows how different screw characteristics effect
HDPE 3.0:1 output rate and melt temperature. The second part of
his study quantified the effect of five different barrier
PMMA 1.8:1
screws and two single flighted screws, one with
PP 3.0:1 a Maddock mixer and the other with mixing pins with
Flexible PVC 3.0:1 HDPE and high impact polystyrene (HIPS). The
Rigid PVC 2.5:1 results in Figures 5.24 and 5.25 show output and
HIPS 3:1
PC 2.25:1
PET 3.25:1
PBT 2.5:1
NorylÒ 2.1:1
Ò
Ultem 2.1:1
Fluoropolymers 3.0:1
ABS, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene; HDPE, high-density
polyethylene; PP, polypropylene; PVC, polyvinyl chloride;
HIPS, high impact polystyrene; PC, polycarbonate; PBT,
polybutylene terephthalate; PET, polyethylene
terephthalate; PMMA, polymethyl methacrylate.

Figure 5.24 Screw design versus output.

the screw and table is actually the screw bending and
pressure stability of a 2.5-in. extruder run at 150 rpm.
not screw flight wear.
Based on the data presented, the best screw design
(best balance between throughput and pressure vari-
ation) for HDPE is B1, while the best screw for HIPS
5.4 Screw Compression Ratios
Table 5.4 lists the recommended screw compres-
sion ratios for some common commercial polymers.

5.4.1 Corrosion
Corrosion can be a major problem with some
polymers. PVC and polyvinylidine chloride (PVDC)
or SaranÓ are known to create hydrogen chloride
(HCl) when they degrade. Special metals are used for
the screw and barrel for extruding PVDC. Wexco is
one company that provides wear and corrosion
resistant coating for screws and barrels. Table 5.3 has
the Wexco inlay recommendations for different wear
environments [12]. Figure 5.25 Screw design versus pressure stability.
86 E XTRUSION

is B2. B4 yields not only the highest throughput with The optimum screw design is the one that processes
HDPE but also the largest pressure variation. Using several polymers at high throughput, good melt
B4 with HIPS yields a high throughput and very low stability, and maximum yield while allowing any
pressure variation. Selecting one screw design to other formulations to be processed under stable
process both materials, the best choice is probably conditions with high yields.
B2, even though the HDPE throughput is lower.
However, if the extrusion line processed 70% HDPE
and 30% HIPS, the optimum screw design compro- References
mise is probably B1, due to the higher throughput and
better melt stability process with HDPE. [1] R. Barr, Plast Eng (January, 1981) 37.
[2] C. Rauwendaal, Polymer Extrusion, third ed.,
Hanser Publishing, 1994.
5.6 Summary [3] L. Sansone, November 1e3, 1997. SPE Proces-
sors Conference Notes, Columbus, OH.
Screw design and screw selection depend on the [4] M.A. Spalding, J. Dooley, K.S. Hyun, The Effect
following criteria: of Flight Rail Size on the Performance of Single-
Screw Extruders, ANTEC99 Society of Plastics

polymer to be processed Engineers.

throughput rate [5] Spirex, The Spirex Difference! Spirex Corp

output stability (melt pressure and temperature SPX-899e23.
stability) required for the application [6] Plasticating Components Technology, Spirex

pressure development in the die Corporation, Youngstown, OH, 1977.

polymer melt temperature limitations [7] Feedscrews, Davis-Standard Corporation, Paw-

distributive and/or dispersive mixing efficiency catuck, CT, 1997.
required for the resin formulation being [8] Plastics Tech., June, 1981, p. 15.
processed [9] The Davis-Standard Profit Protection Plan for

power usage Plastic Processors, Davis-Standard Special
Report, Pawcatuck, CT. Circa 1988.
Screw design selection determines the overall [10] V. Anand, K. Das, December, 1993. Plastics
extrusion process capability. A poor screw design or Machinery & Equipment, p. 21.
worn screw costs money in both performance and effi- [11] J.R. Wagner Jr., in: SPE Guide on Extrusion
ciency. Payback time for a new screw or properly Technology and Troubleshooting, Society of
designed screw might be significant. Since an overall Plastics Engineers, Brookfield, CT, 2001
general-purpose screw does not exist to process all (Chapter 7).
polymers, changing screws from one job to the next may [12] http://www.wexco.com/product_singlescrew.
make economic sense, depending on the following: php.
[13] E. Steward, Screw Performance & Application,

time required to change the screw Davis-Standard, Pawcatuck, CT, Circa 1988.

extruder size (dictates time to change screw) [14] Plastics World, January, 1993, p. 52H.

cleanup required between screw changes [15] V. Anand, K. Das, November, 1993. Plastics

production run size versus improved efficiency Machinery & Equipment, p. 27.
with a different screw [16] Economic Losses from Worn Screws, Presented
by Davis-Standard, 53rd Annual Convention of
If more than one product is processed on an Wire Association International, Atlanta, GA,
extruder, screw design will always be a compromise. November, 1983.
5: S CREW D ESIGN 87

Review Questions
1. What parameters need to be specified when ordering a screw?
2. Where is the barrier located on a barrier screw and why?
3. What is the typical compression ratio used with a grooved feed throat and why?
4. What are the two types of mixing screws?
5. What causes screw or barrel wear?
6. Explain the relationship of throughput to screw channel depth in the metering section of the screw and
the effect of die restriction.
7. Why purchase a new screw or new screw design?
8. Explain how a barrier in the transition section works, its function, and in your opinion the best barrier
design and why.
9. What mixers do you use for distributive mixing?
10. What mixers work for both distributive and dispersive mixing?
11. Are there any mixers that are designed just for dispersive mixing, and if so what are they?
12. What are some screw hardening techniques and surface hardening procedures?
13. How do you measure screw and barrel wear?