MACROMOLECULES

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Macromolecules
Introduction Structure of Polymers

“The large size molecules with are formed A polymers is a large molecule build up by
by the combination of small repeating the repetition of small and simple chemical
units called monomers are called units known as monomers. On the basis of
macromolecules or polymers ", structure, there are three types
of polymers.
The idea of macromolecules was given by
Staudinger in 1920. He proposed the long Linear Polymers
chain formula for polystyrene rubber and If monomer combine along one direction
polyoxymethylene. only, they from straight chain polymer or
linear polymers. e.g., polyethylene.
Polymerization:
“The process in which smaller molecules CH₂ = CH₂ — CH₂ — CH₂ — [CH₂— CH₂]
or monomers combine together to form Ethylene Monomer of
Ethylene
bigger molecules is called
polymerization”.

The word “poly” means “many” and “mer”

means “unit” or “parts”.
Polymers are largely used in our daily life.
Artificial fiber, (Nylon, polyester, orlon,
dacron, rubber, plastic are all polymers.
The world would be totally different
without plastic or artificial fibers.
Linear Polymers
The natural materials have been replaced
by the polymers. For example, wood and
cotton have been replaced by the plastic Branched Polymers
and synthetic fibers. It is better or worse “Polymers with branches at irregular
but we are living in “plastic society”. If we intervals along the polymer chain are called
see the things which are present in out branched-polymers”.
room, we can say we cannot live without
plastic. Many things like TV set, telephone Due to branches, polymer does not have a
set, electrical wires insulation cusion, mat, proper arrangement and it is less crystalline
curtains, switches, plastic basket, etc are in nature.
all polymers., mat, curtains, switches,
plastic basket, etc are all polymers.

Classification of Macromolecules

Macromolecules can be classified in the

following ways:

Macromolecules
Branched Polymers

Inorganic Organic

Giant molecules
(Diamond, Biopolymers, Synthetic
Graphite, silicones Lipids, proteins, polymers,plastic
and Sand) carbohydrates & synthetic fibers,
nuclei acids etc Rubber etc

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Cross-linked Polymers

If chains of the polymers are connected

themselves by small branches (as shown
in figure) are called cross- linked polymers.

Cross-linked Polymers

Degree of Polymerization
“The length of the polymer chain is
specified by the number of repeating units
in the chain known as the degree of
polymerization (DP).” For example, in
linear polythene.

— CH₂ — CH₂ — CH₂ — CH₂ — CH₂

The repeating units is — (CH₂ — CH₂)ₙ —

where n is a large number and it is degree
of polymerization.

Molecular Mass of Polymers

“The molecular mass of the polymers is
the product of the molecular mass of the
repeating unit and the DP.” For example,
polyvinyl chloride, a polymer of DP 1000 =
Mol . mass of the molecular mass.
— (CH₂ — CH₂)ₙ

CI 63 x 1000 = 63000

Most high molecular mass polymers are

useful for making plastics, rubbers or
fibers, etc and have molecular masses
between 10,000 to 1,000,000. The
properties of polymeric materials vary
widely, depending upon the chemical
composition, structure of the
macromolecule and degree of
polymerization.

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Types Of Polymers On
The Basis Of Nature Of
Monomers
Homopolymers Thermosetting Plastic Polymer
“If a polymers is formed by the single type “The polymers which become hard on
of monomers, it is called homopolymer.” heating and cannot be softened again
For example, polyethylene, polyvinyl are called thermosetting polymers. A
chloride polyvinyl acetate polystyrene etc. thermosetting polymer, on varnish, epoxy
Structure of polyvinyl acetate is given resins, bakelite. ” etc.
below.
Thermosetting plastic are usually cross-
Free redical linked polymers. Once cross-links forms,
CH₂ = CH vinyl polymerization
[—CH₂—CH—]ₙ
these polymers take the shape that
O O cannot be changed without destroying
the plastic.
C =O C =O

CH₃ CH₃
Vinly accetate Poly(vinly accetate)
Homopolymers my also be represented as:
[ ....... — A — A — A — A — A — A — A..... ].
Copolymers

“A polymer which is formed by the

combination of two types of monomers is
called copolymer.” For example, vinyl
acetate and Butyl maleate combine
together to give copolymer.
OCOCH₃ OCOBᵤ OCOBᵤ

ₙ CH₂ = CH + ₙ CH = CH
OCOCH₃ OCOBᵤ OCOBᵤ

[ — CH₂ — CH — CH — CH — ].
(Where Bᵤ is abbreviation of butyl C₄H₉—)
A regular copolymer may be represented
as:
[.....— A— B — A — B — A — B — A — B...]

Thermoplastic Polymers
“A plastic which can be softened
repeatedly when heated and hardened
on cooling with a little change in
properties are called thermoplastics” e.g.,

Polyvinyl chloride, polyethlene, etc, linear

and branched polymers form a class of
material called thermoplastics, these
materials can be molded and remolded.

Other examples are Nylon, Polystyrene.

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Polymerization Process R

The process of forming polymers from Termination

monomers is known as polymerization. (— CH₂ — CH•)ₙ + R• (—CH₂ — CH)ₙ
They are two mode of polymerization
given by W.H Carothers in 1929. C₆H₅ C₆H₅
Additional polymerization
Condensational polymerization Additional polymers have same empirical
formula as their monomers. They are
Additional polymerization linear or branched and are thermoplastic.

“The polymers which are formed by the Condensational Polymerization

repeated addition of monomers is called “The polymer which is formed by the
addition polymer.” Monomers are reactions of different types of monomers
unsaturated compounds and commonly with the elimination of H>O or other
derivatives of ethene. smaller molecule like NH₃ , HCI or CH₃0H
is called condensational polymer.”
Addition polymerization have chain
reaction free radical mechanism. This Condensation takes place at the both ends
mechanism have three steps; initiation, of the growing chain. For example;
propagation and termination. polyester, Bakelite, Nylon 66, etc. are
Polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl examples of condensational polymers.
acetate or polystyrene are example of
additional polymerization. Mechanism of Terephthalic acid reacts with ethylene
polystyrene formation below. glycol and they form a polyester called
Dacron. O

Initiation ₙHO—CH₂OH+ₙHO—C C—OH

Ethylene glycol
R• + CH = CH₂ R — CH₂ — CH• Terephthalic acid
O O

C₆H₅ C₆H₅ [—O—CH₂—CH₂—O—C C—OH—]ₙ

Styrene
Dacron(polyester) +ₙH₂O

Propagation Water molecules are formed bye reacting

R—CH₂—CH•+CH₂=CH hydroxyl group of glycol and hydrogen
RCH₂—CH—CH₂—CH• of terephthalic acid. Condensational
polymers are usually cross linked and
C₆H₅ C₆H₅
thermosetting in nature.
C₆H₅ C₆H₅
R—CH₂—CH—CH₂—CH•+CH₂= CH

C₆H₅ C₆H₅ C₆H₅

R—CH₂—CH—CH₂—CH•+CH₂= CH

C₆H₅ C₆H₅ C₆H₅

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Some Examples of
Synthethic Polymers
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) OCOCH₃

It is an additional polymer, obtained by CH₂= CH=COOH CH₂= C — CH₃ CH₂= CH — CN

polymerization of vinyl chloride at 52°C
Acrylic acid Methyl methacrylate Acrylonitrile
and 9 atmospheric pressure.
H H H H free radical H H
H H
vinyl
H₂O₂ polymerization
C=C C=C [ C C ] n
Addition C C
CI H polymerization
H C=N H C=N
CI H n acrylonitrile polyacrylonitrile
vinyl chloride Poly (vinyl chloride)
Polyacrylonitrile is used for pains, plastics
PVC is used for insulation of electric wires, and water bases resistant paints.
floor tiles, PVC pipes plastic wrap, in O=C—O—CH₃ O=C—O—CH₃
gramophone recorders. If we add some
plasticizer in it, its flexibility increases. nCH₂ = C [ CH₂ C [
n

CH₃
Polystyrene CH₃
Methyl methacrylate Polymethyl methacrylate
Polystyrene is made by the addition
polymerization of styrene. It is used to prepare Lucite of flexi glass. It is
H H free radical H H a glass substitute and also used to prepare
vinyl polymerization bowling glass.
C=C [ C C ]
n
H C₆H₅ H C₆H₅
styrene polystrene Polyester Resins

Polyvinyl Acetate
Polyester resins are the product of the
It is a polymer of vinyl acetate. reaction of an alcohol (ethane 1,2 diol) and
OCOCH₃ OCOCH₃ aromatic bi-functional acids (benzene 1,4
dicarboxylic acid). This product has a large
nCH₂ = CH [CH₂ — CH] n
number of uses in clothing. Polyester is
Vinyl acetate Polyvinyl acetate (PVA)
often blended with cotton or wool for
summer and winter clothing, Polyester
PVA (polyvinl acetate) is non-toxic and resins are also used for making water
colourless material. It is supplied in tanks.
number of grades, depending upon the ₙHO—CH₂—CH₂—OH+HOOC COOH
degree of polymerization. It has a Ethane 1,2 -diol Benzene 1,4- dioic acid
characteristic odour. It is mostly used as (Ethylene glycol) (terephthalic acid)
O
adhesive material, textile coating, chewing O
gum, resin, and as binder for emulsion [ O—CH₂—CH₂—O—C C n +H₂O
[
paints. (Polyester)

Acrylic Resins (Polyvinylnitrile called

Orlon/Acrilon) Polyamide Resins (Nylon 6,6)

These are closely related to vinyl resins. These resins are formed by the
Monomers may be acrylonitrile, methyl condensation of polyamines with aliphatic
methacrylate or acrylic acid. dicarboxylic acids. One of the most famous
condensation polymers discovered is
Nylon.The word Nylon has been accepted
as a generic name for synthetic.
Polyamides. Nylon —6,6 is the most
important polyamide. It is obtained by
heating adipic acid (hexanedioic acid) with
hexamethylene diamne. Nylon 6, 6 derives
its name form its starting materials adipic
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which have six carbon atoms.
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Nylon is mainly used as a textile fiber. It

has a combination of high strength,
elasticity, toughness and abrasion
resistance

O O
Heat
HOC(CH₂)₄COH + H₂N(CN₂)₆NH₂
-H₂O
Adipic acid Hexamethylnediamine

O O

—C(CH₂)₄C[NH(CH₂)₆NHC(CH₂)C]ₙNH
Nylon-6, 6 (CH ₂)₆—

Epoxy Resin
Epoxy resin is made by condensing
epichlorohydrin with diphenylol propane.

O
CH₃

CH₂—CH—CH₂—CI+HO C OH

CH₃
Epichlorohydrin Diphenylol propane

The typical repeating unit is given below.

CH₃ OH

O C O CH₂ CH CH₂ O

CH₃ n

Epoxy adhesives have two components

that are mixed before they are used. The
polymer chain cross linked and bonding
become extremely strong.

The major use of epoxy resins is in coating

materials which give toughness
flexibility, adhesion and chemical
resistance. Industrial materials are coated
with epoxy paints, Dams, bridges, floors,
etc.

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Biopolymers
“The polymers found in living things are
called biopolymers”. There are four main
classes of biopolymers, i.e. carbohvdrates,
proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.”

Carbohydrates
“The substance in living organisms In monosaccharides all carbon atoms have
consisting of polvhdroxy aldehyde or hydroxyl group — OH except one,
polyvhydroxy ketone or its condensational which has aldehyde or ketone group in it.
polymer is called carbohydrate.”
Sugars with five carbon atoms (pentoses)
The chemical analysis indicates that or six carbon atoms (hexoses) are more
carbohydrates have C, H and O in them. stable as cyclic structures than as open
Carbohydrates are commonly called chain structures. Glucose and fructose are
sugars. very common examples of hexoses, both
of which have molecular formula, C₆H₁₂0₆.
Empirical Formula

The empirical formula of carbohydrates is Glucose

Cx(H₂0)y. Where x and y are not less Glucose is also called dextrose, grape
than three x and y may or may not be sugar or blood sugar. Open structure of
equal. For example, formula of glucose is glucose contains five —OH group at five
C₆H₁₂0₆ and can also be written as carbon and one aldehyde group so it is
C₆(H₂0)₆. also called aldohexose. It is found in free as
well as in combined state.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant
biomolecules on the earth. Sucrose, starch, In the free state, it is preset in most sweet
cellulose, glucose, fructose are common fruits and in honey. Small quantities of
carbohydrates. Sugar and starch is found glucose are also present in human blood
in food products, cellulose is found in and urine. In the combined state it forms a
wood and cotton. Sugar is found in plants major components of many disaccharides
etc. the most abundant carbohydrate is and polysaccharides. It is the cource of
cellulose. energy in our body. Its M.P is 146°C. It is
soluble in water.
Classification Of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are divided into three Two cyclic structures of glucose are α — D
classes: — glucose and β— D — glucose given
Monosaccharides below. In the two isomeric cyclic
Oilgosaccharides structures the position of —old group is
Polysaccharides different at carbon number 1.

O H CH₂OH
Monosaccharides ₁
H
C O H
C
“A carbohydrate that cannot be acid ₂
CH₂OH
₅ OH
H
C OH H C
H C OH C OH C OH
hydrolysed is called monosaccharide”. ₃
H
C OH
H ₁ H
C
OH C H H C H
₂ CH₂OH α-D-Glucose
H ₄ OH C C O
C OH O
C
Monosaccharides have empirical formula H C
₅
OH
H OH
H
H
OH
C OH C
(CH₂0)ₙ. Where n is form three to nine.The OH H
C₆H₂OH C H
suffix —ose is commonly used to H
C

OH
designate these simple sugars. The β-D-Glucose
monosaccharides with threem four, five,
six ...... carbon atoms are classified as triose,
tetrose, pentose, hexose......

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Fructose
Open structure of fructose contain six
carbon atoms in it. Five carbon atoms have
OH group and one carbon is ketone, so it is
ketohexose fructose is found in combined
α-D-Glucose β-D-Fructose
and free state in nature. Fructose is
sweetest of all sugars and used as Sucrose
sweetening agent in confectionary. It is +H₂o
substitute of cane-sugar. Open and cyclic
structures of fructose are given below.
₁
CH₂

H Glycosidic linkage (1,2 linkage)

H

Fructose (Open chain form) Fructose (Cyclic form)

Oligosaccharides
Lactose
Lactose is also disaccharide. Lactose upon
“The carbohydrates which give two to
hydrolysis give glucose and galactose.
nine same or different monosaccharides
upon hydrolysis are called H⁺
Lactose+H₂O glucose+galactose
oilgosaccharides.”

Lactose (milk sugar) occurs in the milk of

The oilgosaccharides that give two
all animals. Is does not occur in platns.
monosaccharide units are called
disaccharide. e.g., sucrose, maltose,
Lactose, etc. Polysaccharides
H⁺ “A carbohydrate that gives many simple
Sucrose+H₂O glucose+fructose
sugar molecules upon acid hydrolysis is
H⁺ called polysaccharide. ”
Maltose+H₂O glucose+glucose

Polysaccharides have usually one type of

The oilgosaccharides that give three
monosaccharides in it. Most of the
monsaccharides units are called
polysaccharides are linear polymers (one
trisaccharides. e.g; raffinose, molecular
main chain with no branching). e.g., starch,
formula of raffinose is C₁₈H₃₂0₁₆.
cellulose, Amylose, Amylopectin, glycogen,
etc.
Sucrose
Sucrose is a disaccharide of —D-glucose H⁺
Polysaccharide+H₂O
and fructose. Both the monosaccharides
many monosaccharides
are linked to each other by Glycosidic
linkage. Sucrose is also called table sugar.
For example, starch on hydrolysis give
Sucrose occur in sugar cane, sugar beet,
many glucose molecules.
pineapple, apricot, mango, almond, coffee
and honey. The structure of sucrose is H⁺
(C₆H₁₀O₅)ₙ+ ₙH₂O ₙC₆H₁₂O₆
given below:
Starch Glucose

Polysaccharides are amorphous solids,

insoluble in water, testeless and they are
called non-sugars.

Functional of Polysaccharides

Polysaccarides perform two main function

in the animals and plants. They are used as
energy storage compounds and for
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Plants store glucose as starch and animal It is a polymer of β-D-glucose. It is present

store glucose as glycogen.Glycogen is mainly in the plant kingdom but also
highly branched polymer and it is stored in occurs in some marine animals. It is an
the liver and muscles of the animals. un-branched polymer consisting of a large
number (upto 2500) of glucose residues
Detail of some polysaccharides is given joined to each other through β-1—4
below: linkages.

Starch [ts chief importance in human nutrition is

Starch is the most important source of that it provides fiber and bulk to the
carbohydrates in human diet. The chief food. This serves to satisfy the appetite
commercial sources of starch are wheat, and, in addition, it stimulates intestinal
rice, maize, potatoes and barley. Starch is a peristalsis. It is not digested i the human
polymer of α-D-glucose. Its general gastrointestinal track because human
formula is (C₆H₁₂O₅)n. being lacks the enzyme cellulose which
breaks the cellulose molecules.
Starch is not a pure compound. It is a
mixture of two polysaccharides, amylose Human enzymes can digest only α-D-
and amylopectin which can be separated glucose and not to β-D-glucose polymer.
from one another. Amylose is soluble in
water and gives a deep blue colour with
iodine while amylopectin is insoluble and
gives no colour. Natural starch consists of
10 to 20% amylose and 80 to 90%
amylopectin. It is used in coating and
sizing of paper to improve the writing Glycogen
qualities. Animals store sugar in the form of a
polysaccharide called glycogen. It is also
It is also used in laundering and in the called animal starch. On hydrolysis it also
manufacture of glucose and ethyl alcohol. gives many glucose units.

(C₆H₁₀O₅)ₙ+ₙH₂O H⁺ ₙC₆H₁₂O₆

Structure of glycogen is very closely

related with the amylopectin having 1—4
linkage 1 — 6 glycosidic linkage. Human is
much more branched molecule as
compared to amylopectin.

Amylose is linear polymer while

amylopectin is a branched polysaccharide.

Cellulose
Most abundant structural polysaccharide
is cellulose. Approximately 100 billion of
cellulose are produced each year by plants.
For example, cotton is 99% cellulose and
the woody parts of trees are generally
more than 50% cellulose.
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Proteins
Proteins are polymer of small building Compound or Conjugate Protein
blocks called amino acids. “If protein molecule is attached with some
non-protein, it is called compound or
conjugate protein. Non-protein attached
The molecular masses of different protein with protein is called prosthetic group.”
ranges from 6000 to millions. The
Conjugated proteins on hydrolysis give
human probably contains at least 10,000
carbohydrate, fat or nucleic acid in
different kinds of proteins. The name
addition to amino acids. For example,
protein is derived from the Greek word
phosphoproteins are conjugates with
“ProteinsTM meaning “Prime importance”.
phosphoric acid,Lipoproteins are
conjugated with lipids like lecithin,
Proteins are present in all living organisms
cholesterol and fatty acids.
and without proteins life would not be
possible. There are present in muscles,
Derived Proteins
skin, hair and other tissues that make up
“The proteins which are derived from
the bulk of the body’s non-bony structure.
simple and conjugate proteins are called
derived proteins.”
All proteins contain the elements carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. In some
For example, proteoses enzymes,
proteins sulphur is also present. They may
peptones, oilgopeptides, polypeptides are
also contain phosphorus and traces of
derived proteins.
other elements like iron, copper, 10dine,
manganese and zinc. Proteins are very
On the basis of function, proteins are
high molecular masses macromolecules.
classified as regulatory or hormonal
All proteins yield amino acids upon
proteins, structural proteins, transport
complete hydrolysis.
proteins, genetic protein, etc.

“Proteins may be defined as the organic

polymers which upon hydrolysis yield
amino acids TM, Structure of Protein

The proteins are the polymer of amino

Classification of Protein acids and from a longer chains. These
chains of polypeptides are three
Based on physico-chemical properties,
dimensional and highly convoluted
proteins may be classified into three types:
(coiled). Protein structure are divided into
Simple proteins
four levels called primary secondary,
Compound or conjugated proteins
tertiary and Quaternary.
Derived proteins
Primary Structure
Simple Protein
“The sequence of amino acids in a protein
“The proteins which after hydrolysis gives is called primary structure.”
amino acids or their derivatives are called
simple protein.”
The number and variety of amino acids in
Example a protein can be determined by
Albumin, globulins, collagen, legumin, etc. hydrolysis. For this purpose protein is
heated with a dilute acid like HCl. Amino
Globulins are insoluble in water but
acids are separated by chromatography
soluble in dilute salt solutions. They are
found in animals, e.g., lactoglobulin is and visualized by ninhydrin.
found in muscles and also in plants.
For a protein having five amino acids units,
Legumin and collagen proteins are gylcine, alanine, valine, histidine and
present in the connective tissues
throughout the body. They are the serine, there are 120 ways in which these
most abundant proteins in the animal amino acids can be ordered to make a
kingdom forming some 25 to 35% of body polypeptide. Every protein has its own
protein. sequence of amino acids.

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Secondary Structure
The structure describes that how
segments of peptide backbone orient into
regular pattern. Polypeptides are oriented
due to intermolecular forces (hydrogen
bonding) between NH and C = O groups of
amino acids.

Due to hydrogen bonding, peptide chain

acquire a spiral shape. This spiral shape is
called a.-helix contains 3.6 amino acids and
the distance between coils (repeated
distance) is 5.4A°. Folding of the α-helix
Quaternary Structures
This describes that how individual proteins
or polypeptide chains come close
together and yield large aggregate
structures. The polypeptide chains may be
similar or dissimular.

Denaturing of Protein

“The change in the structure of protein

form normal pattern is called denaturing
Hydrogen bonding between carboxyl of proteins."
and amino groups
Denaturing of proteins can takes place by
the following ways:
Heating
Changing in pH
Addition of strong oxidixing or
reducing agent.
By adding detergents.
By adding reagents like urea. In
denaturing, the primary structure
remain intact but the tertiary structure
unfolds from a specific shape to
randomly looped chain.
α-Helix

Tertiary Structures Heat

“The three dimensional twisting
and folding of the peptide chain is called
tertiary structure.”

The tertiary structure is due to the

cross linking between parts of the For example, when albumin of the egg is
polypeptide chain. This cross-linking 1s due cooked, it is coagulated and the tertiary
to bonding and interaction of side chains structure of protein in unfolded as shown
of the amimo acid residues. Different in above figure, it is an irreversible change.
polypeptide chains have their specific Most enzyme lose all catalytic activities
tertiary structures. when denatured.

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Importance of Proteins

Protein is essential for the formation of

protoplasm and the structural material
for the organism.
Nucleoproteins which are complexes of
proteins with nucleic acids serve as
carriers of heredity from one
generation to the other.
Enzymes which are biological catalysts
are protein in nature. Without them life
is not possible.
Many proteins have specialized
functions. Hemoglobin acts as a carrier
of oxygen. Some proteins act as
hormones which have regulatory
functional, for example; insulin,
thyroxin etc.
Industrially proteins have great
importance.
We are familiar with the use of leather
made by tanning of hides. This is
essentially precipitation of the proteins
with tannic acid.
Gelatin is obtained by heating bones,
skin and tendons in water. It is used in
bakery goods.
Causein is another protein used in the
manufacture of buttons and buckles.

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Lipids
“Lipids are the naturally occurring Structure and Composition of Fats and
organic molecules isolated from cells Oils
and Animal and vegetable fats and oil have
tissues by extraction with non polar similar chemical structures. They are
organic solvents.” triesters formed glycerol and long chain
acids called fatty acids.
Lipids are classified into two general
types:

Those like fats and waxes which

contain ester linkage and can be
hydrolyzed.
Those like cholesterols and other
A triester of glycerol is called a triglyceride
steroids which do not has ester
or glyceride. The degree of unsaturation of
linkage and cannot by hydrolyzed.
the constituent fatty acid determines
whether a triglyceride will be a sohd
General Properties of Lipids or a liquid. The glycerides in which long-
chain saturated acid components
predominate tend to be solid or semi-solid
They are insoluble in water and
and are termed as fats. On the hand, oils
soluble in non polar organic
are glycerol esters which contain higher
solvents like ether,
proportion of unsaturated fatty acid
chloroform, benzene, etc.
components.
Their primary building blocks are
fatty acids, glycerol and sterols.
They are utilized by the living
organisms.

Fats and Oils

Fats and oils are the most important
lipids found in nature. They are one of The melting point of mixed glycerides
the three major “food factor” needed would depend on the extent of
for human body, the other two being unsaturated fatty acid components in the
proteins and carbohydrates. Fats and molecules. The polyunsaturated glycerides
oils occupy a place of pride in human therefore, have very low melting points
diet but they also find use as raw and are liquids (oils). Chemically common
materials for the manufacture of soaps oils and fats are the mixture of saturated
and detergents, paints, varnishes, and unsaturated triglycerides, present in
cosmetics, printing inks and various ratios.
pharmaceuticals.
Physical Properties Of Fats and Oil
Sources of Fats and Oils
Fats and oils come from a variety of Oils and fats may either be liquid or
natural sources like animals, plants non-crystalline solids at room
and temperature.
marine organisms. Animals fats are When pure, they are colourless,
located particularly in adipose tissue odourless and tasteless.
cells. Butter and ghee are a special
type of animal fats which are made
from milk. Vegetable oils are chiefly
present in seeds and nuts of plants.
Marine oils are obtained form sea
animal like salmons and wales, etc.

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They are insoluble in water and readily

soluble in organic solvents like diethyl
ether, acetone, carbon tetrachloride
and carbon disulphide.
They are insoluble in water and readily
soluble in organic solvents like diethyl
ether, acetone, carbon tetrachloride
and carbon disulphide.

Chemical Properties of Fats and Oil

They readily form emulsion when This reaction is used commercially to

agitated with H₂O in the presence of harden vegetable oils for the production of
soap or other emulsifiers. (A colloid vegetable ghee or margarine. Hardened
composed of liquid droplets dispersed oil are also extensively used for making
in anotherliquid is called emulsion). soaps and candles.
They are poor conductors of heat and
electricity and therefore serve as
excellent insulators for the animal
body.

Some chemical properties of fats and oils

are given below.

Hydrolysis
Trigylcerides are easily hydrolyzed by
enzymes called lipases to fatty acids and
glycerol.

Saponification
It is the hydrolysis of a fat or an oil with an
alkali to form some (salt of fatty acid)
and glycerol.

Hydrogenation (Hardening of Oil)

Unsaturated glycerides react with
hydrogen in the presence of a metal
catalyst to give saturated glycerides. The
results is the conversion of a liquid
glyceride (an oil) into a semi-solid
glyceride (a fat).

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Saponification Number
“The number of millierams of potassium
hydroxide (KOH) required to saponify
one gram of fat or oil is called
saponification number. ”

For example, one mole (806g) of glycerol

tripalmitate required 168,000mg of
KOH for saponification. Therefore, one
gram of fat will required 168000/806mg of
KOH. Hence the saponification number of
glycerol tripalmitate is 208.

Rancidity of Fats or Oils

“Fats and oils when spoiled give off an
odour, it is called rancidity. ”

Rancidity is mainly due to hydrolytic or

oxidation reaction which release foul smell
of aldehydes or fatty acids. Oils obtained
from sea animals have greater speed of
rancidity . Sea animal oils have greater
unsaturated in them.

lodine Number
“The number of grams of iodine which are
required to react completely with 100 g
of fats or oils is called iodine number.”

lodine number is used to express the

degree of unsaturation of fats or oils.

The value of iodine number depends on

the number of double bonds present in
the acid components of the glycerides.
The glycerides with no double bonds have
zero iodine number.

Acid Number
The acid number of a fat or an oil is the
amount of free fatty acids present in it. It
is expressed as number of milligrams of
potassium hydroxide required to
neutralize one gram of fat.

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Steroids Classification of Lipids

Steroids are the second important class of Lipids are classified as:
lipids. The parent nucleus of steroids has
perhydrocyclopentanophenanthrene Simple Lipids
component which consists of three six These are esters of fatty acids with
membered rings. (A, B and C) and one five glycerol. For example, common fats and
—membered ring(d). These rings are oils.
joined or fused to each other and have a
total of 17-C atoms. Very small variations in Compound Lipids
the bonding of atoms in the ring and in These contain radicals in addition to fatty
the groups attached to them give rise to acids and alcohol and include glycerol
compounds that are remarkably diverse in phospholipids, sphingolipids, lipoproteins
their biological functions. and lipopolysaccharides.

Examples Derived or associated lipids

Some of the natural occurring compound They are the hydrolytic products of above
belonging to steroids are cholesterol, mention compounds. Sterols, vitamin D
ergosterol, male and female sex hormones and terpenes belong to this class of lipids.
and the hormones of the adrenal cortex.

Classification of Lipids

They are good source of energy and

make the food more palatable.
They exert an insulating effect on the
nervous tissues.
They are good energy reservoirs in the
body.
Lipids are an integral part of cell
Cholesterol (C₂₇H₄₆0) protoplasm and cell membranes.
It is the most abundant animal sterol and Some lipids act as precursors of very
occurs in all animal tissues but only in a important physiological compounds.
few plants. Structure of Steroid Nucleus For example, cholesterol is the
Cholesterol is present both in the free as precursor of steroid hormones.
well as certified formed in the blood,
animal tissues, egg, yolk, various oils and
fats and nerve tissues. Its increased
quantities in blood makes plaque like
deposits in the arteries causing blood
pressure and other heart diseases.

Ergosterol
It is the sterol of fungi and yeasts. When
irradiated with ultraviolet rays, it is
converted into ergocalciferol or vitamin D.

Phospholipids
Phospholipids are closely related to fats
and oils. They also contain glycerol
backbone. Two hydroxylic group of
glycerol form ester linkage with fatty acids
and third with phosphoric acid or its
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 NOTES

Enzymes
“The substances, usually proteins, that Hydrolases
catalyze specific biochemical reactions These enzymes catalyze hydrolysis. They
are called enzymes.” include proteases called protolytic
enzymes.
Chemical Nature of Enzymes
Enzymes are either pure proteins or Lyases
contain proteins as essential components These enzymes catalyze the addition of
and in addition require non-protein small molecules like ammonia, water or
components which are also essential for carbon dioxide to double bonds or
their activity. The protein component of removal of these from double bonds. An
the enzyme is called apoenzyme and the example is the conversion of fumaric acid
non-protein components is called the co- to maleic acid in the presence of fumarase
factor or co-enzyme. The co-factors enzyme.
include inorganic ions and complex
organic or metallo-organic molecules, Isomerases
important inorganic along with their These enzymes catalyze the transfer of
respective enzymes include Fe²⁺ (chrome groups within molecules to yield isomeric
oxidase) and Mg²⁺(glucose 6 phosphatase), forms of the substrate, for example
etc. Many enzymes contain vitamins as phospho-glyceromutases.
their co-factors, for example; nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide contains Ligases
nicotinamide, vitamin and thiamine These enzymes link two molecules
pyrophosphatase contains vitamin B₁. together through breaking of high energy
bonds, for example; acetyl-S-COH, a
Name of Enzymes corboxylase and succinic thiokinase.
The systematic name of enzyme has two
part. First part is the name of substrate
which enzyme acts and second is the
suffix of enzyme “ase”.

The enzyme that acts at urea are urease,

which acts at cellulose is cellulose, which
acts at sucrose is called sucrose, etc.

Classification of Enzymes

The commission on enzyme, appointed by

the international Union of Biochemistry
(IUB) classified enzymes into six main
types:

Oxidoreductases
These enzymes catalyze oxidation-
reduction reactions. Common examples
are oxidase, dehydrogenase and
peroxydase.

Transferases
These enzymes bring about an exchange
of functional group such as phosphate or
acryl between two compounds, for
example; phospho-translterases, etc.

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Table — Classification of Enzymes

Main Class Some Sub Classes Types of Reaction Catalyzed

Lipases Hydrolysis of ester group

Hydrolases Nucleases Hydrolysis of phosphate group
Proteases Hydrolysis of an amino group

Isomerases Epimerases Isomerization of a chirality center

Carboxylases Addition of CO₂

Ligases
Synthetases Formation of new bonds

Decarboxylases Loss of CO₂

Lyases
Dehydrases Loss of H₂O

Dehydrogenases Formation of double bond by removal of H₂

Oxidases Oxidation
Oxidoreductares
Reductases Reduction
Kinases Transfer of a phosphate group

Transferases Transaminases Transfer of an amino group

Properties of Enzymes
Efficiency of enzymes
Specificity An enzyme lowers the energy of activation
Enzyme are specific in their action. and speed up a chemical reaction.
Specificity of an enzyme depends upon Enzymes have very amazing efficiency.
the active sites of the enzymes. Every Some enzymes increases the efficiency
enzyme has a characteristic site which upto to 20 times.
combine with substrate is called active
site. The substance at which enzyme acts Factors Affecting the Activities
is called substrate. In enzyme catalyse only of Enzymes
one type or reaction and are specific in
nature. For example; hexokinase catalyses Enzyme Concentration
the conversion of hexoses like glucose, The rate of an enzymatic reaction is
fructose and mannose to their 6- directly proportional to the concentration
phosphate derivatives but glucokinase is of the substrate. The rate of reaction is also
specific for glucose only. directly proportional to the square root of
the concentration of enzyme. It means
Protein Nature that the rate of reaction also increases
Enzymes with few exceptions are protein with the increasing concentration of
in nature. They are produced by living enzyme.
cells but act in vivo as well as in vitro.
Enzymes which acts in the body are vivo or Temperature
outside the body are called vitro. The enzymatic reaction occurs best at or
around 37°C which is the average normal
The Direction of Enzymes Reaction body temperature. The rate of chemical
Most enzymatic reactions are reversible i.e. reactions is increased by a rise in
the same enzyme can catalyze reactions in temperature but this is true only over
both directions. limited range of temperature. The
enzymes usually destroy at high
Isoenzymes temperature. The activity of enzymes is
These are the enzymes from the same reduced at low temperature. The
organisms which catalyze the same temperature at which an enzymes
reaction but are chemically and physically reaction occurs at the fastest rate is called
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 NOTES

Effect of pH
Just like temperature, there is also an
optimum pH at which an enzyme will
catalyze will catalyze the reaction at the
maximum rate. For example, the optimum
pH of salivary amylase is 6.4 to 6.9.

Other Substances
The enzyme action is also increased or
decreased in the presence of some other
substances such as co-enzymes,
activators and inhibitors. For example,
some enzymes consist of simple proteins
only such as insulin. Most of the enzymes
are, however, the combination of a co-
enzyme and an apo-enzyme.

Activators are the organic substances

which increase the enzyme activity. For
example; Mg²⁺ ions are the activators of
phosphatase and carbonic anhydrase
enzymes respectively.

Inhibitors are the substances which

reduce the enzyme activity.

Radiations
Generally enzymes are readily inactivated
by exposure to ultra-violet light, beta
rays, gamma rays and X-rays.

Enzymes are of great biological

importance and are of great help in the
diagnosis of certain diseases. Some
examples are, alkaline phosphatase is
raised in rickets and obstructive
jaundice, lactic dehydrogenase or LDH-1
is raised in heart diseases.
Many enzymes
Importance have proved very useful
of Enzymes
as drugs. For example; thrombin 1s used
locally to stop bleeding.
Many enzymes are used for cancer
treatment. For example, L asparaginase
has proved very useful of blood cancer
in children.

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Nucleic Acid
Compounds of Nuclei Acid Purines are adenine and guanine while
Nucleic acids, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) pyrimidines are cytosine and thymine.
and Ribonucleic acid (RNA) are the DNA contain four bases adenine, guanine,
chemical carriers of a cell genetic cytosine and thymine. RNA contain
information. adenine, guanine, cytocine and uracil
instead of thymine.
Nucleic acids are biopolymers made up of
nucleotides joins together to form a Two types of nuclei acids have been
long chain. Each nucleotide is composed discovered, deoxyribonuclec acid (DNA)
of nucleoside bonded to a phosphate and ribonucleic acid (RNA). In the body,
group and each nucleoside is composed of nucleic acid occur as part of the
an aldopentose sugar linked to conjugated proteins called
heterocyclic purine or pyrimidine base. nucleoproteins. The nucleic acids direct
the synthesis of proteins. Cancer research
Phosphate involves an extensive study of nucleic
A nucleotide acids.

Sugar Sugar Nucleic

Sugar Many
nucleotides Acid
H₃PO₄
+

Amine Amine Amine

Base Base Base

A nucleoside

The sugar component in RNA is ribose and

in DNA is 2-deoxyribose.

Amine bases of nucleotides are purines

and pyrimidines.

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Nucleic Acid
Functions of Nucleic Acid
Nucleic acids were first demonstrated in
the nuclei of puss cells in 1868 and in
sperm heads in 1872 by Friedrik Miescher.
They are present in every living cell as well
as in viruses and have been found to be
the essential components of the normal
growth and development of each and
every living cell. The nucleic acids are
responsible for the two fundamental
functions which are common to all living
organisms, there are
(a) their ability to reproduce, store and
transmit genetic information and
(b) to undergo mutation.

Difference Between DNA and RNA

DNA and RNA differs in three ways:

The sugar in RNA is ribose while the

sugar is DNA is 2-deoxyribose.
Four different bases are found in DNA
cytosine (C), thymine (T), adenine (A)
and guanine (). In RNA, thymine does
not occur and its place is taken by
uracil (U).
DNA is always double stranded while
RNA is usually single stranded.

Replication of DNA

DNA preserve the genetic information’s

and pass it from one generation to the
next generation. The double stranded
structure of DNA was first deduced by
James Watson and Francis Crick mn 1953,
This was the discovery that imtiated the
field of molecular biology.

Replication of DNA is an enzyme catalyzed

process. As the strand separate and
bases are exposed, new nucleotides line
up on each strand in a complementary
manner, A to T and C to G and two new
strand begins to grow. Each new strand is
complementary to its old template strand
and two new identical DNA double helices
are produced. Since each of the new DNA
molecules contains one strand of old DNA
and one strand of new DNA. This process is
called replication.

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Excercise
Fill in the blanks True or False

(i) Macromolecules are built up from small Indicate True or False

units called monomer. (i) Nylon 6, 6 and terylene are
condensation polymers.
(ii) Nylon is a polyamide and terylene is a True
polyester.
(i) The disposal of plastics does not cause
(iii) Nylon is prepared by the reaction any pollution problem.
of adipic acid and False
hexamethylenediamine.
(iii) Fructose is a polysaccharide
(iv) Based on their thermal properties, carbohydrate.
plastics are divided into two main classes. False

(v) Polyvinyl chloride is a thermo plastic. (iv) Human beings get no food nutrient
from cellulose.
(vi) Glucose is stored as glycogen in the True
liver.
(v) The most abundant and the most
(vii) Glucose and fructose are water important steroid in the human body is
soluble carbohydrates. vitamin D.
False
(viii) Protein after digestion changes to
amino acid. (vi) Enzymes are the compounds
containing C, H and O only.
(ix) Purine and pyrimidine are bases of False
nucleic acids.
(vii) The degree of unsaturation of fats is
(x) Addition of a plasticizer increase the measured by their 1odine number.
flexibility of the polymer. True

(viii) Activity of an enzyme varies with

temperature and pH.
True

(ix) Nucleic acids are biological catalysts.

False

(x) The nucleic acids are responsible for

protein synthesis in the human body.
True

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 NOTES

Multiple Choice Question

(i) In which of these processes are small (ix) Which one of the following is a water
organic molecules made into soluble vitamin:
macromolecules: (a) Niacin
(a) The cracking of petroleum fractions (b) Riboflavin
(b) The fractional distillation of crude oil (c) Trypsin
(c) The polymerization of ethene (d) Ascorbic acid
(d) The hydrolysis of proteins
(x) Which one of the following enzymes
(ii) Which of these polymers is an brings about the hydrolysis of fats:
addition polymer: (a) Urease
(a) Nylon-6, 6 (b) Maltase
(b) Polystyrene (c) Zymase
(c) Terylene (d) Lipase
(d) Epoxy resin
(xi) The reaction between fat and NaOH
(iii) Which of these polymers is a is called:
synthetic polymer: (a) Esterification
(a) Animal fat (b) Hydrogenolysis
(b) Starch (c) Fermentation
(c) Cellulose (d) Saponification
(d) Polyester
(xii) Which one of the following
(iv) Plastics are a pollution problem statements about glucose and sucrose is
because many plastics: incorrect:
(a) Are made from petroleum (a) Both are soluble in water
(b) Are very inflammable (b) Both are naturally occurring
(c) Burn to produce toxic fumes (c) Both are carbohydrates
(d) Decompose to produce toxic products (d) Both are disaccharides

(v) The fibre which is made from

acrylonitrile as monomer:
(a) PVC
(b) Rayon fibre
(c) Acrylic fibre
(d) Polyester fibre

(vi) A polymeric substance that is

formed in the liquid state and then
hardened to a rigid solids is called a:
(a) Fibre
(b) Plastic
(c) Varnish
(d) Polyamide resin

(vii) Vegetable oils are:

(a) Unsaturated fatty acids
(b) Glycerides of unsaturated fatty acids
(c) Glycerides of saturated fatty acids
(d) Essential oils obtained from plants

(viii) Which one of the following

elements is not present in all proteins:
(a) Carbon
(b) Hydrogen
(c) Nitrogen
PUNJAB BOARD (d) Sulphur
 NOTES

Short Questions F F

Q.4 Explain the following terms: C = C

(a) Addition Polymer:
The polymers which are formed by the F F
repeated addition of monomers is called F F F F
addition polymer. Monomers are
nC = C —[C — C]n —
unsaturated compounds (derivatives of
ethene). For example: PVC, PVA,
F F F F
Polyethylene. Polytetrafluoro ethene
Tetrafluoro ethene
(teflon)
(b) Condensation Polymer:
When two monomers join together to (d) Orlon
produce a polymer along with the In orlon repeating unit is acylonitrile
elimination of a small molecule like water CH₂ = CH — CN
then the resultant polymer is called as
condensation polymer. e.g., Polyester, nCH₂ = CH — CN — CH₂ — CH —

—
Bakelite.
CN
(c) Thermoplastic: Acrylonitrile Orlon fiber or acrylic fiber
Such type of plastic which can be
softened repeatedly when heated and Q.6 Point out one difference between the
hardened when cooled with a little change compounds in each of the following
in properties. e.g., PVC pipes. pairs:
(a) Glucose and Fructose
(d) Thermosetting Plastic: Glucose is polyhydroxy aldehyde and
The polymers which become hard on fructose is polyhydroxy ketone.
heating and cannot be softened again are
called thermosetting polymers. A (b) Sucrose and Maltose
thermosetting polymer decomposes Maltose on hydrolysis give glucose:
instead of melting. e.g., Epoxy resins.
C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ C₆H₁₂O₆ + C₆H₁₂O₆
Q.5 What is the repeating unit in each of Sucrose on hydrolysis gives glucose and
the following polymers? fructose:
(a) Polystyrene
In polystyrene repeating unit is styrene C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ C₆H₁₂O₆ + C₆H₁₂O₆
(H₂C = CH-C₆H₅) (Glucose)
ₙCH₂ = CH —[CH₂ — CH]ₙ
(c) Cellulose and Starch
C₆H₅ C₆H₅ Starch is polymer of α-D-glucose, cellulose
is polymer of β-D-glucose.
Styrene Polystyrene

(b) Nylon-6,6
In nylon-6,6 repeating units are Q.8 What is the difference between a
Adipic acid HOOC — (CH₂)₄ — COOH glyocside linkage and peptide linkage?

Hexamethylene diamine Glycoside Linkage

H₂N —(CH₂)₆ — NH₂ This is present in oligosaccharides and
polysaccharides. Whenever
monosaccharides combine together with
nHOOC—(CH₂)₄—COOH + nH₂N —(CH₂)₆—NH₂
the elimination of H₂O molecule, the
280°C -H₂O resulting bond is Glycoside. e.g., In sucrose
molecule.
O O O

— C —(CH₂)— C—[NH(CH₂)₆NHC(CH₂)₄ —C—]ₙ NH(CH₂)₆NH—

(c) Teflon Peptide Linkage

In teflon repeating unit is tetrafluoro This linkage is present in proteins. Amino
ethene acids combine together through a peptide
bond with the elimination of water
PUNJAB BOARD molecule. e.g.,
 NOTES

R O R O

NH — CH — C — NH — CH — C — OH

(Peptide bond)

Q.9 What is the chemical nature of

enzymes? Discuss the classification of
enzymes.
Detailed question. Consult text book.

Q.10 What are nucleic acids? Write down

the role of DNA and RNA in life.
Nucleic Acids: Section in text book.

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 NOTES

Do You Know?
Satudinger (1920) gave the idea of
formation of polymers.

The number of repeating units which

determine the length of the polymer is
called degree of polymerization.

The type of addition polymers which is

formed by the polymerization of single
type of monomer is called
homopolymer.

The type of polymer formed by the

polymerization of two types of
monomers is called copolymer.
Orlon is used for the manufacture of
textile fibre.

Vinyl acetate is used in chewing gums

Formula of raffinose is C₁₈H₃₂0₁₆

Natural starch contains 10 — 20%

amylose and 80 — 90% amylopectin.

Amylose is water soluble but

amylopectin is insoluble in water.

The number of milligrams of KOH

required to saponify one gram of fat or
oil is called saponification number.

The number of grams of 1odine which

will react with 100g of oil or fat is called
iodine number.

Glucose is stored in the liver as

glycogen.

Nylon is a polyamide but terylene is a

polyester.

Vit-A (C₂₀H₃₀0) is called beauty-

vitamin.

Deficiency disease of Vit-A is night

blindness.

Formula of Vit-C (Ascorbic acid) is

C₆H₈O₆.

Deficiency disease of Vit-C is scurvy.

Formula of Vit-D is C₂₈H₄₄O.

Deficiency disease of Vit-D is rickets.

Formula of Vit-B C₆₃H₈₈N₁₄0₁₄PCO

(Cyanocobalamine)

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