CAPM

This method also calculates the cost of equity (like dvm) but looks more closely at the shareholder’s rate
of return, in terms of risk.

The more risk a shareholder takes, the more return he will want, so the cost of equity will increase.

For example, a shareholder looking at a new investment in a different business area may have a
different risk.

The model assumes a well diversified (see later) investor.

It suggests that any investor would at least want the same return return that they could get from a “risk
free” investment such as government bonds (Greece?!!).

This is called the risk free return

On top of the risk free return, they would also want a return to reflect the extra risk they are taking by
investing in a market share.

They may want a return higher or lower than the average market return depending on whether the
share they are investing in has a higher or lower risk than the average market risk

The average market premium is Market return - Risk free return

The higher or lower requirement compared to the average market premium is called the beta (β)

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Required Return = Rf + β(Rm - Rf)

Rm = Average return for the whole market

 Rm - Rf = Average market risk premium

Beta (β )= How much of the average market risk premium (Rm - Rf) is needed

Systematic and non-systematic risk

More technically Beta (β ) = Systematic risk of the investment compared to the market

Systematic risk

Market wide risk - such as state of the economy

All companies, though, do not have the same systematic risk as some are affected more or less than
others by external economic factors

Non Systematic Risk

Risk that is unique to a certain asset or company.

An example of nonsystematic risk is the possibility of poor earnings or a strike amongst a company’s
employees.

Non-systematic risk can be diversified away

 One may mitigate nonsystematic risk by buying different securities in the

same industry or different industries.

For example, a particular oil company has the diversifiable risk that it may drill
little or no oil in a given year.

An investor may mitigate this risk by investing in several different oil

companies as well as in companies having nothing to do with oil.

Nonsystematic risk is also called diversifiable risk.

 An explanation of the graph

 If you have 1 share and this share does badly, then you DO BADLY.
 If you have 10 shares and 1 share does badly, you are sad about 1 share, but
you are still HAPPY about the other 9.
 Therefore with 1 share you are taking more risk than if you have more shares.

This risk is called UNSYSTEMATIC RISK

 So, we can buy more shares and therefore the UNSYSTEMATIC RISK should
GET SMALLER
 You will be always left with some risk that can't be diversified away.

This risk is called SYSTEMATIC RISK.

It is BETA (β) in the CAPM formulae

CAPM continue

How risky is the specific investment compared to the market as a whole?

1. This is the ‘beta’ of the investment If beta is 1, the investment has the same
risk as the market overall.
2. If beta > 1, the investment is riskier (more volatile) than the market and
investors should demand a higher return than the market return to
compensate for the additional risk.
3. If beta < 1, the investment is less risky than the market and investors would be
satisfied with a lower return than the market return.

Illustration

Risk free rate = 5%

Market return + 14%

What returns should be required from investments whose beta values

are:
(i) 1
(ii) 2
(iii) 0.5
 Cost of Equity = Rf +beta(Rm - Rf)

(i) = 5 + 1(14 - 5) = 14%

The return required from an investment with the same risk as the market,
which is simply the market return.
 (ii) = 5 + 2(14 - 5) = 23%

The return required from an investment with twice the risk as the market.

A higher return than that given by the market is therefore required.

 (iii) = 5 + 0.5(14 - 5) = 9.5%

The return required from an investment with half the risk as the market.
A lower return than that given by the market is therefore required.

CAPM assumptions

The CAPM is often criticised as unrealistic because of the assumptions on which the
model is based, so it is important to be aware of these assumptions and the reasons
why they are criticised. The assumptions are as follows (Watson, D. and Head, A.
(2016) Corporate Finance: Principles and Practice, 7th edition, Pearson Education
Limited, Harlow pp.258-9).

Investors hold diversified portfolios

This assumption means that investors will only require a return for the systematic risk of
their portfolios, since unsystematic risk has been diversified and can be ignored.

Single-period transaction horizon

A standardised holding period is assumed by the CAPM to make the returns on

different securities comparable. A return over six months, for example, cannot be
compared to a return over 12 months. A holding period of one year is usually used.

Investors can borrow and lend at the risk-free rate of return

This is an assumption made by portfolio theory, from which the CAPM was developed,
and provides a minimum level of return required by investors. The risk-free rate of return
corresponds to the intersection of the security market line (SML) and the y-axis (see
Figure 1). The SML is a graphical representation of the CAPM formula.

Perfect capital market

This assumption means that all securities are valued correctly and that their returns will
plot on to the SML. A perfect capital market requires the following: that there are no
taxes or transaction costs; that perfect information is freely available to all investors
who, as a result, have the same expectations; that all investors are risk averse, rational
and desire to maximise their own utility; and that there are a large number of buyers and
sellers in the market.
While the assumptions made by the CAPM allow it to focus on the relationship between
return and systematic risk, the idealised world created by the assumptions is not the
same as the real world in which investment decisions are made by companies and
individuals.

Real-world capital markets are clearly not perfect, for example. Even though it can be
argued that well-developed stock markets do, in practice, exhibit a high degree of
efficiency, there is scope for stock market securities to be priced incorrectly and so for
their returns not to plot onto the SML.

The assumption of a single-period transaction horizon appears reasonable from a real-

world perspective, because even though many investors hold securities for much longer
than one year, returns on securities are usually quoted on an annual basis.

The assumption that investors hold diversified portfolios means that all investors want to
hold a portfolio that reflects the stock market as a whole. Although it is not possible to
own the market portfolio itself, it is quite easy and inexpensive for investors to diversify
away specific or unsystematic risk and to construct portfolios that ‘track’ the stock
market. Assuming that investors are concerned only with receiving financial
compensation for systematic risk seems therefore to be quite reasonable.

A more serious problem is that investors cannot in the real world borrow at the risk-free
rate (for which the yield on short-dated government debt is taken as a proxy). The
reason for this is that the risk associated with individual investors is much higher than
that associated with the government. This inability to borrow at the risk-free rate means
that in practice the slope of the SML is shallower than in theory.
 Overall, it seems reasonable to conclude that while the assumptions of the CAPM
represent an idealised world rather than the real-world, there is a strong possibility, in
the real world, of a linear relationship between required return and systematic risk.

WACC and CAPM

The weighted average cost of capital (WACC) can be used as the discount rate in
investment appraisal provided that some restrictive assumptions are met. These
assumptions are as follows:

 the investment project is small compared to the investing organisation

 the business activities of the investment project are similar to the business activities currently
undertaken by the investing organisation
 the financing mix used to undertake the investment project is similar to the current financing mix
(or capital structure) of the investing company
 existing finance providers of the investing company do not change their required rates of return
as a result of the investment project being undertaken.

These assumptions are essentially saying that WACC can be used as the discount rate
provided that the investment project does not change either the business risk or the
financial risk of the investing organisation.

If the business risk of the investment project is different to that of the investing
organisation, the CAPM can be used to calculate a project-specific discount rate. The
procedure for this calculation was covered in the second article in this series.

The benefit of using a CAPM-derived project-specific discount rate is illustrated in

Figure 2. Using the CAPM will lead to better investment decisions than using the WACC
in the two shaded areas, which can be represented by projects A and B.

Project A would be rejected if WACC is used as the discount rate, because the internal
rate of return (IRR) of the project is less than the WACC. This investment decision is
incorrect, however, since project A would be accepted if a CAPM-derived project-
specific discount rate is used because the project IRR lies above the SML. The project
offers a return greater than that needed to compensate for its level of systematic risk,
and accepting it will increase the wealth of shareholders.

Project B would be accepted if WACC was used as the discount rate because its IRR is
greater than the WACC.
 This investment decision is also incorrect, however, since project B would be rejected if
using a CAPM-derived project-specific discount rate, because the project IRR offers
insufficient compensation for its level of systematic risk (Watson and Head, pp.291-2).

Advantages of the CAPM

The CAPM has several advantages over other methods of calculating required return,
explaining why it has been popular for more than 40 years:

 It considers only systematic risk, reflecting a reality in which most investors have diversified
portfolios from which unsystematic risk has been essentially eliminated.
 It is a theoretically-derived relationship between required return and systematic risk which has
been subject to frequent empirical research and testing.
 It is generally seen as a much better method of calculating the cost of equity than the dividend
growth model (DGM) in that it explicitly considers a company’s level of systematic risk relative to
the stock market as a whole.
 It is clearly superior to the WACC in providing discount rates for use in investment appraisal.

Disadvantages of the CAPM

The CAPM suffers from several disadvantages and limitations that should be noted in a
balanced discussion of this important theoretical model.
Assigning values to CAPM variables

To use the CAPM, values need to be assigned to the risk-free rate of return, the return
on the market, or the equity risk premium (ERP), and the equity beta.

The yield on short-term government debt, which is used as a substitute for the risk-free
rate of return, is not fixed but changes regularly with changing economic circumstances.
A short-term average value can be used to smooth out this volatility.

Finding a value for the equity risk premium (ERP) is more difficult. The return on a stock
market is the sum of the average capital gain and the average dividend yield. In the
short term, a stock market can provide a negative rather than a positive return if the
effect of falling share prices outweighs the dividend yield. It is therefore usual to use a
long-term average value for the ERP, taken from empirical research, but it has been
found that the ERP is not stable over time. In the UK, an ERP value of between 3.5%
and 4.8% is currently seen as reasonable. However, uncertainty about the ERP value
introduces uncertainty into the calculated value for the required return.

Beta values are now calculated and published regularly for all stock exchange-listed
companies. The problem here is that uncertainty arises in the value of the expected
return because the value of beta is not constant, but changes over time.

Using the CAPM in investment appraisal

Problems can arise in using the CAPM to calculate a project-specific discount rate. For
example, one common difficulty is finding suitable proxy betas, since proxy companies
very rarely undertake only one business activity. The proxy beta for a proposed
investment project must be disentangled from the company’s equity beta. One way to
do this is to treat the equity beta as a portfolio beta (βp), an average of the betas of
several different areas of proxy company activity, weighted by the relative share of the
proxy company market value arising from each activity.

βp = (W1β1) + (W2β2)

W1 and W2 are the market value weightings of each business area

β1 and β2 are the equity betas of each business area.

Example

A proxy company, Gib Co, has an equity beta of 1.2. Approximately 75% of the
business operations of Gib Co by market value are in the same business area as a
proposed investment. However, 25% of its business operations by market value are in a
business area unrelated to the proposed investment. These unrelated business
operations are 50% riskier, in systematic risk terms, than those of the proposed
investment. What is proxy equity beta for the proposed investment?

Solution

Using the portfolio beta formula, βp = (W1β1) + (W2β2):

1.2 = (0.75 x β1) + (0.25 x 1.5 x β1) = (0.75 x β1) + (0.375 x β1) = 1.125 x β1

Proxy equity beta = β1 = 1.2/ 1.125 = 1.067

In this case note that β2 = 1.5 x β1

The information about relative shares of proxy company market value may be quite
difficult to obtain.

A similar difficulty is that ungearing proxy company betas uses capital structure
information that may not be readily available. Some companies have complex capital
structures with many different sources of finance. Other companies may have untraded
debt or use complex sources of finance such as convertible bonds.

The simplifying assumption that the beta of debt is zero will also lead to inaccuracy,
however small, in the calculated value of the project-specific discount rate.

Another disadvantage in using the CAPM in investment appraisal is that the assumption
of a single-period time horizon is at odds with the multi-period nature of investment
appraisal. While CAPM variables can be assumed constant in successive future
periods, experience indicates that this is not true in the real world.

Conclusion

Research has shown the CAPM stands up well to criticism, although attacks against it
have been increasing in recent years. Until something better presents itself, though, the
CAPM remains a very useful item in the financial management toolkit.

CAPM assumptions
1. Diversified investors
2. Perfect market (in fact they are semi strong at best)
3. Risk free return always available somewhere
4. All investors expectations are the same

Advantages of CAPM

1. The relationship between risk and return is market based

2. Correctly looks at systematic risk only
3. Good for appraising specific projects and works well in practice

Disadvantages of CAPM

1. It presumes a well diversified investor .

Others, including managers and employees may well want to know about the
unsystematic risk also
2. The return level is only seen as important not the way in which it is given.

For example dividends and capital gains have different tax treatments which
may be more or less beneficial to individuals.
3. It focuses on one period only.

Some inputs are very difficult to get hold of.

For example beta needs a subjective analysis

4. Generally CAPM overstates the required return for high beta shares and visa
vers