Battery Balancing System for Electric Vehicles

Solar Power Assisted

Mahmoud Abu Bandora, Visarion Catalin Ifrim, Moldovan Artiom
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
University Stefan cel Mare of Suceava
Suceava, Romania
mahmoud6671@gmail.com, ifrimpv@gmail.com, artiom.moldovan@ie.utm.md

Abstract—Battery system is a simple and widely used connected in parallel to increase the current which due to the
electrical energy storage system for industry, UPS, intelligent manufacturing conditions of the battery cells often imbalance.
applications, vehicles, electrical appliances and others. It can Cell imbalance has many causes. They are internal and
drive the integration of the vehicle and the power grid. In high external. Manufacturing variations include physical volume,
power applications, the battery is joint in series to enhance the internal impedance, and self-discharge rate. Some multi-rank
potential and joint in parallel to increase the current, but pack protection ICs drain unequally from the packs series
because of the processing conditions of the battery and the ranks, catalogued as the external source. The packs thermal
imbalance between each cell, the total power is reduced. One of difference affects cell self-discharge rates [5].
the most common balancing methods used today is passive
balancing, which is based on the principle that a power resistor One of the most common balancing methods used today is
incorporated in series discharges the excess when one of the cells passive balancing, which is based on the principle that a power
reaches the voltage or charge threshold so that the other cells resistor joined in series discharges the excess when one of the
can be charged. The present project intends to propose a solar cells reaches the voltage or charge threshold so that the other
power to balance the battery of an electric vehicle. There are cells can be charged [4], [5]. However, this type of
three approaches of process: the first is solar balancing, which equalization only applies when the system is charging, unlike
uses solar energy to charge the accumulator according to the the charge and discharge modes, and the efficiency of the
lowest state of charge (SOC) while driving, the second refers to
battery in this situation is relatively low. Active equalization,
the energy stored in the memory cell which is delivered via the
consequently, transfers energy from the charged cell to the
DC-DC converter to the accumulator cell with the lowest SOC,
and the third is charging according to the altitude SOC when
discharged cell and can be performed in both charge and
the vehicle is charging from an outlet and is parked. For the discharge modes. In active equalization, there are two types of
simulation, it has been used a battery pack with four 13.8 V Etch operations: capacitive equalization and inductive equalization
One, batteries connected in series. Conformable to the results of [3], [6].
simulation, the proposed method can economize 1.465% to State of charge (SOC) in battery systems indicates
1.904% of a 50 Ah battery pack total capacity every 13.2 km. operating conditions and regulates charge/discharge decisions
The accumulator pack can be balanced when the solar current
to ensure safety and longevity. Thus, battery management
is about 6-7 A. The balancing remains very successful even if the
systems (BMS) always prioritize accurate estimation. SOC
solar current is reduced to 2-3 A or if the cell storage mode is
used with the identical current limitation.
estimation is difficult due to the voltage inverse mapping high
sensitivity, model uncertainties, mapping nonlinearity, cycle-
Keywords—battery system, assisted battery, solar power, to-cycle variations, and measurement errors. Many
photovoltaic, balancing system, electric cars researchers and battery manufacturers have studied SOC
estimation [7].
I. INTRODUCTION
In capacitive balancing, one or more cells are connected in
Battery system is a simple and widely used electrical parallel, and the energy delivery process is the effect of
energy storage system for industry, UPS, intelligent different voltages across the cells and simple control, also the
applications, vehicles, electrical appliances and others. Since balancing action is sluggish. Inductive balancing utilizes
the vehicle's weight is a significant factor in the equation, it is inductors to deliver energy amongst cells and can charge cells
crucial and desirable to make the most efficient use of all of when the voltage of the charged cell is identical to or higher
the vehicle's parts, including the batteries, which are becoming than the voltage of the charging cell, also the resulted mix
increasingly common as the use of electric vehicles spreads means a reduction in range for the car. For these reasons,
around the globe [1]. It can catalyze the integration of the another type of battery balancing concept, discussing and
vehicle and the power grid [2]. In high power processes, the creating solutions which uses an external source is proposed.
battery is united in series to enhance the potential and united The actual project refers to solar energy as an external source
in parallel to enhance the current, but due to the output to charge the cells in low state of charge [6-9].
conditions of the battery and the imbalance between each cell,
the total power is reduced. All series-connected lithium-based II. SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
battery systems incorporate cell balancing circuits. Shunting Due to the limited space available to install photovoltaic
resistors are used in passive cell balancing to divert charge panels on the roof of the vehicle, it is not currently possible to
current and dissipate energy, allowing for the balancing of power the entire vehicle using only solar energy. Even though
high-voltage cells. solar energy is limited, it still can be used to balance the
Recent proposals in the literature for active cell balancing batteries in the system. There are three modes of operation for
methods are outlined in [3], [4] and considers batteries solar power as a balancing battery system, namely:

979-8-3503-2682-6/23/$31.00 ©2023 IEEE

 • When driving the car, the solar energy will be charged The entire capability of the storage cell is determined by
legitimately if the solar energy is collected during the the architecture of the vehicle’s engine. In comparation to the
day when it is sunny and there are no clouds; accumulator battery pack, it can be as much as 10% of the
range. Since the energy stock of the cell is utilized exclusively
• The car runs and the solar energy is hard to collect, and to compensate the variations of SOC between the battery cells,
it is charged by plug in the night state of charge. In this it is used for balancing. The cell that stores can be a
approach the solar energy balances the accumulator supercapacitor or a low-voltage accumulator cell. When the
system by discharge to the storage cell; car is started and the battery system is loaded by the plug-in
• While driving on a bright day, solar energy is utilized charger, the controller actively discharges the accumulator
to load discharged battery cells (SOC). cells with the highest voltage into the storage cell, resulting in
no energy loss. If the voltage of the cellule that stores is
Energy that is needed to balance the battery system gets identical to or greater than the voltage of the battery cells, the
generated by solar power or a storage cell and is separate of regulator is substitute by a step-down converter that transfers
the battery system, so the total energy loss of the storage energy from the accumulator to the cell used to store.
system through balancing is minimal. Another advantage of
solar power is that the power needed for accumulator system When solar energy is minimum, such as at night, through
balancing is also free [3-9]. a rainstorm, on a cloudy day or the solar panel is disconnected
from the DC bus (switch Ds1 is open), and the storage cellule
acts as a compensation source of power. Returning to Fig. 1,
it can be applied a control algorithm to select one of many
modes.

Fig. 1. Network architecture of the process [3].

The system architecture of the battery balancing system is

shown in Fig. 1. As shown, we take a four-cell battery set. In
this process, the high-voltage battery pack, the storage cell, the Fig. 3. Simulation switch box circuit topology [3].
dc-dc converter and the solar panel share a common dc bus.
The utmost yield voltage of the dc-dc converter must be The circuit architecture of the control box is shown in Fig.
greater than the threshold voltage of the accumulator pack and 3 with S1-S8 which are the eight digitally controlled switches.
charge the cell selected by the control algorithm. The control If the total number of battery modules is considered n, the total
algorithm includes a switch box that connects the battery pack of switches is 2n. It can be seen that, these switches can be
with the lowest/highest voltage that demands to be packed on a compact PCB with MOSFETs ideal switches for
charged/discharged to the DC bus. The storage cellule is used simulation, mounted independently from the accumulator
to deposit solar energy as well as discharge energy while the pack, or incorporated into the solar panel/DC converter.
car is parked to be charged so that the accumulator cells can Consequently, no changes or modifications to the battery cells
be balanced and entirely charged even when solar energy is are required, so the proposed system can be easily integrated
not available through charging, such as when the car gets into the vehicle body. Initially, all switches (S1-S8) are
parked in a covered location. For example, when the car is usually open. Controlling algorithm monitors the voltage or
parked indoors or run in night time or in cloudy/ rainy assess the SOC of each accumulator cell and shuts two
weather, the battery pack can still be balanced with energy switches (at a time are closed only two switches) to connect
from the storage cell [3, 10]. the battery cell to the DC bus. As example, to
charge/discharge battery 1, are closed switches S1 and S3. To
avoid short circuiting the DC bus or the battery cells, switches
connected to the same battery cell terminal and the same DC
bus terminal are never closed at an identical time.
III. CONTROLLING ALGORITHM AND OPERATING MODES
Because of the limitations and unpredictability of solar
energy (at night, in rain, cloudy, indoors), to balance the
battery cells, the proposed equipment also has a storage
balancing mode through discharge utilizing the storage energy
in the storage cell, and a balancing charge mode to store the
energy that is active discharged and store it alongside with the
solar energy in the battery. This feature is unique to the studied
Fig. 2. MATLAB system architecture of the system. system that optimizes the use of solar energy. The functioning
depends on the weather conditions and type of vehicle [3, 11].
A. Case 1: Mode of Solar Balancing switches DS2 and DS4 are closed (OFF) to activate the storage
Fig. 3 indicates the solar balancing mode of the system. equalization case. In this condition, the energy stored in the
When the vehicle is driving and the weather is sunny, both memory cell is delivered via the DC-DC converter to the
switches DS1 and DS4 are closed, and the battery pack is accumulator cell with the lowest SOC /voltage [3-12].
drained to power the vehicle's engine.

Fig. 6. System architecture for storage balancing case [3, 12].

Fig. 4. Solar balancing mode of the proposed system [3]. Since the amount of energy stored in the memory cell is
The accumulator cells with the lowest SOC/voltage are narrowed and the battery cells are balanced, the flow of energy
linked and charged with solar power through the DC-DC out of the memory cell is stopped.
converter. When all battery bank is configured to the same
SOC/voltage is charged by connecting it to the DC bus.

Fig. 7. MATLAB scheme of the system for storage balancing case [12].

The storage balancing case switch box status is shown in

Fig. 5. MATLAB scheme of the system for solar balancing case [3]. Table II. The balancing charging power in this case is
The switch box condition for this type of balancing mode regulated by the output voltage of dc/dc converter and
is shown in Table I. The maximum energy gathered out of the specified by the following equation:
solar panel and loaded to the battery cell is described by the
following equation: Pc=[(Vo-Voc)/Rin]*Vt (2)

Pm=(ns*Vm)*(np*Im)*ηc (1) Where Vt is the terminal voltage; Rin is the internal

resistance; Voc represents the charge battery cell open–circuit;
Where ηc is the dc/dc converter efficiency; Pm represents Vo is the output voltage of the dc/dc converter and Pc
the maximum power charged to the battery cell by the solar represents the charging power to the battery at the lowest
panel; ns and np are the number of series/parallel panels in voltage or SOC.
array; Vm and Im are the module voltage/current for each panel
TABLE II. SWITCH STATUS FOR STORAGE BALANCING CASE [3, 9]
at MPPT.
Charged
DS1 DS2 DS3 DS4 DS5 DS6 DS7 DS8
TABLE I. SWITCH STATUS FOR SOLAR BALANCING CASE Module
OFF ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON Module1
Charged
DS1 DS2 DS3 DS4 DS5 DS6 DS7 DS8
Module ON OFF ON ON OFF ON ON ON Module2
OFF ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON Module1 ON ON ON OFF ON ON OFF ON Module3
ON OFF ON ON OFF ON ON ON Module2 ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF Module4
ON ON ON OFF ON ON OFF ON Module3 ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON Balanced
ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF Module4
C. Case 3: Mode of Charge Balancing
OFF ON ON ON ON ON ON OFF Balanced
When solar energy is difficult to harvest (at night or on
B. Case 2: Mode of Storage Balancing cloudy days), opened switches are DS1 and DS3. When the
When solar energy is difficult to harvest (at night or on car is parked and charging via plugin/solar power, the charge
cloudy days), switches DS1 and DS3 are opened (ON) and
balancing mode is activated and the DC bus is connected by is provided by high-voltage cells. However, in balancing
disconnecting DS1 and DS3, as indicated in Fig. 8. equipment that are passive, the high-voltage accumulator cells
are discharged by power resistors, what loses this fraction of
the energy by converting it into heat instead of storing it.
IV. SYSTEM MODELING AND SIMULATION
A model-based simulation to assess the balancing and
energy saving capacity of the elaborated system, as well as to
analogy it to active/passive battery balancing systems has
been created with MATLAB software. Fig. 7 depicts the
modeling and simulation layout.

Fig. 8. System architecture for charge balancing case [3].

In this case, a plug-in charger charges the accumulator Fig. 10. Vehicle modeling and simulation diagram [2, 3, 6, 12].
pack, and when solar power is generated, it charges the storage The mechanistic power necessary to overpower
cell. The controlling algorithm measures the voltage of each acceleration resistance and road resistance is calculated by the
battery cell and connects to the DC bus the cell with the vehicle dynamics subsystem. The powertrain subsystem, what
highest voltage [3, 5]. consists of the driveline, inverter, and electric motor
determines the required electric power out of the mechanistic
power.
Accumulators are emptied by the load of electric power
traction, and the balancing schemes of the battery modules is
equalized by the balancing circuit. Table IV indicates the
parameters of the vehicle model. The car is modeled as a
utility cart (dc motor) containing four Lead-acid 12-V rated
accumulator cells in series with little various capabilities but
the same initially SOC [2, 4].

TABLE IV. PARAMETERS OF VEHICLE MODEL USED IN SIMULATION

Description Value
Fig. 9. MATLAB scheme of the system for charge balancing case [12].
Traction Moto Rated/Max Power 3.68 [Kw]
The regulator will drain the battery cell. The charge-
balancing mode switch box position is shown in Table III. In Balancing Efficiency 95 [%]
this case, the discharging power of the accumulator cell with Capacity of Battery 1 50 [Ah]
the greatest voltage is regulated by the regulator's yield Capacity of Battery 2 49 [Ah]
voltage and the following equation:
Capacity of Battery 3 47 [Ah]
Pd=[((V’o-V’oc)/R’in)*V’t]/ηr (3) Capacity of Battery 4 48 [Ah]
Initially SOC 90 [% ]
Where ɳr is the efficiency of the regulator; V’t is terminal
Resistance of Internal Battery 16.5 [mΩ]
voltage; R’in is the internal resistance; V’oc is the storage cell
open-circuit voltage; V’o is the output voltage of the voltage The Manhattan Bus Cycle (MBC) is used as a baseline
regulator and Pd represents the discharging power of the drive cycle for testing various accumulator balancing
highest voltage accumulator. strategies during discharge. That’s because of the MBC's top
speed of less than 25 mph, what corresponds to commercial
TABLE III. SWITCH STATUS FOR CHARGE BALANCING CASE
vehicle operating conditions [5, 2]. The vehicle battery
DS1 DS2 DS3 DS4 DS5 DS6 DS7 DS8
Charged current, traction power and speed as a function of MBC time
Module for the simulated vehicle are indicated in Fig. 11.
OFF ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON Module1
ON OFF ON ON OFF ON ON ON Module2
ON ON ON OFF ON ON OFF ON Module3
ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF Module4
ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON Balanced

The storage cell stores both discharge energy and captured

solar energy. The utmost charging power of the solar module Fig. 11. MBC (path) feature for simulation vehicle.
is also described in (1). In this case, all the energy needed to
balance the battery is free. Unlike balancing equipment that For the simulation model, instead of battery cells, are used
are active, the energy needed to charge low-voltage batteries circuits type internal resistance (Rint) connected in series and
loaded with identical current. The circuit type internal V. SIMULATION RESULTS
resistance of the battery cell is indicated in Fig. 12. The simulation studies were conducted for three scenarios:
no balancing, storage balancing and solar balancing, with the
balancing performance displayed in Fig. 15, which in the
simulation studies can be repeated as needed. The power curve
in Fig. 15 has been measured with a real 100 W solar module
(a random signal was used for the simulation).

Fig. 12. Battery internal-resistance circuit model [2, 3].

The charge/discharge current and threshold voltage are

used to calculate the open circuit voltage. The state of charge
of an accumulator can be estimated using the curve displayed
in Fig. 13, which shows the typical relationship SOC-open-
circuit voltage of a lead-acid accumulator at 20°C.

Fig. 15. Open circuit voltage versus Battery SOC.

The vehicle travels for 1600 seconds for each mode to

produce the exact same discharge state, which is equivalent to
13.22 km in the actual vehicle. The whole amount of energy
input for 1600 sec by solar balance mode, storage balance
mode (sec) and SOCs of the battery modules for each mode
are indicated in Table V. Also, the total SOC of the battery set
estimated by (4) for every balance mode is indicated.

TABLE V. EACH BALANCING MODE TOTAL SOC

Balancing No Solar Storage
Fig. 13. Battery SOC-open-circuit voltage curve [3].
Scheme Balancing Balancing Balancing
Whilst the battery cells have various capabilitiess and all Soc (1600s) 27.3% 32.5% 31.3%
cells are modeled with identical internal resistance, they Soc (250s) 68.45% 69.7% 69.3%
embrace the curve exposed in Fig. 14.
A. Mode 1 – Model without balancing
In Fig.16 it is indicated the battery SOC for the no
balancing model. As 89.5% SOC is reached, the width of the
use increases; note the difference in the SOC of the batteries.
This would lead to overcharging of the batteries with low SOC
or a reduction in vehicle age range, if all batteries were set to
the same cut-off SOC threshold [4-12].

Fig. 14. Lead-acid battery SOC-open-circuit voltage curve at 20 °C.

A weaker pack will have a lower threshold voltage when

discharging because the accumulator cells are joined in series
to produce a 48 V yield voltage and the total SOC of the entire Fig. 16. Battery SOC without balancing.
battery system is estimated using the following equation:
Fig. 16 displays that as the SOC reaches 89.5%, the width
SOCall=(∑4𝑖𝑖=1 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 ∗ 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 )/ ∑𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖=1 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 (4) of the use increases, and it can also be noticed the difference
in the batteries SOC. If the identical cut-off SOC threshold
Where Ci is the Ah capacity of the battery with index i was set for all batteries, it would outcome in over-discharging
equivalent to 1÷4 and SOCi represents the state of charge for of low SOC batteries or a reduction in vehicle age range [13],
each battery with index i equal to 1÷4. [14]. However, with any form of balancing, the batteries state
of charge may be equalized and over-discharging prevented.
It is critical to note that the internal resistance model does
not count for battery polarization and temperature effects, B. Mode 2 – Model with solar balancing
which may lead to less precise outcomes in real accumulator This model algorithm begins with a control unit [15] that
modeling and parameter admission. determines if the vehicle is in driving or parking mode, then
selects one of two branches, checks the minimum battery, and
connects it to the dc bus through a particular switch. In Fig. 17 mode charged with identical current constraint, the balancing
it’s displayed the SOC for the solar balancing model [1]. remains very successful. The simulation tests confirmed that
the suggested balancing equipment can successfully balance
the batteries within various parking/charging and
driving/discharging situations.
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