mountains

lines passes through states and world Important areas passes

Antarctic Circle rivers and tributaries
Arctic Circle
Equator Location
Prime meridian Place
Tropic of Cancer Movement
Tropic of Capricorn Region
Contour line
International Date Line national parks
Latitude protected areas
Longitude biosphere reserves
Circle of latitude sea
Temperate zones
Isocheim ocean
Isochrone mines
minerals
landforms industries
volcanoes lakes
plates dams
landforms national highways
border states
border countries
climatic regions
tiger reserves
disaster affected area
Hurricane
tornadoes
winds
soil
crop
monsoon
natural vegetation
drainage patterns
hills
glaciers
valleys
snow-line
ranges
rocks
plateau
gulf
straits
isthmus
tides
coral reefs
ocean currents
jet streams
latitude
longitude
Figure 2.8 : Time zones of the World

14 Geostrategic locations THE EARTH : OUR HABITAT

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 MAJOR DOMAINS OF THE EARTH

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SOUTHERN OCEAN

Figure 5.1 : The World : Continents and Oceans

31
 South America lies
mostly in the Southern
Hemisphere. Which two
oceans surround it on
the east and the west?
The Andes, world’s
longest mountain
range, runs through its
length from north to
south (Figure 5.1).
South America has the
world’s largest river, the
Amazon.
Australia is the
smallest continent that
lies entirely in the Name the Strait
Southern Hemisphere. between India
It is surrounded on all and Sri Lanka.
sides by the oceans and
seas. It is called an Figure 5.2 : Isthmus and Strait
island continent.
Antarctica, completely in the Southern Hemisphere,
is a huge continent. The South Pole lies almost at the
centre of this continent. As it is located in the South
Polar Region, it is permanently covered with thick ice
sheets. There are no permanent human settlements.
Many countries have research stations in Antarctica.
India also has research stations there. These are named
as Maitri and Bharati.

H YDROSPHERE
The earth is called the blue planet. More than 71 per
cent of the earth is covered with water and 29 per
cent is with land. Hydrosphere consists of water in
all its forms. As running water in oceans and rivers
and in lakes, ice in glaciers, underground water and
Fresh
the water vapour in atmosphere, all comprise the Water
hydrosphere. 2.5%

More than 97% of the Earth’s water is found in the

oceans and is too salty for human use. A large Oceans
proportion of the rest of the water is in the form of 97.5%
icesheets and glaciers or under the ground and a very
small percentage is available as fresh water for human

MAJOR DOMAINS OF THE EARTH 33

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points would be of about two hours. As you have learnt earlier, the local time
changes by four minutes for every one degree of longitude. The sun rises about
two hours earlier in the east (Arunachal Pradesh) than in the west (Gujarat). You
o
have already read earlier, why the local time of longitude of 82 30'E has been
taken as the Indian Standard Time. This meridian or longitude is also termed as
the Standard Meridian of India.
INDIA’S NEIGHBOURS
There are seven countries that share land boundaries with India. Find out names

Figure 6.1 : India and its neighbouring countries

40 THE EARTH : OUR HABITAT

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Figure 6.2 : Political map of India

OUR COUNTRY – INDIA 41

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of these countries from the Figure 6.1. How many of these countries do not have
access to any ocean or sea? Across the sea to the south, lie our island neighbours—
Sri Lanka and Maldives. Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Palk Strait.
POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS
India is a vast country. For administrative purposes, the country is divided into 28

Figure 6.3 : India : Physical Divisions

42 THE EARTH : OUR HABITAT

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 Fig. 5.2: World – Major Seas, Lakes and Rivers

amount of dissolved salts. Most of the salt is sodium

chloride or the common table salt that you eat.
WATER 31

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 Fig. 5.6: Ocean Currents

world. Seas around Japan and the eastern coast of

North America are such examples. The areas where a
warm and cold current meet also experience foggy
weather making it difficult for navigation.

Exercises

1. Answer the following questions.

(i) What is precipitation?
(ii) What is water cycle?
(iii) What are the factors affecting the height of the waves?
(iv) Which factors affect the movement of ocean water?
(v) What are tides and how are they caused?
(vi) What are ocean currents?
2. Give reasons.
(i) Ocean water is salty.
(ii) The quality of water is deterioting.

WATER 37

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 LIFE IN THE AMAZON BASIN
Before learning about the Amazon basin, let us look at the
Do you know? map (Fig. 6.2). Notice that the tropical region lies very
close to the equator; between 10°N and 10°S. So, it is referred
When Spanish to as the equatorial region. The river Amazon flows through
explorers discovered this region. Notice how it flows from the mountains to the
the Amazon river,
west and reaches the Atlantic Ocean to the east.
they were attacked by
a group of local tribes The place where a river flows into another body of
wearing headgears water is called the river’s mouth. Numerous tributaries
and grass skirts. join the Amazon River to form the Amazon basin. The
These people river basin drains portions of Brazil, parts of Peru, Bolivia,
reminded them of the Ecuador, Columbia and a small part of Venezuela.
fierce tribes of women
Name the countries of the basin through which the
warriors known in
ancient Roman equator passes.
Empire as the
Amazons. Hence the
name Amazon.

Glossary

Tributaries: These
are small rivers that
join the main river.
The main river along
with all its tributaries
that drain an area
forms a river basin or
the catchment area.
The Amazon Basin is
the largest river basin
in the world.

Fig. 6.2: The Amazon Basin in South America

40 OUR ENVIRONMENT

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LIFE IN THE GANGA-BRAHMAPUTRA BASIN
The tributaries of rivers Ganga and
Brahmaputra together form the
Ganga-Brahmaputra basin in the
Indian subcontinent (Fig. 6.8). The
basin lies in the sub-tropical region
that is situated between 10°N to 30°N
latitudes. The tributaries of the River
Ganga like the Ghaghra, the Son, the
Chambal, the Gandak, the Kosi and
the tributaries of Brahmaputra drain
it. Look at the atlas and find names
of some tributaries of the River
Brahmaputra. Fig. 6.7 Brahmaputra river
The plains of the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra, the mountains and the foothills of the

Fig. 6.8: Ganga-Brahmputra Basin

HUMAN ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS: THE TROPICAL AND THE SUBTROPICAL REGION 43

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 Fig. 3.1: World Distribution of Arable Land

Do you know?
Agriculture
The science and art of cultivation on the soil, raising
crops and rearing livestock. It is also called farming.
Agri
Sericulture
Seri Commercial rearing of silk worms. It may supplement the
income of the farmer.
Pisci + Culture
Pisciculture
Breeding of fish in specially constructed tanks and ponds.
Viti
Viticulture
Horti Cultivation of grapes.

Horticulture
Growing vegetables, flowers and fruits for commercial use.

Farm System
Agriculture or farming can be looked at as a system. The
important inputs are seeds, fertilisers, machinery and
Agriculture 23

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Chapter-3.indd 23 8/17/2022 11:34:56 AM

 Fig 4.4: World’s Industrial Regions

industrial regions tend to be located in the temperate

areas, near sea ports and especially near coal fields.
India has several industrial regions like Mumbai-
Pune cluster, Bangalore-Tamil Nadu region, Hugli region,
Ahmedabad-Baroda region, Chottanagpur industrial belt,
Vishakhapatnam-Guntur belt, Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut
region and the Kollam-Thiruvanathapuram industrial
cluster.

Industrial Disaster
In industries, accidents/disasters mainly occur due to technical
failure or irresponsible handling of hazardous material.
One of the worst industrial disasters of all time occurred
in Bhopal on 3 December 1984 around 00:30 a.m. It was
a technological accident in which highly poisonous Methyl
Isocynate (MIC) gas along with Hydrogen Cyanide and other
reaction products leaked out of the pesticide factory of Union
Carbide. The official death toll was 3,598 in 1989. Thousands,
who survived still suffer from one or many ailments like blindness,
impaired immune system, gastrointestinal disorders, etc. Union Carbide Factory
Industries 35

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 Fig 4.8: World: Major Iron Ore Producing Areas

advantage of raw materials, cheap labour, transport and

market. All the important steel producing centres such as
Bhilai, Durgapur, Burnpur, Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro
are situated in a region that spreads over four states — West
Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha and Chhattisgarh. Bhadravati
and Vijay Nagar in Karnataka, Vishakhapatnam in Andhra
Pradesh, Salem in Tamil Nadu are other important steel
centres utilising local resources.

Jamshedpur
Before 1947, there was only one iron and steel plant in the
country – Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO). It
was privately owned. After Independence, the government
took the initiative and set up several iron and steel plants.
TISCO was started in 1907 at Sakchi, near the confluence of
the rivers Subarnarekha and Kharkai in Jharkhand. Later
on Sakchi was renamed as Jamshedpur. Geographically,
Jamshedpur is the most conveniently situated iron and
steel centre in the country.
38 Resources and Development

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 Sketch

Fig 4.9: Location of iron and steel industry in Jamshedpur

Sakchi was chosen to set up the steel plant for

several reasons. This place was only 32 km away from
Kalimati station on the Bengal-Nagpur railway line. It
was close to the iron ore, coal and manganese deposits
as well as to Kolkata, which provided a large market.
TISCO, gets coal from Jharia coalfields, and iron ore, Let’s do
limestone, dolomite and manganese from Odisha and With the help of
Chhattisgarh. The Kharkai and Subarnarekha rivers an atlas identify
some iron and
ensured sufficient water supply. Government initiatives
steel industries in
provided adequate capital for its later development. India and mark
In Jamshedpur, several other industrial plants were their location on
set up after TISCO. They produce chemicals, locomotive an outline map of
India.
parts, agricultural equipment, machinery, tinplate,
cable and wire.
The development of the iron and steel industry
opened the doors to rapid industrial development in
India. Almost all sectors of the Indian industry depend
heavily on the iron and steel industry for their basic
infrastructure. The Indian iron and steel industry
consists of large integrated steel plants as well as mini
Industries 39

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 Fig. 5.5: World: Differing rates of population growth

Population Composition
How crowded a country is, has little to do with its level of
economic development. For example, both Bangladesh
and Japan are very densely populated but Japan is
far more economically
developed than Bangladesh. I tell stories I build
To understand the role of to my bridges.
people as a resource, we need grandchildren.
to know more about their
qualities. People vary greatly I take
in their age, sex, literacy I sing at care of my
level, health condition, weddings. home.
occupation and income level.
It is essential to understand
these characteristics of
the people. Population I am researching
for medicines to I am a
composition refers to the cure cancer. farmer.
structure of the population.
The composition of Think: Every human being is potential resource for the society.
population helps us to know What will be your contribution as a human resource?
Human Resources 49

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 INDIA – SIZE AND LOCATION
1
I
ndia is one of the ancient civilisations in the The Tropic of Cancer (23° 30'N) divides the
world. It has achieved multi-faceted socio- country into almost two equal parts. To the
economic progress during the last five southeast and southwest of the mainland, lie
decades. It has moved forward displaying the Andaman and Nicobar islands and the
remarkable progress in the field of Lakshadweep islands in Bay of Bengal and
agriculture, industry, technology and overall Arabian Sea respectively. Find out the extent
economic development. India has also of these groups of islands from your atlas.
contributed significantly to the making of
world history. • The southernmost point of
the Indian Union– ‘Indira Point’ got submerged under
the sea water in 2004 during the Tsunami.
LOCATION
India is a vast country. Lying entirely in the SIZE
Northern hemisphere (Figure 1.1) the main The land mass of India has an area of 3.28
land extends between latitudes 8°4'N and million square km. India’s total area accounts
37°6'N and longitudes 68°7'E and 97°25'E. for about 2.4 per cent of the total geographical
180°W 150° 120° 90° 60° 30°W 0° 30°E 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°E

75°N

60°
North
America Europe 45°
Asia

30°

PACIFIC ATLANTIC Africa PACIFIC 15°N

OCEAN OCEAN OCEAN
0°
South INDIAN
America OCEAN
15°S

Australia
30°

45°

60°

Antartica 75°S

Figure 1.1 : India in the World

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 Figure 1.3 : India : Extent and Standard Meridian

INDIA – SIZE AND LOCATION 3

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 Figure 1.4 : India on International Highway of Trade and Commerce

India’s contacts with the World have

continued through ages but her relationships • The number of Union Territories
along the western and eastern coasts.
through the land routes are much older than • Area-wise which is the smallest and which is
her maritime contacts. The various passes across the largest state?
the mountains in the north have provided • The states which do not have an international
passages to the ancient travellers, while the border or lie on the coast.
oceans restricted such interaction for a long time. • Classify the states into four groups each
These routes have contributed in the having common frontiers with
(i) Pakistan, (ii) China, (iii) Myanmar, and
exchange of ideas and commodities since (iv) Bangladesh.
ancient times. The ideas of the Upanishads
and the Ramayana, the stories of Panchtantra,
India shares its land boundaries with
the Indian numerals and the decimal system
Pakistan and Afghanistan in the northwest,
thus could reach many parts of the world. The
China (Tibet), Nepal and Bhutan in the north
spices, muslin and other merchandise were
and Myanmar and Bangladesh in the east.
taken from India to different countries. On the
Our southern neighbours across the sea
other hand, the influence of Greek sculpture,
consist of the two island countries, namely
and the architectural styles of dome and
minarets from West Asia can be seen in
different parts of our country.
Before 1947, there were two
types of states in India — the provinces and the
INDIA’S NEIGHBOURS Princely states. Provinces were ruled directly by
British officials, who were appointed by the
India occupies an important strategic position Viceroy. Princely states were ruled by local,
in South Asia. India has 28 states and Eight hereditary rulers, who acknowledged sovereignity
Union Territories (Figure 1.5). in return for local autonomy.

4 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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 Figure 1.5 : India and Adjacent Countries

Sri Lanka and Maldives. Sri Lanka is India has had strong geographical and
separated from India by a narrow channel historical links with her neighbours. Look
of sea formed by the Palk Strait and the Gulf at the physical map of Asia in your atlas,
of Mannar, while Maldives Islands are situated and note how India stands apart from the
to the south of the Lakshadweep Islands. rest of Asia.

School Bhuvan is a portal providing map-based learning to bring awareness among the
students about the country’s natural resources, environment and their role in sustainable development. It
is an initiative of Bhuvan — NRSC/ISRO based on NCERT syllabus. You can explore various maps of
India related to the secondary stage on https://bhuvan-app1.nrsc.gov.in/mhrd_ncert/

INDIA – SIZE AND LOCATION 5

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 Figure 2.1 : Himalayas

Some Highest Peaks of the Himalayas The range lying to the south of the
Peak Country Height Himadri forms the most rugged mountain
in metres system and is known as Himachal or lesser
Mt. Everest Nepal 8848 Himalaya. The ranges are mainly composed
Kanchenjunga India 8598
Makalu Nepal 8481 of highly compressed and altered rocks. The
Dhaulagiri Nepal 8172 altitude varies between 3,700 and 4,500
Nanga Parbat India 8126
metres and the average width is of 50 Km.
Annapurna Nepal 8078
Nanda Devi India 7817 While the Pir Panjal range forms the longest
Kamet India 7756 and the most important range, the Dhaula
Namcha Barwa India 7756
Dhar and the Mahabharat ranges are also
Gurla Mandhata Nepal 7728
prominent ones. This range consists of the
The folds of the Great Himalayas are famous valley of Kashmir, the Kangra and
asymmetrical in nature. The core of this part Kullu Valley in Himachal Pradesh. This
of Himalayas is composed of granite. It is region is well-known for its hill stations.
perennially snow bound, and a number of
glaciers descend from this range.
• Location of Mussoorie, Nainital,
Ranikhet from your atlas and also name the state
where they are located.
• The names of the glaciers and passes
that lie in the Great Himalayas.
• The name of the states where the highest The outer-most range of the Himalayas is
peaks are located. called the Shiwaliks. They extend over a width

8 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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 Figure 2.2 : Relief

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA 9

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 Figure 3.4 : Major Rivers and Lakes

DRAINAGE 19

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 Figure 4.2 : Retreating Monsoon

CLIMATE 31

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 Figure 4.3 : Annual Rainfall

CLIMATE 33

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 Figure 5.4 : Natural Vegetation
Study the given map for the forest cover and try to find the reasons as to why certain states have more forest area
as compared to others?

NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE 41

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 Fig. 6.3: Density of Population (Census of India 2011)

Note: Telangana became the 29th State of India in June 2014.

* State of Jammu and Kashmir was bifurcated into two union territories namely Jammu and
Kashmir and Ladakh on 05.08.19.
50 CONTEMPORARY INDIA-I

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 India: Major Soil Types

8 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

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 India: Major Rivers and Dams

24 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

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India: Distribution of Rice

A GRICULTURE 33

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India: Distribution of Wheat

A GRICULTURE 35

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 India: Distribution of Iron Ore, Manganese, Bauxite and Mica

46 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

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 India: Distribution of Coal, Oil and Natural Gas

Collect information about cross country natural gas pipelines laid by GAIL
(India) under “One Nation One Grid”.

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES 51

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Rawat Bhata

India: Distribution of Nuclear and Thermal Power Plants

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES 53

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India: Distribution of cotton, woollen and silk industries

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 61

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India: Iron and Steel Plants

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 63

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India: Some Software Technology Parks

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 67

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 Activity
Railway line has been extended from Banihal to Baramula in the Kashmir Valley. Locate these
two towns on the map of India.
76 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

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India: Major Ports and Some International Airports

LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY 79

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INDIA – LOCATION 3

Figure 1.1 : India : Administrative Divisions

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 4
INDIA : PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Figure 1.2 : Location of India in the Eastern World

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10 INDIA : PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

Figure 2.2 : India : Physical

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18 INDIA : PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

Figure 3.2 : Major Rivers of India

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32 INDIA : PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

Figure 4.2 : India : Normal Dates of Onset of the Southwest Monsoon

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36 INDIA : PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

Figure 4.3 : India : Seasonal Rainfall (June-September)

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CLIMATE 39

Figure 4.4 : India : Annual Rainfall

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NATURAL VEGETATION 43

Figure 5.2 : Natural Vegetation

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NATURAL VEGETATION 49

Figure 5.8 : India : Biosphere Reserves

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58 INDIA : PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

Figure 6.2 : India: Earthquake Hazard Zones

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NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS 61

Figure 6.4 : Wind and Cyclone Hazard Zones

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NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS 63

Dib
ang
R.
R.
hit
Lo

Figure 6.6 : Flood Hazard Zones

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NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS 65

Figure 6.7 : Drought Prone Areas

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30 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Figure 4. 2 : Distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes

available at the time Wegener put forth his (iv) The sediments on the ocean floor are
concept of continental drift. Particularly, the unexpectedly very thin. Scientists were
mapping of the ocean floor and palaeomagnetic expecting, if the ocean floors were as old
studies of rocks from oceanic regions revealed as the continent, to have a complete
the following facts : sequence of sediments for a period of much
(i) It was realised that all along the mid- longer duration. However, nowhere was the
oceanic ridges, volcanic eruptions are sediment column found to be older than
common and they bring huge amounts of 200 million years.
lava to the surface in this area. (v) The deep trenches have deep-seated
(ii) The rocks equidistant on either sides of the earthquake occurrences while in the mid-
crest of mid-oceanic ridges show oceanic ridge areas, the quake foci have
remarkable similarities in terms of period shallow depths.
of formation, chemical compositions and These facts and a detailed analysis of magnetic
magnetic properties. Rocks closer to the properties of the rocks on either sides of the
mid-oceanic ridges have normal polarity mid-oceanic ridge led Hess (1961) to propose
and are the youngest. The age of the rocks his hypothesis, known as the “sea floor
increases as one moves away from the spreading”. Hess argued that constant
crest. eruptions at the crest of oceanic ridges cause
(iii) The ocean crust rocks are much younger the rupture of the oceanic crust and the new
than the continental rocks. The age of rocks lava wedges into it, pushing the oceanic crust
in the oceanic crust is nowhere more than on either side. The ocean floor, thus spreads.
200 million years old. Some of the continental The younger age of the oceanic crust as well
rock formations are as old as 3,200 million as the fact that the spreading of one ocean does
years. not cause the shrinking of the other, made Hess

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32 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

concept termed Plate Tectonics. A tectonic I Antarctica and the surrounding

plate (also called lithospheric plate) is a oceanic plate
massive, irregularly-shaped slab of solid rock, II North American (with western Atlantic
generally composed of both continental and floor separated from the South American
oceanic lithosphere. Plates move horizontally plate along the Caribbean islands) plate
over the asthenosphere as rigid units. The III South American (with western Atlantic
lithosphere includes the crust and top mantle floor separated from the North American
with its thickness range varying between plate along the Caribbean islands) plate
5 and100 km in oceanic parts and about 200 IV Pacific plate
km in the continental areas. A plate may be V India-Australia-New Zealand plate
referred to as the continental plate or oceanic VI Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
plate depending on which of the two occupy a VII Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate.
larger portion of the plate. Pacific plate is Some important minor plates are listed below:
largely an oceanic plate whereas the Eurasian (i) Cocos plate : Between Central America
plate may be called a continental plate. The and Pacific plate
theory of plate tectonics proposes that the (ii) Nazca plate : Between South America
earth’s lithosphere is divided into seven major and Pacific plate
and some minor plates. Young Fold Mountain (iii) Arabian plate : Mostly the Saudi Arabian
ridges, trenches, and/or faults surround these landmass
major plates (Figure 4.5). The major plates (iv) Philippine plate : Between the Asiatic and
are as follows : Pacific plate

Figure 4.5 : Major and minor plates of the world

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34 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

this idea in the 1930s, which later influenced

Harry Hess’ thinking about seafloor spreading.
The slow movement of hot, softened mantle
that lies below the rigid plates is the driving
force behind the plate movement.

MOVEMENT OF THE INDIAN PLATE

The Indian plate includes Peninsular India
and the Australian continental portions. The
subduction zone along the Himalayas forms
the northern plate boundary in the form of
continent— continent convergence. In the east,
it extends through Rakinyoma Mountains of
Myanmar towards the island arc along the
Java T rench. The eastern margin is a
spreading site lying to the east of Australia in
the form of an oceanic ridge in SW Pacific. The
Western margin follows Kirthar Mountain of
Pakistan. It further extends along the Makrana
coast and joins the spreading site from the
Red Sea rift southeastward along the Chagos
Archipelago. The boundary between India
and the Antarctic plate is also marked by
oceanic ridge (divergent boundary) running
in roughly W-E direction and merging into the
spreading site, a little south of New Zealand.
India was a large island situated off the
Australian coast, in a vast ocean. The Tethys
Sea separated it from the Asian continent till
about 225 million years ago. India is supposed
to have started her northward journey about
200 million years ago at the time when Pangaea
broke. India collided with Asia about 40-50 Figure 4.6 : Movement of the Indian plate
million years ago causing rapid uplift of the plate towards the Eurasian plate, a major event
Himalayas. The positions of India since about that occurred was the outpouring of lava and
71 million years till the present are shown in formation of the Deccan Traps. This started
the Figure 4.6. It also shows the position of somewhere around 60 million years ago and
the Indian subcontinent and the Eurasian continued for a long period of time. Note that
plate. About 140 million years before the the subcontinent was still close to the equator.
present, the subcontinent was located as From 40 million years ago and thereafter, the
south as 50oS. latitude. The two major plates event of formation of the Himalayas took place.
were separated by the Tethys Sea and the Scientists believe that the process is still
Tibetan block was closer to the Asiatic continuing and the height of the Himalayas is
landmass. During the movement of the Indian rising even to this date.

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72 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Figure 8.4 (b) : The distribution of surface air temperature in the month of July

Figure 8.5 : The range of temperature between January and July

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78 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Figure 9.3 : Distribution of pressure (in millibars) — July

in nature. They oscillate with the apparent Pressure Gradient Force

movement of the sun. In the northern
The differences in atmospheric pressure
hemisphere in winter they move southwards
produces a force. The rate of change of pressure
and in the summer northwards.
with respect to distance is the pressure
Forces Affecting the Velocity gradient. The pressure gradient is strong where
and Direction of Wind the isobars are close to each other and is weak
where the isobars are apart.
You already know that the air is set in motion
due to the differences in atmospheric pressure. Frictional Force
The air in motion is called wind. The wind
It affects the speed of the wind. It is greatest at
blows from high pressure to low pressure. The
the surface and its influence generally extends
wind at the surface experiences friction. In
upto an elevation of 1 - 3 km. Over the sea
addition, rotation of the earth also affects the
surface the friction is minimal.
wind movement. The force exerted by the
rotation of the earth is known as the Coriolis
Coriolis Force
force. Thus, the horizontal winds near the
earth surface respond to the combined effect The rotation of the earth about its axis affects
of three forces – the pressure gradient force, the direction of the wind. This force is called
the frictional force and the Coriolis force. In the Coriolis force after the French physicist who
addition, the gravitational force acts described it in 1844. It deflects the wind to the
downward. right direction in the northern hemisphere and

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WATER (OCEANS) 105

Figure 12.4 : Spatial pattern of surface temperature (°C) of the oceans

HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF SALINITY The North Sea, in spite of its location in

higher latitudes, records higher salinity due
The salinity for normal open ocean ranges
to more saline water brought by the North
between 33 o / oo and 37 o/ oo. In the land
Atlantic Drift. Baltic Sea records low salinity
locked Red Sea, it is as high as 41o/oo, while
due to influx of river waters in large
in the estuaries and the Arctic, the salinity quantity. The Mediterranean Sea records
fluctuates from 0 - 35 o/oo, seasonally. In hot higher salinity due to high evaporation.
and dry regions, where evaporation is high, Salinity is, however, very low in Black Sea
the salinity sometimes reaches to 70 o/oo. due to enormous fresh water influx by rivers.
The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean See the atlas to find out the rivers joining
is mainly due to its shape and larger areal Black Sea.
extent. Salinity decreases from 35 o/oo - 31 o/oo The average salinity of the Indian Ocean
on the western parts of the northern hemisphere is 35 o/oo. The low salinity trend is observed
because of the influx of melted water from the in the Bay of Bengal due to influx of river
Arctic region. In the same way, after 15° - 20° water. On the contrary, the Arabian Sea shows
south, it decreases to 33 o/oo . higher salinity due to high evaporation and
The average salinity of the Atlantic low influx of fresh water. Figure 12.5 shows the
Ocean is around 36 o/oo. The highest salinity salinity of the World’s oceans.
is recorded between 15° and 20° latitudes.
Vertical Distribution of Salinity
Maximum salinity (37 o / oo ) is observed
between 20° N and 30° N and 20° W - 60° W. Salinity changes with depth, but the way it
It gradually decreases towards the north. changes depends upon the location of the

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106 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

120º 60º 60º 120º

120º 60º 60º 120º

Figure12.5 : Surface salinity of the World’s Oceans

sea. Salinity at the surface increases by the the higher salinity dense water. Salinity,
loss of water to ice or evaporation, or generally, increases with depth and there is a
decreased by the input of fresh waters, such distinct zone called the halocline, where
as from the rivers. Salinity at depth is very salinity increases sharply. Other factors being
much fixed, because there is no way that constant, increasing salinity of seawater
water is ‘lost’, or the salt is ‘added.’ There is causes its density to increase. High salinity
a marked difference in the salinity between seawater, generally, sinks below the lower
the surface zones and the deep zones of the salinity water. This leads to stratification by
oceans. The lower salinity water rests above salinity.

EXERCISES

1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) Identify the element which is not a part of the hydrological cycle
(a) Evaporation (c) Precipitation
(b) Hydration (d) Condensation
(ii) The average depth of continental slope varies between
(a) 2–20m (c) 20–200m
(b) 200–2,000m (d) 2,000–20,000m

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112 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Fig.13.3 : Major currents in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans

where the wind flow is mostly cyclonic, the Effects of Ocean Currents
oceanic circulation follows this pattern. In
Ocean currents have a number of direct and
regions of pronounced monsoonal flow, the
indirect influences on human activities. West
monsoon winds influence the current
coasts of the continents in tropical and
movements. Due to the coriolis force, the warm
subtropical latitudes (except close to the
currents from low latitudes tend to move to the
equator) are bordered by cool waters. Their
right in the northern hemisphere and to their
average temperatures are relatively low with a
left in the southern hemisphere.
narrow diurnal and annual ranges. There is
The oceanic circulation transports heat
fog, but generally the areas are arid. West coasts
from one latitude belt to another in a manner
of the continents in the middle and higher
similar to the heat transported by the general
latitudes are bordered by warm waters which
circulation of the atmosphere. The cold waters
cause a distinct marine climate. They are
of the Arctic and Antarctic circles move towards
characterised by cool summers and relatively
warmer water in tropical and equatorial
mild winters with a narrow annual range of
regions, while the warm waters of the lower
temperatures. Warm currents flow parallel to
latitudes move polewards. The major currents
the east coasts of the continents in tropical and
in the different oceans are shown in Figure13.3.
subtropical latitudes. This results in warm and
rainy climates. These areas lie in the western
Prepare a list of currents which are margins of the subtropical anti-cyclones. The
found in Pacific, Atlantic and Indian
mixing of warm and cold currents help to
Oceans.
replenish the oxygen and favour the growth of
How is the movement of currents
planktons, the primary food for fish population.
influenced by prevailing winds? Give
The best fishing grounds of the world exist
some examples from Figure13.3.
mainly in these mixing zones.

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BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION 119

Figure 14.4 : Some ecological ‘hotspots’ in the world

EXERCISES

1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) Conservation of biodiversity is important for :
(a) Animals (c) Plants
(b) Animals and plants (d) All organisms
(ii) Threatened species are those which :
(a) threaten others
(b) Lion and tiger
(c) are abundant in number
(d) are suffering from the danger of extinction
(iii) National parks and sanctuaries are established for the purpose of :
(a) Recreation (c) Pets
(b) Hunting (d) Conservation

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 Practical Work in Geography

A Portion of Sheet NH 43 A Portion of Sheet 53 H

A Portion of Sheet 53 H/2 A Portion of Guide Map

Figure 1.3 Effect of Scale on Mapped Information

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 Practical Work in Geography

making was revitalised in early

modern period, with extensive
efforts made to minimise the
6 effects of the transformation of the
geoid onto a plane surface. The
maps were drawn on different
projections to obtain true
directions, correct distances and
to measure area accurately. The
aerial photography supplemented
the ground method of survey and
Figure 1.4 Ptolemy’s Map of the World the uses of aerial photographs
stimulated map-making in the
nineteenth and twentieth
centuries.
The foundation of map-making in India was laid during the Vedic
period when the expressions of astronomical truths and cosmological
revelations were made. The expressions were crystallised into ‘sidhantas'
or laws in classical treaties of Arya Bhatta, Varahamihira and Bhaskara,
and others. Ancient Indian scholars divided the known world into seven
‘dwipas’ (Fig. 1.5). Mahabharata conceived a round world surrounded
by water (Fig. 1.6).

Figure 1.5 Seven Dwipas of the World Figure 1.6 Round World surrounded by
as conceived in Ancient water as conceived in
India Mahabharata

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Introduction to Maps

Figure 1.7 Relief and Slope Map of Nagpur District

Figure 1.8 Distribution of Rocks and Minerals in Nagpur District

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 Practical Work in Geography

10
10

Figure 1.9 Map showing Climatic Conditions of Nagpur District

Figure 1.10 Soils of Nagpur District

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Introduction to Maps

rainfall, cloudiness, relative humidity, direction and velocity of winds and

other elements of weather (Fig 1.9).
(d) Soil Maps : Maps are also drawn to show the distribution of different
types of soil(s) and their properties (Fig. 1.10).

(ii) Cultural Maps: Cultural maps show man-made features. These

include a variety of maps showing population distribution and growth,
sex and age, social and religious composition, literacy, levels of
educational attainment, occupational structure, location of settlements,
facilities and services, transportation lines and production, distribution
and flow of different commodities.
(a) Political Maps : These maps show the administrative divisions of an
area such as country, state or district. These maps facilitate the
administrative machinery in planning and management of the concerned
administrative unit.
(b) Population Maps: The population maps are drawn to show the
distribution, density and growth of population, age and sex composition,

11
11

Figure 1.11 Nagpur District : Distribution of Population

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 Practical Work in Geography

distribution of religious, linguistic and social groups, occupational

structure of the population, etc. (Fig 1.11 on previous page). Population
maps serve the most significant role in the planning and development of
12
12 an area.
(c) Economic Maps: Economic maps depict production and distribution
of different types of crops and minerals, location of industries and
markets, routes for trade and flow of commodities. Figures 1.12 and
1.13 show the land use and cropping patterns and the location of
industries in Nagpur district respectively.

Figure 1.12 Land use and Cropping Patterns in Nagpur District

(d) Transportation Maps: These maps show roads, railway lines and the
location of railway stations and airports.

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Introduction to Maps

Figure 1.13 Location of Industries in Nagpur District

USES OF MAPS

Geographers, planners and other resource scientists use maps. In doing

so, they make various types of measurements to determine distances,
directions and area.

Measurement of Distance: The linear features shown on the maps

fall into two broad categories, i.e. straight lines and erratic or zigzag
lines. The measurement of straight line features like roads, railway lines
and canals is simple. It can be taken directly with a pair of dividers or a
scale placed on the map surface. However, distances are required, more
often, along erratic paths, i.e. the coastlines, rivers and streams. The
distances along all such features can be measured by placing a thread
13
13
at the starting point and carrying it along the line up to the end point.
The thread is then stretched and measured to determine the distance. It
can also be measured by using a simple instrument called Rotameter.

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 Practical Work in Geography

the pole is highly exaggerated. For example, the size of Greenland

equals to the size of USA, whereas it is 1/10th of USA.
2. Poles in this projection cannot be shown as 90º parallel and
46 meridian touching them are infinite.

Uses
1. More suitable for a world map and widely used in preparing atlas
maps.
2. Very useful for navigation purposes showing sea routes and air
routes.
3. Drainage pattern, ocean currents, temperature, winds and their
directions, distribution of worldwide rainfall and other weather
elements are appropriately shown on this map

Figure 4.6 Straight lines are Laxodromes or Rhumb lines and

Dotted lines are great circles

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Topographical Maps

51

Figure 5.1 Reference Map of Topographical Sheets Published by Survey of India

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animals to satisfy their needs for food, shelter Gathering is practised in: (i) high latitude
and clothing. This type of activity requires a zones which include northern Canada, northern
small amount of capital investment and Eurasia and southern Chile; (ii) Low latitude
operates at very low level of technology. The zones such as the Amazon Basin, tropical
yield per person is very low and little or no Africa, Northern fringe of Australia and the
surplus is produced. interior parts of Southeast Asia (Fig. 4.2).
In modern times some gathering is market-
oriented and has become commercial. Gatherers
collect valuable plants such as leaves, barks of
trees and medicinal plants and after simple
processing sell the products in the market. They
use various parts of the plants, for example,
the bark is used for quinine, tanin extract and
cork— leaves supply materials for beverages,
drugs, cosmetics, fibres, thatch and fabrics;
nuts for food and oils and tree trunk yield
rubber, balata, gums and resins.

The name of the part of the chewing gum after the

flavour is gone? It is called Chicle — it is made from
the milky juice of zapota tree.

Gathering has little chance of becoming

Fig. 4.1: Women Gathering Oranges in Mizoram important at the global level. Products of such an

Fig. 4.2: Areas of Subsistence Gathering

Primary Activities 23

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 Fig. 4.4: Areas of Nomadic Herding

AGRICULTURE
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is practised under multiple
combinations of physical and socio-economic
conditions, which gives rise to different types of
agricultural systems.
Based on methods of farming, different
types of crops are grown and livestock raised.
The following are the main agricultural systems.

Subsistence Agriculture
Subsistence agriculture is one in which the
farming areas consume all, or nearly so, of the
Fig. 4.5: Commercial Livestock Rearing products locally grown. It can be grouped in
two categories — Primitive Subsistence
Reindeer rearing in the northern regions of Alaska where Agriculture and Intensive Subsistence
most of the Eskimos own about two-third of the stock. Agriculture.
emphasis is on breeding, genetic improvement,
Primitive Subsistence Agriculture
disease control and health care of the animals.
New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Primitive subsistence agriculture or shifting
Uruguay and United States of America are cultivation is widely practised by many tribes
important countries where commercial livestock in the tropics, especially in Africa, south and
rearing is practised (Fig. 4.6). central America and south east Asia (Fig. 4.7).

Primary Activities 25

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 Fig. 4.6: Areas of Commercial Livestock Rearing

Fig. 4.7: Areas of Primitive Subsistence Agriculture

26 Fundamentals of Human Geography

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 The vegetation is usually cleared by fire, Basically, there are two types of intensive
and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil. subsistence agriculture.
Shifting cultivation is thus, also called slash (i) Intensive subsistence agriculture
and burn agriculture. The cultivated patches dominated by wet paddy cultivation: This
are very small and cultivation is done with very type of agriculture is characterised by
primitive tools such as sticks and hoes. After dominance of the rice crop. Land holdings
sometime (3 to 5 years) the soil looses its fertility are very small due to the high density of
and the farmer shifts to another parts and clears population. Farmers work with the help
other patch of the forest for cultivation. The of family labour leading to intensive use of
farmer may return to the earlier patch after land. Use of machinery is limited and most
sometime. One of the major problems of shifting of the agricultural operations are done by
cultivation is that the cycle of jhum becomes manual labour. Farm yard manure is used
less and less due to loss of fertility in different to maintain the fertility of the soil. In this
parcels. It is prevalent in tropical region in type of agriculture, the yield per unit area
different names, e.g. Jhuming in North eastern is high but per labour productivity is low.
states of India, Milpa in central America and (ii) Intensive subsidence agriculture
Mexico and Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia. dominated by crops other than paddy:
Find out other areas and the names with which Due to the difference in relief, climate, soil
shifting cultivation is done. and some of the other geographical factors,
it is not practical to grow paddy in many
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture parts of monsoon Asia. Wheat, soyabean,
barley and sorghum are grown in northern
This type of agriculture is largely found in
China, Manchuria, North Korea and North
densely populated regions of monsoon Asia.
Japan. In India wheat is grown in western

Fig. 4.8: Areas of Intensive Subsistence Farming

Primary Activities 27

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 Fig. 4.12: Areas of Extensive Commercial Grain Farming

This type of agriculture is best developed building, extensive use of chemical fertilisers
in Eurasian steppes, the Canadian and and green manures and also by the skill and
American Prairies, the Pampas of Argentina, the expertise of the farmers.
Velds of South Africa, the Australian Downs and
the Canterbury Plains of New Zealand. (Locate Dairy Farming
these areas on the world map).
Dairy is the most advanced and efficient type of
rearing of milch animals. It is highly capital
Mixed Farming
intensive. Animal sheds, storage facilities for
This form of agriculture is found in the highly fodder, feeding and milching machines add to
developed parts of the world, e.g. North-western the cost of dairy farming. Special emphasis is
Europe, Eastern North America, parts of laid on cattle breeding, health care and
Eurasia and the temperate latitudes of veterinary services.
Southern continents (Fig. 4.14).
Mixed farms are moderate in size and
usually the crops associated with it are wheat,
barley, oats, rye, maize, fodder and root crops.
Fodder crops are an important component of
mixed farming. Crop rotation and intercropping
play an important role in maintaining soil
fertility. Equal emphasis is laid on crop
cultivation and animal husbandry. Animals like
cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry provide the main
income along with crops.
Mixed farming is characterised by high
capital expenditure on farm machinery and Fig. 4.13: A Dairy Farm in Austria

Primary Activities 29

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 Fig. 4.14: Areas of Mixed Farming

It is highly labour intensive as it involves There are three main regions of commercial
rigorous care in feeding and milching. There is dairy farming. The largest is North Western
no off season during the year as in the case of Europe the second is Canada and the third belt
crop raising. includes South Eastern Australia, New Zealand
It is practised mainly near urban and and Tasmania (Fig. 4.16).
industrial centres which provide
neighbourhood market for fresh milk and dairy
Mediterranean Agriculture
products. The development of transportation,
refrigeration, pasteurisation and other Mediterranean agriculture is highly specialised
preservation processes have increased the commercial agriculture. It is practised in the
duration of storage of various dairy products. countries on either side of the Mediterranean

Fig. 4.15 (a): A vineyard in Switzerland Fig. 4.15 (b): Collection of

grapes in a collective farm of Kazakhstan

30 Fundamentals of Human Geography

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 Fig. 4.16: Areas of Dairy Farming

sea in Europe and in north Africa from Tunisia located where there are good transportation
to Atlantic coast, southern California, central links with the urban centre where high income
Chile, south western parts of South Africa and group of consumers is located. It is both labour
south and south western parts of Australia. and capital intensive and lays emphasis on the
This region is an important supplier of citrus use of irrigation, HYV seeds, fertilisers,
fruits. insecticides, greenhouses and artificial heating
Viticulture or grape cultivation is a in colder regions.
speciality of the Mediterranean region. Best This type of agriculture is well developed
quality wines in the world with distinctive in densely populated industrial districts of
flavours are produced from high quality grapes north west Europe, north eastern United States
in various countries of this region. The inferior of America and the Mediterranean regions. The
grapes are dried into raisins and currants. This Netherlands specialises in growing flowers and
region also produces olives and figs. The horticultural crops especially tulips, which are
advantage of Mediterranean agriculture is that flown to all major cities of Europe.
more valuable crops such as fruits and The regions where farmers specialise in
vegetables are grown in winters when there is vegetables only, the farming is know as truck
great demand in European and North American farming. The distance of truck farms from the
markets. market is governed by the distance that a truck
can cover overnight, hence the name truck
Market Gardening and Horticulture farming.
Market gardening and horticulture specialise In addition to market gardening, a modern
in the cultivation of high value crops such as development in the industrial regions of Western
vegetables, fruits and flowers, solely for the Europe and North America is factory farming.
urban markets. Farms are small and are Livestock, particularly poultry and cattle

Primary Activities 31

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double-tracked and electrified trans– gained economic significance because it
continental railway in the world. It has helped connected the Quebec-Montreal Industrial
in opening up its Asian region to West European Region with the wheat belt of the Prairie Region
markets. It runs across the Ural Mountains Ob and the Coniferous Forest region in the north.
and Yenisei rivers Chita is an important agro- Thus each of these regions became
centre and Irkutsk, a fur centre. There are complementary to the other. A loop line from
connecting links to the south, namely, to Odessa Winnipeg to Thunder Bay (Lake Superior)
(Ukraine), Baku on the Caspian Coast, connects this rail-line with one of the important
Tashkent (Uzbekistan), Ulan Bator (Mongolia), waterways of the world. This line is the economic
and Shenyang (Mukden) and Beijing in China. artery of Canada. Wheat and meat are the
important exports on this route.
Trans–Canadian Railways
The Union and Pacific Railway
This 7,050 km long rail-line in Canada runs from
Halifax in the east to Vancouver on the Pacific This rail-line connects New York on the Atlantic
Coast passing through Montreal, Ottawa, Coast to San Francisco on the Pacific Coast
Winnipeg and Calgary (Fig. 8.6). It was passing through Cleveland, Chicago, Omaha,
constructed in 1886, initially as part of an Evans, Ogden and Sacramento. The most
agreement to make British Columbia on the west valuable exports on this route are ores, grain,
coast join the Federation of States. Later on, it paper, chemicals and machinery.

Fig. 7.5: Trans–Siberian Railway

Transport and Communication 59

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 Fig. 7.6: Trans–Canadian Railway

The Australian Trans–Continental are cheese, bacon, oats, wine, fruits, and
Railway machinery.
This rail-line runs west-east across the southern There is a proposal to build a Trans–Asiatic
part of the continent from Perth on the west Railway linking Istanbul with Bangkok via
coast, to Sydney on the east coast. passing Iran, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and
through Kalgoorlie, Broken Hill and Port Myanmar.
Augusta (Fig. 7.7).
Another major north-south line connects WATER TRANSPORT
Adelaide and Alice Spring and to be joined One of the great advantages of water
further to the Darwin–Birdum line. transportation is that it does not require route
construction. The oceans are linked with each
The Orient Express
other and are negotiable with ships of various
This line runs from Paris to Istanbul passing sizes. All that is needed is to provide port
through Strasbourg, Munich, Vienna, facilities at the two ends. It is much cheaper
Budapest and Belgrade. The journey time from because the friction of water is far less than that
London to Istanbul by this Express is now of land. The energy cost of water transportation
reduced to 96 hours as against 10 days by the is lower. Water transport is divided into sea
sea-route. The chief exports on this rail-route routes and inland waterways.

60 Fundamentals of Human Geography

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 Fig. 7.7: Australian Trans–Continental Railway

adaptation to the physical environment.

Compared to land and air, ocean transport is a
cheaper means of haulage (carrying of load) of
bulky material over long distances from one
continent to another.
Modern passenger liners (ships) and cargo
ships are equipped with radar, wireless and other
navigation aids. The development of refrigerated
chambers for perishable goods, tankers and
specialised ships has also improved cargo
transport. The use of containers has made cargo
handling at the world’s major ports easier.

Fig. 7.8: The view of Seine River from the Eiffel Important Sea Routes
Tower (One can see how the river has become an
important Inland waterway) Major sea routes are shown in the Fig. 8.9. Some
important routes have been discussed in the
Sea Routes following pages.
The oceans offer a smooth highway traversable
in all directions with no maintenance costs. Its The Northern Atlantic Sea Route
transformation into a routeway by sea-going This links North-eastern U.S.A. and North-
vessels is an important development in human western Europe, the two industrially developed

Transport and Communication 61

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 Fig. 7.9: Major Sea Routes and Sea Ports

regions of the world. The foreign trade over this The Cape of Good Hope Sea Route
route is greater than that of the rest of the world This trade route connects the highly
combined. One fourth of the world’s foreign industrialised Western European region with West
trade moves on this route. It is, therefore, the Africa, South Africa, South-east Asia and the
busiest in the world and otherwise, called the commercial agriculture and livestock economies
Big Trunk Route. Both the coasts have highly of Australia and New Zealand. The volume of
advanced ports and harbour facilities. trade and traffic between both East and West
Africa is on the increase due to the development
of the rich natural resources such as gold,
diamond, copper, tin, groundnut, oil palm,
Find out some of the important ports on the coast of coffee and fruits.
U.S.A. and Western Europe in your atlas.
The Southern Atlantic Sea Route
The Mediterranean–Indian Ocean Sea This sea route is another important one across
Route the Atlantic Ocean which connects West
European and West African countries with
This sea route passes through the heart of Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay in South
the Old World and serves more countries and America. The traffic is far less on this route
people than any other route. Port Said, Aden, because of the limited development and
Mumbai, Colombo and Singapore are some population in South America and Africa. Only
of the important ports on this route. The southeastern Brazil and Plata estuary and
construction of Suez Canal has greatly parts of South Africa have large-scale industries.
reduced the distance and time as compared There is also little traffic on the route between
to the earlier route through the Cape of Good Rio de Janeiro and Cape Town because both
Hope, which was longer than the route South America and Africa have similar
through Suez Canal. products and resources.

62 Fundamentals of Human Geography

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The North Pacific Sea Route sea-route distance between Liverpool and
Colombo compared to the Cape of Good Hope
Trade across the vast North Pacific Ocean
moves by several routes which converge at route. It is a sea-level canal without locks
Honolulu. The direct route on the Great Circle which is about 160 km and 11 to 15 m deep.
links Vancouver and Yokohama and reduces About 100 ships travel daily and each ship
the travelling distance (2,480 km) by half. takes 10-12 hours to cross this canal. The tolls
This sea route links the ports on the west- are so heavy that some find it cheaper to go by
coast of North America with those of Asia. These the longer Cape Route whenever the
are Vancouver, Seattle, Portland, San Francisco consequent delay is not important. A railway
and Los Angeles on the American side and follows the canal to Suez, and from Ismailia
Yokohama, Kobe, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Manila there is a branch line to Cairo. A navigable
and Singapore on the Asian side. fresh-water canal from the Nile also joins the
Suez Canal in Ismailia to supply fresh-water to
The South Pacific Sea Route Port Said and Suez.
This sea route connects Western Europe and
North America with Australia, New Zealand and
the scattered Pacific islands via the Panama
Canal. This route is also used for reaching Hong
Kong, Philippines and Indonesia. The distance
covered between Panama and Sydney is
12,000 km. Honolulu is an important port on
this route.

Coastal Shipping
It is obvious that water transport is a cheaper
mode. While oceanic routes connect different
countries, coastal shipping is a convenient
mode of transportation with long coastlines,
e.g. U.S.A, China and India. Shenzhen States
in Europe are most suitably placed for coastal
shipping connecting one member’s coast with
the other. If properly developed, coastal shipping
can reduce the congestion on the land routes.

Shipping Canals
The Suez and the Panama Canals are two vital
man-made navigation canals or waterways Fig. 7.10 : Suez Canal
which serve as gateways of commerce for both
the eastern and western worlds. The Panama Canal
This canal connects the Atlantic Ocean in the
The Suez Canal
east to the Pacific Ocean in the west. It has been
This canal had been constructed in 1869 in constructed across the Panama Isthmus
Egypt between Port Said in the north and Port between Panama City and Colon by the U.S.
Suez in the south linking the Mediterranean government which purchased 8 km of area on
Sea and the Red Sea. It gives Europe a new either side and named it the Canal Zone. The
gateway to the Indian Ocean and reduces direct Canal is about 72 km. long and involves a very

Transport and Communication 63

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 deep cutting for a length of 12 km. It has a six-
lock system and ships cross the different levels
(26 m up and down) through these locks before
entering the Gulf of Panama.
It shortens the distance between New York
and San Francisco by 13,000 km by sea.
Likewise the distance between Western Europe
and the West-coast of U.S.A.; and North-eastern
and Central U.S.A. and East and South-east
Asia is shortened. The economic significance of
this Canal is relatively less than that of the
Suez. However, it is vital to the economies of
Latin America.

Inland Waterways
Rivers, canals, lakes and coastal areas have
been important waterways since time
immemorial. Boats and steamers are used as
means of transport for cargo and passengers.
The development of inland waterways is
dependent on the navigability width and depth
Fig. 7.11 : The Panama Canal of the channel, continuity in the water flow,
and transport technology in use. Rivers are
the only means of transport in dense forests.
Very heavy cargo like coal, cement, timber and
metallic ores can be transported through inland
waterways. In ancient times, riverways were the
main highways of transportation as in the case
of India. But they lost importance because of
competition from railways, lack of water due to
diversion for irrigation, and their poor
maintenance.

Fig. 7.12: Inland waterways are a major source

of transport wherever the river is wide, deep
and free of silt
Can you think of the impact on traffic in Panama
canal after the Nicaraguan canal opens up? The significance of rivers as inland
waterways for domestic and international

64 Fundamentals of Human Geography

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transport and trade has been recognised
throughout the developed world. Despite
inherent limitations, many rivers have been
modified to enhance their navigability by
dredging, stabilising river banks, and building
dams and barrages for regulating the flow of
water. The following river waterways are some
of the world’s important highways of commerce.

The Rhine Waterways

The Rhine flows through Germany and the
Netherlands. It is navigable for 700 km from
Rotterdam, at its mouth in the Netherlands to
Basel in Switzerland. Ocean-going vessels can
reach up to Cologne. The Ruhr river joins the
Rhine from the east. It flows through a rich
coalfield and the whole basin has become a
prosperous manufacturing area. Dusseldorf is
the Rhine port for this region. Huge tonnage
moves along the stretch south of the Ruhr. This
waterway is the world’s most heavily used. Each
year more than 20,000 ocean-going ships and Fig. 7.14 : Rhine Waterway
2,00,000 inland vessels exchange their cargoes.
It connects the industrial areas of Switzerland,
Germany, France, Belgium and the Netherlands The Volga Waterway
with the North Atlantic Sea Route. Russia has a large number of developed
waterways, of which the Volga is one of the most
important. It provides a navigable waterway of
11,200 km and drains into the Caspian Sea.
The Volga-Moscow Canal connects it with the
Moscow region and the Volga-Don Canal with
the Black Sea.

The Great Lakes – St. Lawrence Seaway

The Great Lakes of North America Superior,
Huron Erie and Ontario are connected by Soo
Canal and Welland Canal to form an inland
waterway. The estuary of St. Lawrence River,
along with the Great Lakes, forms a unique
Fig. 7.13: The Rhine Waterway
commercial waterway in the northern part of
The Danube Waterway North America. The ports on this route like
Duluth and Buffalo are equipped with all
This important inland waterway serves Eastern facilities of ocean ports. As such large ocean-
Europe. The Danube river rises in the Black going vessels are able to navigate up the river
Forest and flows eastwards through many deep inside the continent to Montreal. But here
countries. It is navigable up to Taurna Severin. goods have to be trans-shipped to smaller
The chief export items are wheat, maize, timber, vessels due to the presence of rapids. Canals
and machinery. have been constructed up to 3.5 m deep to
avoid these.
Transport and Communication 65

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 Fig. 7.16: Major Airports

consuming areas. Big Inch is one such famous The proposed Iran-India via Pakistan
pipeline, which carries petroleum from the oil international oil and natural gas pipeline will
wells of the Gulf of Mexico to the North-eastern be the longest in the world.
States. About 17 per cent of all freight per
tonne-km. is carried through pipelines in U.S.A. COMMUNICATIONS
Human beings have used different methods
long-distance communications of which the
telegraph and the telephone were important.
The telegraph was instrumental in the
colonisation of the American West. During the
early and mid-twentieth century, the American
Telegraph and Telephone Company (AT&T)
enjoyed a monopoly over U.S.A.’s telephone
industry. In fact, the telephone became a critical
factor in the urbanisation of America. Firms
centralised their functioning at city-
headquarters and located their branch offices
in smaller towns. Even today, the telephone is
Fig. 7.17: Pipelines transporting natural gas the most commonly used mode. In developing
in Ukraine countries, the use of cell phones, made possible
In Europe, Russia, West Asia and India by satellites, is important for rural connectivity.
pipelines are used to connect oil wells to Today there is a phenomenal pace of
refineries, and to ports or domestic markets. development. The first major breakthrough is
Turkmenistan is central Asia has extended the use of optic fiber cables (OFC). Faced with
pipelines to Iran and also to parts of China. mounting competition, telephone companies all

Transport and Communication 67

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 Fig. 1.1 : India – Distribution of Population

2 India : People and Economy

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 Fig. 1.2 : India – Density of Population

4 India : People and Economy

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 Fig. 1.3 : India – Growth of Population

6 India : People and Economy

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Fig. 3.3 : India – Distribution of Rice

Land Resources and Agriculture 27

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Fig. 3.4 : India – Distribution of Wheat

Land Resources and Agriculture 29

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Fig. 3.6 : India – Distribution of Cotton and Jute

Land Resources and Agriculture 31

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Fig. 3.9 : India – Distribution of Sugarcane

Land Resources and Agriculture 33

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Fig. 3.11 : India – Distribution of Tea and Coffee

Land Resources and Agriculture 35

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Fig. 4.1 : India – River Basins

Water Resources 43

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 Fig. 4.2 : The Ganga and its Tributaries and Towns Located on them

encourage watershed development, rainwater especially remains very high during the summer
harvesting, water recycling and reuse, and season when flow of water is low.
conjunctive use of water for sustaining water The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
supply in long run. in collaboration with State Pollution Control
Boards has been monitoring water quality of
Prevention of Water Pollution national aquatic resources at 507 stations. The
data obtained from these stations show that
Available water resources are degrading organic and bacterial contamination continues
rapidly. The major rivers of the country to be the main source of pollution in rivers. The
generally retain better water quality in less Yamuna river is the most polluted river in the
densely populated upper stretches in hilly country between Delhi and Etawah. Other
areas. In plains, river water is used intensively severely polluted rivers are: the Sabarmati at
for irrigation, drinking, domestic and industrial Ahmedabad, the Gomti at Lucknow, the Kali,
purposes. The drains carrying agricultural the Adyar, the Cooum (entire stretches), the
(fertilizers and insecticides), domestic (solid and Vaigai at Madurai and the Musi of Hyderabad
liquid wastes), and industrial effluents join the and the Ganga at Kanpur and Varanasi.
rivers. The concentration of pollutants in rivers, Groundwater pollution has occurred due to high

Water Resources 45

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 Fig. 5.2 : India – Metallic Minerals (Ferrous)

56 India : People and Economy

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 Fig. 5.3 : India – Minerals (Non-Ferrous)

58 India : People and Economy

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 Fig. 5.4 : India – Conventional Energy Resources
Activity: Collect information about cross country natural gas pipelines laid by GAIL (India)
under ‘One Nation One Gride’.
60 India : People and Economy

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 Fig. 5.5 : India – Oil Refineries

62 India : People and Economy

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 Fig. 6.2

and narrowing the gap in the level of The most significant contribution of tribal
development between Bharmaur and other sub-plan in Bharmaur region is the development
areas of Himachal Pradesh. This plan laid the of infrastructure in terms of schools, healthcare
highest priority on development of transport facilities, potable water, roads, communications
and communications, agriculture and allied and electricity. But the villages located along the
activities, and social and community services. river Ravi in Holi and Khani areas are the main

Planning and Sustainable Development in Indian Context 69

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 Fig. 6.3

Planning and Sustainable Development in Indian Context 71

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Fig. 8.5 : India – Air Routes

International Trade 93

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 38
P ractical Work in Geography, P
Work art-II
Part-II

Fig. 3.13 : Population of India, 2001

2001
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 40
P ractical Work in Geography, P
Work art-II
Part-II

Fig. 3.14 : Literacy Rate, 2001

2001
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 Andhra Pradesh at a Glance

Geographical Area (Sq. km) 160,205

Total Population (Lakh) 496.7
Male Population (Lakh) 247.3 (49.9%)
Female Population (Lakh) 246.4 (49.9%)
Sex Ratio (Females per
1000 males) 996
Literacy Rate (%) 67.41
Source: www.ap.gov.in/AP
• District Headquarters

(MAP NOT TO SCALE)

Telangana at a Glance

Geographical Area (Sq. Km.) 112077

Total Population (as per
2011 Census) 350.04 Lakh
Male 176.12 Lakh
Female 173.92 Lakh
Sex Ratio (Female per 1000 Males) 988 Ratio
Literacy Rate 66.54%
Density of popullation 312/sq.km
Decadal Growth Rate 13.58
(2001–2011)
Soruce : TG State portal Website: http;//www.telangana.gov.in/
About–State profile

• District Headquarters

(MAP NOT TO SCALE)

114 India : People and Economy

official telegram handle:- Official_Captain_Invincible

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