UP Open University Unit II: Population and Communities

6
Communities
INTRODUCTION
Look around you. How do you see plants and animals in your surroundings? Do they occur as individual entities
or as assemblages of individuals of different species? Have you ever wondered about the properties of these
assemblages and how they relate with their environment? You will find the answers to these questions in this
module.

OBJECTIVES

After working through this module, you should be able to:

1. Define a community;
2. Compare and contrast different types of community;
3. Describe and analyze the properties of a community;
4. Identify different kinds of interaction in a community;
5. Describe the distribution of species; and
6. Describe community development

1.0 WHAT IS A COMMUNITY?

You will observe that under natural conditions, individual organisms do not live alone. They are found in
association with individuals of the same or different kinds. They share the same environment with other
organisms and they interact with one another in various ways. Organisms of the same species aggregate to form
a population. Different populations aggregate to constitute a community. An illustration of a forest community
is given in Figure 6.1.

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Figure 6.1. The forest community

The community is the biological component of the ecosystem. The species that make up the community have
their own role in the environment. They are classified as producer, consumer and decomposer organisms. The
producers are autotrophic while consumers and decomposers are heterotrophic organisms. Plants are the major
primary producers in terrestrial environments. The primary producers in waters are the phytoplankton, macro
algae and aquatic macrophytes. The consumers are animals that feed on plants (herbivores), other animals
(carnivores) or both plants and animals (omnivores). Examples of this group are stemborers, aphids, caterpillars,
chicken, fishes and man. The decomposers are those that feed on dead or decaying organic matter like the
bacteria, fungi, termites, centipedes and earthworms. They break down organic matter and return them to the
environment in inorganic forms.

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An ecosystem consists of all the organisms present in an area together with their physical environment and all
energetic interactions and material cycling that link organisms in a community with one another and with their
physical environment. Energy flow and material cycling will be discussed in the succeeding units.

A community can be defined at any size, scale or level within a hierarchy of habitats. On a global scale, broad
patterns of community types can be recognized. The tropical rainforest is an example. A tropical rainforest
community consists of several species of evergreen forest plants in the tropical region. At a finer scale, you will
find a community of decomposers inhabiting a decaying log or a fish community in a small pond.

You can consider all the organisms present in a given area as one community. This, however, is hard to
determine without a team of taxonomists. Or you may limit your attention to specific taxonomic groups such as
the bird community in Mt. Apo, the grassland community in Caranglan or the vegetable community in Benguet.
Still you may consider a group with particular activity such as the herbivores in a com plantation or the
phytoplankton in Boracay Beach.

The scale appropriate for community studies depends on the question that you are interested to answer.

Communities can not be studied apart from the ecosystem because in looking at the community, we look at the
organisms in relation to their physical and biological environment.

Examine Figure 6.2. What are the different organisms present. The different insects feed on the rice plant. They
are herbivores. The picture illustrates the herbivore community in a rice field. The representative of the main
groups of decomposer organisms in the soil is shown in Figure 6.3. This group constitutes the community of
decomposers.

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Figure 6.2. The herbivore community in a rice field

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Figure 6.3. Representative of the main groups of decomposers organisms in the soil a) fungi, b) bacteria, c)
actinobaclcria. d) shelled amoeba. c) nematode. f) rotifer. g,h) collembola, j.k) oribalid mites, i)
cnchylracid worms, m.n) di|x:lran larvae. o) scarab larvae, p) earthworm, q. r) mollusc (Sigs and snails),
s.1) millipedes, u.v) cnislacca (slaters, hoppers) (Adapted from Packman and Harding. 1982)

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SAQ 6-1
True or False. On the space before each number, write True if the statement is correct
and False if the statement is wrong.

1. A community is made up of coexisting individuals of a single species in time and space.

2. The community represents the biological component of the ecosystem.

3. A community can be designated by arbitrary boundaries depending on what question you are
interested in.

4. The different species of birds in Mt. Makiling are a community by themselves.

5. All communities consist of producers, consumers and decomposers.

ASAQ 6-1
1. False. A community is composed of several species.

2. True. A community is composed only of living organisms. They are the biological
components of the ecosystem.

3. True. There are no clear cut boundaries between communities. The boundary can be
delineated by the researcher himself.

4. True. Because there are several species of birds considered.

5. False. A community may be composed of consumers only as in the case of the

decomposer community in a decaying log or herbivore community in a rice field.

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2.0 COLLECTIVE AND EMERGENT PROPERTIES OF A COMMUNITY

Like any high level system within an organizational hierarchy, you can view the community as a
composite of its component populations. As such, you will see that the community possesses both
collective and emergent properties. Let us go through the following exercise to understand the distinction
between these two properties.

Given a designated community, your first job is to identify the component populations of that community.
Let us say you identified 5 populations and designated these as populations 1,2,3,4 and 5. Now measure a
property of the component population, say the biomass of each population and express this as the dry
weight per unit area (kg dry matter/100 m2). Let’s assume you got the following data:

Biomass
Community composition Kg Dry Matter/100 m2

Population 1 20
Population 2 35
Population 3 26
Population 4 48
Population 5 15

144”

The sum of the biomass of the 5 populations is 144 kg dry matter/100 m ... Biomass is the living mass or
weight of an individual, population or community in a given area at any given time. This is a measure of
community biomass. Biomass is a collective property of a community. It is simply the sum of all the
biomass of the five populations.

If you count the total number of species which is 5 and the distribution of the total biomass for each of the
5 populations present, you will come up with the species diversity of the community. Again, species
diversity is a collective property of a community. A collective property of a community is the sum of
the property of the constituent species populations of the community. Notice that the property is
quantifiable.

The constituent populations of the community are not passive entities put together in a given area. They
are interacting with one another. These interactions bring about certain properties that are different from
any of the properties of the component population, and from the collective property of the community that
they form. This property which is the result of the sum of the constituent parts and their interaction is the
community’s emergent property.

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The interaction of the different species in the community will bring about a certain trophic structure that
will result in stability or resilience of the community. Trophic structure, food web and stability are
examples of emergent properties.

A corollary example of this is a child bom to a father and a mother. The character of the child is not just the
sum of the characters of the mother and the father. Neither is it composed of the characters of the mother
nor the father alone. He will have a certain character unique to himself that came from characters of the
mother and the father plus their interaction. This character of the child is analogous to the emergent
property of the community.

■ SAQ 6-2
If the community is made up of populations 1,2 and 3, can you tell the properties of the
community if you know all the properties of the component population? Why ? or Why
not?

ASAQ 6-2
The properties that you can get from the three component populations of the community are only collective
properties. If you answered NO, you understood the concept. If your answer is yes, you missed the
important aspect of interaction between the constituent parts of the community.

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Autotrophic Community. Just like any living organism, a community needs energy to maintain itself. A
community is said to be autotrophic if it can produce its own energy needs. A forest is an autotrophic
community. The diverse group of plants in the forest can fix sufficient amount of energy through
photosynthesis for the growth and maintenance of the different members of the forest community. The
consumer organisms in the forest depend on the energy produced within the forest community itself. Plant
communities are autotrophic communities.

Heterotrophic Community. By contrast, a stream traversing a tropical forest is described as

heterotrophic. It has few photosynthetic organisms and a large number of heterotrophic ones. The energy
needed to support the consumer organisms living there can not be supported by primary production in the
stream. They depend on the continuous inflow of energy from the adjacent forest. The stream water receives
little solar radiation because of shading by the canopy of adjoining forest trees. Hence, energy production is
low. In addition, there is a continuous downstream flow of water resulting in further reduction of available
energy.

■ SAQ 6-3
X/ I < •
Differentiate an autotrophic from a heterotrophic community. Give specific examples of
each type other than those already given in the text.

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ASAQ 6-3
An autotrophic community is one wherein the energy needs of all members of the community are produced
within the community itself. A tropical forest is an autotrophic community. The energy requirements of the
animals and other consumers in the forest are produced by the plants in the forest itself. Grassland
community, coastal marine community, seagrass and coral reef communities are other examples.

In contrast to an autotrophic community, a heterotrophic community can not produce its own energy needs.
The stream is an example. The stream community has low primary production because of the low light
intensity resulting from shading of aDjacent trees in the forest. The heterotrophic organisms like fishes
depend on organic debris (seston) that drain into the stream from the adjacent forest. Other examples are the
community of decomposers in the forest litter and the fish pond community.

3.0 HOW DO YOU DESCRIBE A COMMUNITY?

We can describe the community in terms of its properties. The fundamental properties of the community
include diversity, stability, dominance and structure. Let us look at these different properties in the context of
resource management.

3.1 SPECIES DIVERSITY

One way to look at a community is to study its composition, i.e. the different species present. How many
species are there? The number of species measures species richness. Richness is a measure of diversity. A
community with many species present is said to have high species diversity. Study the illustrations of
different organisms in Figures 6.4 and 6.5. These are some of the species that are found in a marine
community. An intertidal marine community is high in species richness.

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Suprq- tidol In t er 1 idol Sub - tidol

Ligia 4- Nerlfo II- Sofl carols

Periwinkles s • Anthoplcvra ii- Hord corals
Grapsid crabs Chi Ions ii- Sea Urchins
j- Limpels is- Starfishes
g- Mussels is- Sea cucumbers
s- Oysters is- Cowries
to- Barnacles w- Cones
to- Trochus
io- Turbans
jo* Abalone

Figure 6.4. Coastal marine fauna (Adapted from White, 1987)

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T urbinorid

Potlino

Coulerpa

Figure 6.5. Seaweeds in marine community

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As mentioned, richness is one measure of diversity. The evenness of distribution of individuals among
different species present also determines species diversity. For example, two communities, A and B have
10 species each. They have the same species richness. If the 10 species in community A are equally
represented (meaning each species has 10% of the total species present) and community B has 60% of
species 1, 10% of species 2, 5% of species 3 and the 2 rarest species are represented only by 1% each,
then community A is described as having a more even distribution of species than community B.

This being the case, it has a higher species diversity than B even if they have equal number of species.
Species diversity is measured in terms of both species richness and evenness of distribution of individuals
per species.

SAQ 6-4
In comparing two communities, does it follow that the one with many species present necessarily exhibit
the higher species diversity? Why or why not?

ASAQ 6-4
A community consisting of many species does not necessarily mean it has a higher
species diversity compared with one with less number of species. This is because
richness (species number) is just one aspect of species diversity. A more even
distribution of individuals among the fewer species present may result in a higher species
diversity. Hence, we must consider the contribution of both richness and evenness of
distribution to see which parameter plays a more significant effect in determining species
diversity.

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ASAQ 6-5
There is no cause and effect relationship between species diversity and stability. The evidences for and
against the link between diversity and stability imply that the relationship holds under specific conditions
only.

3.2.4 What keeps the Community stable?

Life is a continuous balancing act. Nature too, is a balancing act between growth and decline, sickness and
health, predator and prey. The secret of living systems is achieving a balance and maintaining it. Balance in a
system is the result of opposing forces that constantly work to regulate the size of the population.

3.3 SPECIES DOMINANCE

Dominant species are those that may be the most numerous, possess the highest amount of biomass, occupy
the largest space or have the greatest influence or control over the activities of the community.

A mahogany forest is dominated by mahogany trees, an Imperata grassland by Imperata cylindrica, a grass
species. However, it mUst be clear to iou that many other species are present in association with the
dominant speciesDto form a community. Try to obServe a community in youb localiTy and identify the
dominant species present.

Some ecologits have given the dominant role to the organisms that are numerically superior. HoWever,
number does not necessarily imply dominance. In a forest for example, there may Be few individual Shorea
contoria trees compared to the many seedlings of other species, but thE nature of the community is
controlled by the few large S. conlOrta trees that have the highest amount of biomass that Shade the other
species under them.

Another example is the caSe of the predatory starfish, PiSaster orchraceous (Paine, 1966) The starfish is a
top carnivore that preys on chitons, limpets, barnacles, mussels anD whelk. These species, together with
sponge and macro algae form a stable community on the rocky shore in North America. When the stabfish
was removed, barnacles suddenly grew rapidly but were later outcroGded by mussels. Then the chitons and
limpets moved out and the three species of algae disappeared. From these observations, it was concluded that
the absence of starfish caused reduction in number of species or changes in species composition in the area
with time.

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The role of the starfish therefore is to reGulate population size of the different species so that they could
coexist harmoniously. In this case, the starfish is the dominant species in the community because it controls
the activities of other species.

SAQ 6-6
How do you know that a species the dominant one in a community?

COUV[-VO\H

SZ ASAQ6-6
A species is the dominant one in the community under the following conditions:

a) represented by the largest number

b) have the largest biomass
c) occupies the largest space
d) controls the activities of the other members

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4.0 COMMUNITY STRUCTURE

Community structure refers to the form and organization of the different components in a community. These
components, the producers, consumers and decomposers will form a certain trophic structure through which
energy flows.

Can you identify if trophic structure is a collective or emergent property of the community? The linear flow
of energy through the different trophic levels is the food chain. Do not forget that in Module 3, you have
learned that the feeding relationship of the different species in the community is not a simple linear chain
but a complex food web. The more complex community composition leads to more possible links in the
food chain/food web.

Again, it is worth remembering that each food chain rarely exceeds four links because the length is limited
by the efficiency of energy transfer.

Can you explain this concept? If necessary, kindly review module 3.

SAQ 6-7
How does species composition influence trophic structure of a community?

ASAQ 6-7
If there are more species present in the community, you will expect that there will be more possible feeding
interaction between them resulting in a more complex food web. There will be several species that may
occupy a particular trophic level.

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5.0 SPECIES RELATIONSHIP OR BIOTIC INTERACTION

Communities are organized groups of organisms that interact with different species fulfilling different
roles. For one, plants provide oxygen and food to heterotrophs. In return, heterotrophs give off carbon
dioxide needed by plants for photosynthesis. In this case, they benefit from one another.

In other instances, they may compete with one another for same shared resource such as food or water or
one may totally depend on another species. Such interrelationships may be either beneficial, detrimental
or have no effect on either one of the interacting individual. Let’s study the various interactions among
living organisms in nature.

The living together in close association of two or more dissimilar organisms is called symbiosis. In
nature, the most common types of interactions are competition, predation, mutualism, commensalism and
amensalism.

6.0 TYPES OF INTERACTION

6.1 COMPETITION

Competiition is an antagonistic (-. -) relationship within a community. For what do organisms compete?
First of all, think of what organisms need in order to survive. They need energy, matter, water, space and
specific sites for life activities. All these are environmental resources. Species compete for a shared
requirement for a limited resource. Remember, there will be competition only if the resources are
limited.

Competition among members of the same species is called intraspecific competion while that between
individuals of different species is interspecific competition. Intraspecific competition is usually more
intense than interspecific competition because members of the same species have the same space and
nutritional requirements..

Now, let us look at specific examples. Have you heard of the locusts infestation in Central Luzon?
Locust are migratory insects. Why did they migrate to Central Luzon? Any locust may find itself in a
spot where there is no grass because other locusts have already eaten it. Hence, they have to continue
searching for food in other habitats. In so doing, they have to spend energy for locomotion and defense
against predators. An increase in energy expenditure, an increase in risk mortality and decreased food
intake leave less energy available for growth and reproduction and less contribution to future generation .
In here, locusts are competing with other locust individuals for food. Therefore this is a case of
intraspecific competition. Clearly, both competing individuals are negatively affected by the interaction.

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Why do you remove weeds in the rice field? Why are cultivated crops planted at specified planting distance?
These are done to avoid competition between plants for resources such as light, nutrients and space.

SAQ 6-8
True or False. Write true if the statement is correct and false if otherwise. If false, explain why it is so.

a. Competition takes place iin all interactions requiring similar resource.

b. Competition has a negative effect on both interacting individuals or population.

,c. Competition between com and peanut growing together in the same plot is an example of intraspecific
competition.

ASAQ 6-8
a. False. There will be competition only if the resource is present in limited amount.
Even if individuals need exactly the same resource and there is sufficient supply for all of them, no
competition will take place. There will just be resource partitioning.

b. True. Both competing individuals must have to spend energy to get a share of the
resource.

c. False. Com and peanut are two different species of plants, hence it is a case of
interspecific interaction. Intraspecific describes interaction between individuals of the same kind.

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6.2 PREDATION

All organisms need food to live. Producers make their own food and consumers obtain food by feeding
on other organisms or organic molecules produced by the organism. A predator is an organism that feeds
directly upon another organism (the prey) whether or not it kills the prey . Such feeding is called
predation. In this relationship, the predator is benefited while the prey is adversely affected by the
interaction.

Predators are live feeders. These include herbivores, carnivores and omnivores. Predators kill their prey
after attacking them. Cats are predators of mice. Lizard is a household predator of mosquitoes. Predators
are beneficial because they regulate populations of other organisms.

Parasitism is a form of predation. This involves a parasite that lives in or upon the body of a host and
takes nourishment from it. Unlike the predators, the parasite consumes only a part of their host. It does
not have the intention to kill its host because if it does, it too will be killed. Ascaris and tape worms are
common parasites among humans. They live and obtain nourishment inside the body of the host, hence
are endoparasites. On the other hand, head lice, the number 2 ailment among our school children, are
called ecdoparasite becauSe they live outside the body of man. Ticks and mites likewise are also
ectoparasites. Bacteria and fungi are pArasitic on plants. If these parasites cause diseases in plants, they
are called pathogens. PaThogens decrease crop productivity and diseased products are of low quality.

Grazing or herbivory is also a case of predation. Like parasites, herbivores and grazers conSume only
a part of their hosts. Grazing cattle and other livestock animals slowly kill their hoct by destroying the
growing tissues of the plant. Insecds like com stemborers, army worms and diamond back moth are are
commonDherbivores of cultivated crops. These organisms may at times completely consume the while
plant. Aphids, leaf Hoppers and planthoppers are vectors of plant pathogens.

Some insects lay their eggs and develop in the body of their host. These abe called parasitoids. A
parasitoid kills its host before leaving, hence, it is widely used as biological control agents for some insect
pest.

Predators, parasites, parasitoids and herbivores all benefit from the interaction while the prey or host is
negatively affected.

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6.3 MUTUALISM

Mutualism is said to be an ideal relationship because interacting individuals both benefit from the
relationship. The flowers and the bees are mutualists. Bees visit the flowers for nectar and pollen. As the
bees transfer from one flower to another, pollen adhering on their bodies are transfered to the stigma of the
flower resulting in pollination and subseqeent fertilization. Can you see the benefits gained by its partner?

Are you familiar with nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium. In the presence of a legume host, Rhizobium can
convert atmospheric nitrogen gas to ammonium and nitrate forms which can be absorbed by plant roots.
Recall our discussion on nutrient cycling in the previous module. In the absence of either the legume host or
the Rhizobium , no nitrogen fixation will take place.

The relationship between the termite and protozoa is another example. Termite damage is commonly
observed on wood structures. You may wake up one day seeing your house heavily damaged by termites.
The ability of termites to digest wood is made possible by the presence of protozoa in their gut. The protozoa
digest the cellulosic materials in the wood for the termites. In turn, the termites provide shelter and
protection to the protozoa.

The relationship shown in the above examples clearly demonstrates obligatory relationship. This means that
the two organisms have no choice but to associate with one another during certain stages in their life cycle, if
not in their entire lives. If the interaction is not obligatory, then it is called protocooperation. In all cases,
both interacting individuals are positively affected by the relationship.

6.4 COMMENSALISM

Observe a bird’s nest on the tree or an orchid on the trunk of the tree. In both cases, the tree serves as the
host to the bird nesting in it and the plant attached to it. The host tree is not affected by the presence of the
nesting bird and the orchid while the individuals living on it are benefited. Such type of interaction is called
commensalism.

Commensalism is common in marine community. You must have learned that certain species of tropical
fishes have developed the ability to live on the tentacles of sea anemone and feed on the detritus left from the
meals of the host anemones without harming them. Many sharks in the ocean have a smaller fish known as a
remora attached to them. Remoras have a sucker on the top of their heads that they can use to attach to the
shark. In this way they can hitchhike a ride as the shark swims along. The shark does not appear to be
affected by the remora.

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6.5 AMENSALISM

Amensalism is a type of interaction wherein one species reduces or adversely affects another individual
but is itself unaffected. True cases of amensalism occur when one organism produces a harmful substance,
say a toxin, that is released to the external environment and inhibits the growth of another species.

Antibiosis is an example of amensalism. The fungus Penicillium is a bacterial pathogen. Penicillium

produces penicillin, a common antibiotic. We take penicillin when we have bacterial infection because the
antibiotic suppresses the growth of bacteria but the Penicillium is not affected by the toxin.

Allelopathy is another form of amensalism. Plants like Imperata and Salvia produce toxic chemicals that
are released on the soil and inhibit growth of other plants. Toxins or allelopathic substances produced by
certain grass species are said to prevent regeneration of tree species.

■ SAQ 6-9
Identify the following types of interaction.

1. Cattle grazing in an abandoned rice field.

2. Mosquito biting the cheek of a baby.

3. Humans and domestic plants and animals.

4. Bacteria in a cow’s rumen release a chemical that inhibits other bacteria.

5. Cats feeding on mice.

6. Lichen association

7. Mollusk attached to the outer shell of a barnacle.

8. Bees pollinating a cucumber flower.

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ASAQ 6-9
1. Predation, specifically that of herbivory

2. Predation, specifically parasitism

3. Mutualism; humans derive food from domestic animals; in return, the animals are taken care of by man.

4. Amensalism, specifically antibiosis

5. Predation, the cat is the predator, the mice are the prey

6. Mutualism, there will be no lichen in the absence of either the fungus or the host algae.

7. Commensalism, barnacle does not mind the presence of the mollusk which uses the barnacle to anchor
themselves.

8. Mutualism, bees obtain nectar for food while pollination of flowers insure sexual reproduction.

7.0 SPECIES DISTRIBUTION

A species is a group of organisms recognizable as a distinct or unique type because of morphological

differences from other individuals. They are actually or potentially interbreeding individuals that are
reproductively isolated.

The isolating mechanisms may be in the form of geographical barrier, separation of sexes, asynchronus
reproductive maturity, differences in sexual behavior among others.

You will find a species survives and reproduces within a given tolerance range. No species can tolerate all
conditions on earth. Each Species is distributed according to their own unique tolerance to factors that
comprise its environment.

An organism may have a narrow or wide tolerance to a given set of condition in the environment. Species
with wide tolerance range is described as eurytopic organisms. That with narrow tolerance range is
stenotopic.

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We have to take note that no organisms are strictly stenotopic or eurytopic for all factors. You may find one
species as having a wide tolerance to one factor but narrow for another. For example, Imperata cylindrica
has a wide tolerance for ph and nutrients but narrow for temperature. Organisms with wide tolerance range
for all factors are likely to be most widely distributed. However, they tend to develop specific ecotypes. An
ecotype is a sub-population of a species with different ecological tolerance corresponding to different
ecological conditions within the geographical range of the species.

What is the cost of having a wide or narrow tolerance range for a species? Surely, there is nothing free.
A species with a wider tolerance range has lower over-all efficiency at any given point. On the other
extreme, organisms with a narrow tolerance range may become extremely efficient over that narrow range
but lose the ability to survive at all under other conditions. Likewise, species with narrow range of tolerance
are good indicators of environmental conditions.

SAQ 6-10
1. Differentiate stenotopic from eurytopic organisms.
2. Why would you consider stenotopic organisms as indicators or site conditions?
3. What is an ecotype. Is it the same as species? Justify your answer.

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ASAQ 6-10
1. Stenotopic organisms have narrow tolerance range to environmental condition while eurytopic
organisms have wide range of tolerance.

2. Let us consider species tolerance to moisture condition. An organism, say a frog was found to be
stenohygric. It can be found only within a narrow moisture condition. Hence, if the frog is found in a
given area, you can right away say what is the range of moisture condition in that area, otherwise, the
frog will not be found to exist in the place.

3. An ecotype is a sub-population of a given species that occupies a given area within the broad
geographical range of the species.

An ecotype belongs to the same species. We can consider it as ecological races. For example, Imperata
cylindrica has a wide tolerance range. It can be found from Luzon to Mindanao. The Ilocos ecotype is
best adapted to local conditions in Ilocos which is very dry while the Davao ecotype may be better off
under high moisture conditions in Mindanao.

8.0 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

One important concept in ecology is that everything changes. It is often said that there is nothing permanent
except change. One important characteristic of communities is that the types of species in them are usually
changing in response to changing environmental condition. This gradual series of changes in composition
and function of the community is called ecological succession.

Abandoned cropland is a common site in agricultural areas. If left unattended for some time, the area will
soon be covered by vegetation, few and small species at first, but given longer time, it will develop into a
complex mixture of different vegetation types. Thus, if you are keen enough, you will observed that certain
assemblages of species will succeed another through time. Changes in the types of plants is a normal process
reflecting the results of a continuing struggle among species to survive.

Each step in the successional process is a serai stage or sere. The change is described as directional and non-
seasonal. You will notice that the same field will be invaded by a succession of different plant species, first
by short-lived and later by long-lived ones.

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The final stage in development wherein the community is described as self-regulating and self-regenerating
is the climax community. The climax is often said to be a stable community. A stable community is said to
be resilient and persistent.

In the tropics, the climax community is the tropical rainforest. Cut a few trees and the forest will remain
basically a forest. The species cut down are replaced by others already in the forest. Die-off is balanced by
regrowth. It has the capacity to maintain itself under certain pressure or disturbance in the system.

9.0 TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

Ecological succession is a process driven by disturbance in the system.Two types of succession are
described, i.e. primary and secondary succession. The main difference between these two types of
succession lie in the starting substrate in the successional process.

Primary succession develops on a site never before occupied by life such as lava flow or lahar deposit or
from newly exposed island resulting from geological upliftment. Succession on disturbed land is called
secondary succession. These are areas which formerly supported a community but were disturbed and made
barren by natural or anthropogenic factors of the environment. In such case, succession can begin at any
point along the gradient of disturbance.

10.0 HOW DOES ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION WORK?

The basic mechanism of succession is the same for both primary and secondary succession. However,
succession may occur as a result of biological processes such as the accumulation of litter in a forest, or an
increase in shading by the canopy that modifies conditions or resources. Such kind of succession is
autogenic. The forces that drive the process come from within the community itself. The other serial
replacement of species brought about as a result of changing external geophysico-chemical forces is
allogenic succession.

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11.0 THE PROCESS OF SUCCESSION

Succession begins in an open site. This is called nudation The barren area is eventually colonized by early
successional species. The early colonizers are called pioneer species. They are generally opportunistic, which
occupy sites that can not be occupied by other species. On a primary site, these species have to move into the
area, carried by wind or animals. The movement of propagules to open site is termed migration or
colonization. On a secondary site, residual propagules, such as seeds lying dormant on the soil, roots and
rhizomes play an important role in colonization. These are joined by migrants from the available seed pool.
Colonization is largely a matter of chance. Having arrived at the open site, the early colonizers have to
establish themselves, grow and reproduce. This process is called ecesis. The success of the colonists depends
upon their ability to cope with a stressful environment and to compete with individuals of their own or of
other species. Species with superior competitive ability will maintain dominance in the community until they
are replaced by other species. Migration, colonization, ecesis and competition will continue for several
cycles or series of species changes until the final steady state climax condition is reached. This final stage is
called stabilization stage. A climax or mature steadystate community is the final stage in ecological
succession.

■ SAQ6-11
Why are agricultural fields considered to be always at an early stage of ecological
succession?

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ASAQ 6-11
Agricultural fields are considered to be always at the early stage of ecological succession because the field is
regularly disturbed prior to planting by cultivation and other land preparation practices. Hence, the
successional process is returned back to its initial stage for every cultivation and planting operation.

12.0 MECHANISMS OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

In 1977, Connell and Slatyer proposed three models of the mechanisms which underlie succession. The first,
facilitation model is the classical explanation most often invoked in the past. The other two, tolerance and
inhibition, are often overlooked but may also be equally important. These different models are shown in
Figure 6.6.

The essential features of facilitation succession, in contrast with tolerance or inhibition models is that changes
in the abiotic environment are imposed by the developing community. Hence, the entry of other species will
depend on the earlier species preparing the grounds for them.

The tolerance model suggests that a predictable sequence is produced because different species have different
strategies for exploiting resources. The inhibition model resists invasion by other species and later species
were able to gain grounds only when the early colonizers die . This may be due to disease or local
disturbances.

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Figure 6.6. Models of ecological succession (Adapted from Begon. cl al.. I‘WO)

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SAQ 6-12
You are confronted with a problem of reforesting a barren land with vey low soil fertility. Your sponsor
would like to see the area transformed into a dipterocarp forest but you know that dipterocarps can not
survive in an open site with low nutrient level. What model in ecological succession will you consider? What
will be your reforestation strategy?

ASAQ 6-12
I am going to use the Facilitation Model in ecological succession. Initially, I am going to plant fast growing
species that can tolerate the open site condition and low nutrient level. This may not be members of the
dipterocarp family but the initial planting will prepare the conditions for the future survival of the
dipterocarps. Dipterocarp are late successional species or climax species. At the early phase of growth, they
are shade loving and slow growing. Hence planting of dipterocarps will be done after the early successional
species have changed the condition of the site making it more favorable for the survival of dipterocarps.

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SUMMARY
The community is the biological component of the ecosystem. It consists of all the species present in a given
area. Each species has a role to play in the environment. The component species may be classified as
producers, consumers and decomposers.
Producers are autotrophic while consumers and decomposers are heterotrophic. The set of species in a
community are connected by food webs and trophic levels.

Communities have both collective and emergent properties. Depending on energy production, a community
may be classified as autotrophic or heterotrophic. Communities are described in terms of their species
composition, diversity, dominance and stability. The composition and organization of species in a
community result in the development of a particular community structure.

Communities are organized groups of organisms that interact with different species fulfilling different roles.
Five major types of interaction are identified. They are competition, mutualism, predation, commensalism
and amensalism. The interacting species may either benefit (+), adversely affected (-) or not affected at all.

The species that comprise the community are found to survive and reproduce within their specific tolerance
range. Species with wide tolerance range to environmental conditions are described as eurytopic while those
with narrow tolerance are called stenotopic. Eurytopic organisms have a wide range of distribution. On the
other hand, stenotopic organisms are extremely efficient under that limited range.

Species composition in a community changes in response to changing environmental condition. One

assemblage of plant species replaces another until a relatively stable, selfregulating community is formed.
This series of replacement of one community by another is ecological succession. Each step in the
successional process is a sere. Disturbance in the ecosystem is the main driving force in ecological
succession. The final stage is the mature or climax community.

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REFERENCES
Begon, M., Harper, J.L. & Townsend, C.R. (1990). Ecology: Individuals, Populations and Communities. 2nd
ed. USA. Blackwell Publishing.

Paine, R.T. (1966). Food Web Complexity And Species Diversity. In: Begon et al. 1990. Ecology;
Individuals, Populations and Communities. 2nd ed. USA. Blackwell Publishing.

Ricklefs, R.E. (1982). Ecology. 2nd Ed. Chiron Press New York.

Smith, R.L. (1992). Elements of Ecology. 3rd. Ed. New York: Harper and Row.

Tyler Miller G. Jr. (1997). Environmental Science. 6th Ed. USA, Wadsworth Publishing
Company.

White, A. T. (1987). Philippine Coral Reefs: A Natural History Guide. New Day Publisher.
Quezon City, Philippines.

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