Extreme English Guide Grade 4-12 Wilhelm P.

Hango

EXTREME ENGLISH GUIDE GRADE 4-12

-grammar, literature, continuous writing and exam coaching
Second edition 2020

Wilhelm P. Hango

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 Extreme English Guide Grade 4-12 Wilhelm P. Hango

Extreme English Guide

…..based on the Revised Basic Education Curriculum.

A reference book with grammar, literature, continuous writing and examination tips.

Written by: Wilhelm P. Hango

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 Extreme English Guide Grade 4-12 Wilhelm P. Hango

Printed by: Extreme Tutorial Centre cc

Original Cover Designed by: Wilhelm P. Hango
Layout by: Wilhelm P. Hango
Edited by: Wilhelm P. Hango

First Published in 2020

Extreme Tutorial Center

P O Box 15670
Oshakati
Cell: +264814171434 or +264812635889
Email: extremetutorialcentre@yahoo.com or wileyhango@ymail.com

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be copied, reproduced or transmitted by
any means without the written permission from the owner.

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 Extreme English Guide Grade 4-12 Wilhelm P. Hango

Preface
This is the second edition of Extreme English Guide – (suitable for primary to
secondary). It has been written to help improve the teaching and learning of grammar in
schools. Further, it has continuous writing section, literature section, and an examination
coaching and examination tips. I believe this book can help learners to perform
exceptionally well in their English as a Second Language Paper 1 (Reading Skills and
Directed Writing), 2 (Continuous Writing) and 3 (Listening Comprehension Skills) that are
commonly failed in most Namibian schools. These sections are all touched upon via the
newly revised basic education curriculum.

The book includes among others notes and exercises. Teachers and learners do not only
need to read this book to prepare for examination, further reading may be required.

About the author

By the time of this print, the writer holds a BETD, ACE-English, B. Ed
honors – Instructions and Learning, B. Ed honors- English and History
Master of Education in Curriculum Studies plus various certifications.

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Letter from the Editor

Dear Readers,

You are about to embark on a crash course to the English Language. I amend you for
picking up this reference guide because it shows that you will go above and beyond the
classroom to learn the English Language, which is a difficult language. I will admit this, but I
will also say it is highly possible to learn and master the language. I have met fellow
Namibians who speak English fluently and you can be one as well if you put in the time,
practice, and try to speak the English Language as much as possible. It will take time, but
learning a language is a journey all on its own. Believe me, I know…..I had to learn
Oshikwanyama and that was no easy task and I am still not fluent in it. It is a process.

Throughout my stay in Namibia as an English Peace Corps Volunteer teacher stationed

in the northern part of Namibia, I have taught many Namibian learners and helped teachers
to master different techniques on how to teach English. I have seen excellent ways to convey
the English Language via classroom setting and also very poor ways. I will say straight with
you, I will never say I am the best person to learn from. English might be my native tongue,
but knowing and teaching are two separate things and I have been part of a journey as well
as all teachers in this country to teach English in the best possible ways to all learners willing
to learn from me. I have learned from Namibians and they have learned from me.

This book is a perfect example of the learning exchange that I have talked about in the
paragraph above. This book that you have now picked up was inspired and written not by me,
but one of your fellow Namibian colleagues who teaches English. This idea to create a quick
reference guide to the English language is all his own doing and is inspirational to see that
this amendable work is home-grown.

As we worked together on this project, I saw the goals of my project being fulfilled. Editing
was done by me, but the work and energy was all by a Namibian (Wilhelm P. Hango), which
is a beautiful thing to see.

You can do this to. If you but your mind, effort, and energy to something; you can
accomplish anything. Follow the book, but also look at other resources to help you.
Remember….always practice the language. Speak, Listen, and Read the language and you will
be a master in no time.

Good Luck!!!

Sincerely,

Benjamin Hafeni Olson

Peace Corps Volunteer
SUPEP Group 42

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Table of Contents Pages

1. Simple Present Tense 7
2. Present Continuous Tense 9
3. Present Perfect Tense 11
4. Past Simple Tense 13
5. Past Continuous Tense 15
6. Past Perfect Tense 17
7. Future Simple Tense 19
8. Future Continuous Tense 21
9. Future Perfect Tense 23
10. Nouns 25
11. Types of Noun 27
12. Common and Proper Nouns 29
13. Concrete and Abstract Nouns 30
14. Compound Nouns 32
15. Collective Nouns 33
16. Pronouns 38
17. Subject – Verb Agreement (Concord) 44
18. Prepositions 52
19. Adjectives 55
20. Adverbs 59
21. Conjunctions 64
22. Interjections 70
23. Verbs (Prefixes/suffixes/transitive/intransitive) 72
24. Determiners 81
25. Interrogatives 83
26. Qualifiers/Intensifiers 85
27. Elements of sentence construction(subject/predicate/clause/phrase) 86
28. Active and Passive Voice 95
29. Direct and Indirect/Reported Speech 100
30. Homonyms, Homographs, Homophones and Heteronyms 108
31. Synonyms and Antonyms 114
32. Literature 123
33. Form Filling 127
34. Types of Essay 130
35. Letters 135
36. Dialogue 137
37. Reviews 138
38. Summary Writing 141
39. Speech Writing 141
40. Diary Entry 142
41. Report Writing 144
42. Article Writing 145
43. Emails 147
44. Extreme Examination Advice (Grade 10-12) 148
45. Examination Tips (Grade 4-12) 154
46. References 158

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Tenses in English Grammar

We divide tenses in three parts:
(a) Present Tense
(b) Past Tense
(c) Future Tense

Three categories are further divided into four sub-categories but only 3 are discussed here:
(i) Indefinite/Simple
(ii) Continuous
(iii) Perfect

1. Simple Present Tense

Now, you will find the rules that we use to make a sentence correct according to the tense.

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Use of Simple Present Tense

To express habits, general truths, repeated He goes to school by bus.
actions or unchanging situations They do not like tea.
To give instructions or directions You go home and take rest.
To express fixed arrangements, present or The train leaves at 10.30 am.
future
To express future time, after some conjunctions: I will inform you as soon as he calls me.
after, when, before, as soon as, until They will come after you leave.
Rule: Subject+ V1+ s/es+ Ob (Singular sub)
Subject+ V1+ Ob (Plural subjects)
Affirmative Hilda sells chocolates.
Anna and Ryan sell chocolates.
Negative Hilda does not sell chocolates
Anna and Ryan do not sell chocolates
Interrogative Does Hilda sell chocolates?
Do Anna and Ryan sell chocolates?

Exercise 1

Change the following sentences into the simple present tense.

1. I met him in the afternoon.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
2. He wrote a letter.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
3. I asked you an important question.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
Change into negative
4. She says nothing.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)

5. They want to leave in a hurry.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

Change into question

6. He earns six thousand dollars in two months.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

7. They look after their aged parents.

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2. Present Continuous Tense

Rule: Sub+ is/am/are+ V1+ing+ object

Affirmative Shaan is selling cholocates.
I am reading a book.
They are sending invitations.
Negative Shaan is not selling chocolates.
I am not reading a book.
They are not sending invitations.
Interrogative Is Shaan selling chocolates?
Am I reading a book?
Are they sending invitations?
Use of Present Continuous Tense

To describe an ongoing action He is leaving for school.

To describe a trend or action during a period Nowadays, a large number of people are buying
eco-friendly products.
To describe a planned action/event in the near My brother is leaving for Delhi tomorrow.
future.
To describe a continued series of action using The employees are constantly asking for
words- always, constantly, frequently appraisal.

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Exercise 2

Change the following sentences into the simple Present Continuous Tense.
1. I met him in the afternoon.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
2. He wrote a letter.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
3. I asked you an important question.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
Change into negative
4. She is saying nothing.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)

5. They are leaving in a hurry.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

Change into question

6. He is earning six thousand dollars in two months.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

7. They are looking after their aged parents.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

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3. Present Perfect Tense

Sub + has/have + V3 + Ob.

Use of Present Perfect Tense

Rule: Sub+ has+V3+ object (Singular Subject)

Sub+ have+ V3+ Object (plural Subject)

To describe the change that has happened over He has grown up so fast.
a period of time. People have stopped using diesel cars.
To mention the achievement He has won the first prize.
The scientists have discovered Black Hole.
To describe an unfinished action John has not invited his friends yet.
We still have not received any information
To describe an action that was completed in the They have just arrived.
very recent past She has just finished her school.

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Actions repeated in an unspecified period He has called me multiple time today.

between the past and now. She has visited her grandparents frequently.
Affirmative Shaan has sold chocolate
I have read the book.
They have sent invitations.
Negative Shaan has not sold chocolate
I have not read a book.
They have not sent invitations.
Interrogative Has Shaan sold chocolate?
Have I read the book?
Have they sent invitations?

Exercise 3

Change the following sentences into the simple Present Perfect Tense.
1. I met him in the afternoon.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
2. I asked you an important question.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
Change into negative
3. She has lived in Ondangwa.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)

4. They have wanted to leave in a hurry.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

Change into question

5. He has earned six thousand dollars in two months.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

6. They have looked after their aged parents.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

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4. Simple Past Tense

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Rule: Subject+ V2+ Ob

Affirmative Shaan sold chocolates.
Shaan and Ryan sold chocolates.
Negative Shaan did not sell chocolates
Shaan and Ryan did not sell chocolates
Interrogative Did Shaan sell chocolates?
Did Shaan and Ryan sell chocolates?
Usage of Simple Past Tense
To describe a completed He left his water bottle.
action in a time before now. They killed two terrorists.
To describe an action at a We went there yesterday.
definite point in time I met him on Friday.
To describe an action at an Scientists discovered Black Hole a long time ago.
indefinite point in time She played football when she was a kid

Exercise 4

Change the following sentences into the simple Past Simple Tense.
1. I am meeting him in the afternoon.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
2. They had asked you an important question.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
Change into negative
3. She lived in Ondangwa.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)

4. They wanted to leave in a hurry.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

Change into question

5. He earned six thousand dollars in two months.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

6. They looked after their aged parents.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

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5. Past Continuous Tense

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Rule: Subject+ was+ V1+ ing+ Ob (Singular subject)

Sub+ were+ V1+ing+ object
Affirmative Shaan was selling chocolates.
Shaan and Ryan were selling chocolates.
Negative Shaan was not selling chocolates
Shaan and Ryan were not selling chocolates
Interrogative Was Shaan selling chocolates?
Were Shaan and Ryan selling chocolates?
Usage of Past Continuous Tense
To describe a continuing action or state that was He was talking to his friend.
happening at some point in the past They were making plans for a trip.
Something that was happening continuously in He was studying hard until I called him for
the past when another action interrupted it. dinner.
He was making a video when I reached home.
To describe what was happening at a precise They were leaving for Chicago at 10 am
time in the past. yesterday.
Exercise 5

Change the following sentences into the simple Past Continuous Tense.
1. I am meeting him in the afternoon.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
2. They had asked you an important question.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
Change into negative
3. She was living in Ondangwa.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)

4. They were leaving in a hurry.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

Change into question

5. He was earning six thousand dollars in two months.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

6. They were looking after their aged parents.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

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6. Past Perfect Tense

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Rule: Subject+ had+ V3 + Ob

Affirmative Shaan had sold chocolates.
Shaan and Ryan had sold chocolates.
Negative Shaan has not sold chocolates
Shaan and Ryan had not sold chocolates
Interrogative Has Shaan sold chocolates?
Had Shaan and Ryan sold chocolates?
Usage of Past Perfect Tense
Use to make it clear that one event happened He had slept when I reached home.
before another in the past. They had already packed the bags when we
called them.
Describe an action that started in the past and He had called him twice before sending a
continued up to a given time in the past. message.
The police had sent a warrant before they
encountered him.
To describe unreal or imaginary things wishes If I had had some money, I could have bought
in the past with if conditional him a nice gift.
We wish we hadn’t lied to her.
Exercise 6: Change the following sentences into the simple Past Perfect Tense.

1. I am meeting him in the afternoon.

…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
2. They had asked you an important question.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
Change into negative
3. She had lived in Ondangwa.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)

4. They had left in a hurry.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

Change into question

5. He had earned six thousand dollars in two months.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

6. They had looked after their aged parents.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

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7. Simple Future Tense

Rule: Subject+ will +V1+ Object

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Affirmative Shaan will sell chocolates

They will sell chocolates
Negative Shaan will not sell chocolates
Interrogative Will Shaan sell chocolates?

Usage of Simple Future Tense

Predicting future events It will rain tomorrow.
You will meet a new friend.
To take decisions and express willingness I will pay the bill.
I will come for help.
Simple future in conditional sentences I will meet him if I get time.

Exercise 7

Change the following sentences into the simple Simple Future Tense.
1. I am meeting him in the afternoon.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
2. They had asked you an important question.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
Change into negative
3. She will live in Ondangwa.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)

4. They will leave in a hurry.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

Change into question

5. He will earn six thousand dollars in two months.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

6. They will look after their aged parents.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

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8. Future Continuous Tense

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Rule: Subject+ will+be +V1+ing+ Object

Affirmative They will be selling chocolates
Negative They will not be selling chocolates
Interrogative Will they be selling chocolates?

Usage of Future Continuous Tense

Describing an unfinished action that will be in I will be completing my homework in the
progress at a time later than now. evening
To imagine oneself in past By March 2020, I will be driving like a
professional driver.
Describe continuous events that are expected to I will be seeing John in the movie.
happen in the future

Exercise 8

Change the following sentences into the simple Future Continuous Tense.
1. I am meeting him in the afternoon.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
2. They had asked you an important question.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
Change into negative
3. She will be living in Ondangwa.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)

4. They will be leaving in a hurry.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

Change into question

5. He will be earning six thousand dollars in two months.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

6. They will be looking after their aged parents.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

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9. Future Perfect Tense

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Rule: Subject+ will+have +V3+ Object

Affirmative They will have sold chocolates.
Negative They will not have sold chocolates
Interrogative Will they have sold chocolates?

Usage of Future Perfect Tense

Describing a completed action in the future By March 2020, I will have completed my
graduation.

Exercise 9

Change the following sentences into the simple Present Perfect Tense.
1. I am meeting him in the afternoon.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
2. They had asked you an important question.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)
Change into negative
3. She will have lived in Ondangwa.
…………………………………………………………………………… (1)

4. They will have left in a hurry.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

Change into question

5. He will have earned six thousand dollars in two months.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

6. They will have looked after their aged parents.

…………………………………………………………………… (1)

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10. Nouns

- A noun is a word that

refers to a place, a
person, a thing or an
idea.

To understand the definition

clearly, try to answer the
following question.
o Who are you?
o Where do you live in?
o What are the things you use daily?
o What are things you cannot touch but feel daily?

The answers must be as below:

Questions Answers
Who are you? Man, woman, teacher, student, boy, girl,
manager, son, brother, sister, mother, father,
teenager, infant, employer, employee, trainer,
trainee, guide, doctor, surgeon, engineer,
chairperson, representative etc.
Where do you live in? house, hut, bungalow, city, town, state, country,
apartment, street, lane etc.
What are the things you use daily? Pen, pencil, paper, phone, tablet, medicine,
scale, book, map, cup, television, laptop,
computer, pizza, burger, food, butter, bread.
What are things you cannot touch but feel Anger, happiness, laughter, danger, friendship,
daily? anger, hatred, humour, satisfaction, depression
The answers given on the right-hand side of the table are nouns.

 Function of nouns in a sentence

You must be thinking where do we use nouns in a sentence. Right? Basically, nouns are used to
perform two functions in a sentence.
o Subject: Does of the activity
o Object: on which activity is performed.
The use of object in sentences is not mandatory.

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Sentences without object/Noun

Sentence Doer Activity/Action

Boys play Boys Play
Girls dance Girls Love
Students read Students Learn
Mother cooks. Mother cooks
Dog barks Dog barks
Teacher teaches Teacher teaches
Sentences with object/Noun

Sentence Doer Activity/Action Object

Boys play cricket. Boys Play cricket
Girls love music. Girls Love music
Students read books. Students Read books
Mother cooks pasta. Mother cooks pasta
Teacher teaches lessons. Teacher teaches lessons

The action words used in the above sentences are called "Verbs".

Examples of Nouns in sentences

1. Radha repaired laptops.

2. Manoj drives a car.
3. Abhi writes on a notebook.
4. Geeta is learning piano.
5. Akash had finished homework.
6. Purab left for school.
7. Rakesh spent his holidays in London
8. Depression kills people.
9. Happiness is rare.
10. People are running.

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11. Types of Nouns

Noun is a word that refers to a place, thing, person or idea. There are 8 types of nouns in the
English language which are discussed below.

1. Common Noun

It is a word that represents a person, place or thing in general. It is very common and easy to find
around you. These are general terms indicating a person or a place

 Examples
door, room, car, book, girl, Man, table, chair, laptop, computer, bag, school, teacher,
student, milk, notebook, table, woman, lotion, mobile, gel, train, bus, road, village, town,
city, movie, singer

2. Proper Noun

Proper nouns make common nouns easy to distinguish and understand. These are used to make
common nouns special by giving them a particular name. In written English, a proper noun
always begins with capital letters no matter where they are used in the sentences.

 Examples
Steve, Erica, Mumbai, India, Harley Davidson, Skybags, Samsung, The Secret (book),
Kasauli, Dell, Curlon, Google, Australia, Ottawa, Golden Temple, Nehru Park, Steve Jobs

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3. Collective Noun

Collective nouns represent the names for a collection/group or a number of people/animals, things
or ideas. It is a collection of common or proper nouns.

 Examples
Army, family, class, Council, jury, bouquet, herd, audience, pack, flock, crowd, group.
Choir, orchestra, bunch

4. Compound Noun

Compound nouns are a combination of two or more words used as a noun. These can represent a
place, a thing, an animal or idea.

 Examples
Bedroom ( Bed+room), Classroom (Class+room), Fireflies (Fire+Flies), Toothpaste
(Tooth+Paste), Swimming pool, Dry cleaners, Bus stop, Egg rolls, Washing machine,
Family business, Daughter-in-law, Web-browser

5. Concrete Noun

Nouns that can be identified through five senses (taste, touch, sight, hearing, or smell) come under
concrete nouns. They can be touched, smelt, felt, seen or heard.

 Examples
Boy, food, chair, London, song, music, egg, laptop, computer, book, paiting, snow, rain,
water, lotion, chemical, bottle, baby,

6. Abstract Noun

Abstract nouns are the exact opposites of concrete nouns. These cannot be identified through the
five senses.

 Examples
happiness, sadness ecstasy, bliss, love bravery, courage, success, pain, misery, justice

7. Countable Noun

The countable nouns are individual people, animals, places, things, or ideas which can be counted
in numbers

 Examples
A car, Three pens, Ten houses, Fifty People Hundred supporters, Ten buses

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8. Uncountable Noun

The nouns that cannot be counted are called uncountable nouns or mass nouns. It is hard to use
them with a quantifier like one, three, four. All abstract nouns are uncountable.

 Examples
Water, Air, Milk, Money, truth, danger, love, hatred, depression, agression, impression,
happiness

12. Difference between Common Nouns and Proper Nouns

It is very easy to distinguish Common Nouns from Proper Nouns. Look at the following
definition.

 Common Nouns
These represent a place, person, thing or idea which is not specific. There is nothing special
about common nouns and they don't have a name which makes them "specific" from "general".

 Proper Nouns
Proper Nouns, on the other hand, give special names to common nouns. They made common
nouns special by assigning a name or identity to them.
Difference Between Common Nouns and Proper Nouns

Common Nouns Proper Nouns

Boy/Man John, Arthur, Terrance, Drake, Jack, Harry,
Girl/Woman Betty, Veronica, Elizabeth, Diana, Alice
Schools St. Xavier School, New York Public School
College Columbia College, Douglas College
University University of Alberta, University of Toronto

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Road Great Ocean Road, Oxford Street

Cities London, New York, Chicago, Vancouver
Countries India, Canada, America, Australia
Trains Orient Express, Indian Pacific, Palace on Wheels
Buses Speed Bus, Red Bus
Days Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday
Rivers Ganges, Nile, Amazon, Yamuna
Months January, February, March, April, May
Restaurants The Basants, Masala Trail, UpperHouse
Holiday Thanksgiving, Independence Day, Republic Day
Oceans Atlantic Ocean, Arctic Ocean, Pacific Ocean
Books The Secret, 1984. Animal Farm
Planet Earth, Saturn, Jupiter
Cars Lancer, Swift, Audi, Mustang
Mountains Mount Everest, Mount Fuji, Cho Oyu
Writers William Wordsworth, Shakespeare, John Keats
Drama Hamlet, Look Back in Anger
Novels Jane Eyre, Pride and Prejudice, Emma
Company Google, Microsoft. Flipkart
Bank State Bank of India, ICICI Bank, HDFC Bank

Common Noun and Proper Noun Sentences

Common Noun Sentences Proper Noun Sentences

He is a boy. He is John.
She is my sister. Diana is my sister.
I work in a bank. I work in HDFC Bank
He is an employee. Dilton is a Manager.
She works in a famous company. She works in Microsoft.
They are reading a novel. They are reading Jane Eyre
The students are enacting a drama. The students are enacting Hamlet.
He is my favourite author/writer. Shakespeare is my favourite writer.
He climbed up the highest mountain in the world. He climbed up Mount Everest.
We saw many artificial planets in the museum. We saw many artificial Earth in the museum.

13. Concrete and Abstract Nouns

 Concrete Nouns represents the nouns which can be Nouns that can be identified through
five senses (taste, touch, sight, hearing, or smell) come under concrete nouns. They can be
touched, smelt, felt, seen or heard.

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 Abstracts Nouns represents the nouns which cannot be touched or seen. These nouns
ideas, qualities, or states rather than a concrete object.

For Instance:
My brother is in love with a girl of great honour.

In the above sentence, brother and girl are concrete nouns as they can be seen and
touched.
Love and honour are abstract nouns as they cannot be touched and seen.

Sentence Concrete Nouns Abstract Nouns

I am reading a book to gain knowledge Book (Common Knowledge
Noun)
Amit is very ambitious for his career and growth. Amit (Proper Career, Growth
Noun)
When he saw his son, all his anger turned Son Anger, Affection
into affection
The candidates are learning animation. candidates animation
The waterfall continues to be the main attraction at Waterfall, park attraction
the park
The scholar has an abundance of knowledge. Scholar Abundance,
knowledge
The students were filled with excitement to go on a Students Excitement,
new adventure. adventure.
The doctor has earned the adoration of his patients. Doctor, patients. adoration
Some children hurt animals for amusement, but Children, animals Amusement, actions
their actions rarely go unpunished.
He did not mention this to his daughter, Daughter, Nina, Nervousness,
but Nina noticed her father's nervousness and anxiety father anxiety
I could feel the warmth of the fireplace Fireplace Warmth
(Compound
Noun)
Many people have a phobia, and being in People, phobia Presence, terror
the presence of what they fear will fill them with
absolute terror
The argument led to his suspension from school. School Suspension,
argument
Getting no response from Alina, he shrugged and Alina, desk Response
turned to his desk
The wall gives some protection from the Wall, wind protection
prevailing wind.

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14. Compound Nouns

 Compound nouns are a combination of two or more words used as a noun. These can
represent a place, a thing, an animal or idea

Compound Nouns List with Examples

Your bedroom must be cleaned.

The classroom was empty
Children caught fireflies in jars
The taste of toothpaste is good.
We sat by the swimming pool.

He rushed to the dry cleaner to get his coat.

I waited for you at the bus stop
She prepared egg rolls for the family
A coin was stuck in my washing machine.
They have been running their family business successfully.
My daughter- in- law cooks breakfast.
This web browser has become obsolete.
Tim had lost his address book
Suddenly, smoke started coming out of the air conditioner.
He thrashed my alarm clock.
I could not find a suitable babysitter for my daughter
Someone hacked my bank account
He purchased a backpack.
Salman khan is a superstar
Shahrukh Khan is a renowned film star
Who burnt my frying pan?
He is studying in high school.
You should cross zebra crossing carefully

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15. Collective Nouns: Animals, Things, People and Bird

Collective Noun
- Collective nouns refers to
the collection or a number
of people or things.

Collective Nouns Used for People

Collective Examples
Noun
Crowd On Black Friday, there is always a crowd of people in front of the most popular
stores
Concourse The great concourse of people seemed to have been similarly impressed.
Gathering Over a hundred people came to the social gathering held at the mayor’s home.
Procession The procession passed along the street.
Queue By 7 o'clock a long queue had formed outside the cinema.

Collective Nouns Used for Students

Collective Noun Examples

Group A group of student is working on the new assignment
Delegation A delegation of student went to NASA
Class The new class of students is mischievous.

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Collective Nouns According to Professions

Profession Collective Noun Example

Dancers Troupe Tiring of the monotony of scholastic life, he joined a
troupe of dancers
Judges Jury The jury failed to reach a verdict.
Musicians Band The band marched through the streets.
Soldiers Army/ Regiment The commander said that the army would comply with
the ceasefire.
The regiment was ordered to the front.
Directors Board He was summoned before the board of directors.
Trustees Board The board of trustees of the firm has been reconstituted
recently.
Singers Choir She sings in the church choir.
Labourers Union/ Association The labour union has called all the miners out to support
the wage - claim.
Actors Company He became one of the partners who owned the
Chamberlain's Men, a company of actors.
Sailors /Boatmen Crew The crew tried to seize control of the ship
Jurymen Panel The competition will be judged by a panel of experts.
Examiners Board Two examiners resigned from the board in protest.
Merchants Company The company of merchants agreed to the demands.
Advisers Council The Council of advisers has set out a timetable for
returning to civilian rule.
Judges Bench A bench of four judges was constituted on GST Bill.
Tradesmen Union/ Guild I belong to a guild of wine butlers.

Collective Nouns for Things

Things Collective Noun Example

Books Catalogue The catalogue of books was placed on the table.
Boats Flotilla This flotilla of boats belongs to India’s Merchant Navy.
Cotton Bale We are a highly acclaimed company that offers an
extensive range of Cotton Bale
Complaints Barrage The TV station has received a barrage of complaints about
the amount of violence in the series.
Drawers Chest I bought a Victorian chest of drawers.
Eggs Clutch The clutch of eggs slipped from his hand.
Events Chains A chain of events was planned for Commonwealth Games
Flowers Bouquet/ Garland He brought me a bouquet of roses.
Grapes Bunch I got a bunch of grapes from the basket
Houses Blocks/ Colony The entire colony has houses built in the British era.
Islands Clusters There is a cluster of islands in the Pacific Ocean

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Jewels Hoard She has a hoard of jewels.

Loaves Batch She brought a large batch of loaves.
Language Family Hindi belongs to the family of Sanskrit language.
Rays Beam From the side, a beam of rays is only visible if part of the
light is scattered by objects:
Ruin/Garbage Heap The heap of garbage is the source of breeding mosquitoes.
Rooms Suit This hotel has three suits of two bedrooms.
Things Assortment The top drawer contained the usual assortment of pens,
pencils and paper-clips
Mountains Chains The chain of Aravali mountains ranges from Rajasthan to
Gujarat.
Mud Lump He broke down the lump of mud.
Photos Album I keep the photographs in an album.
Public records Archives Most historians simply rely on archives.
Powers Alliance The companies have formed an alliance to market the
product
Stamps Album I want to show you the album of my stamps
Stars Constellation I love to look at the constellation of stars.
Wine Cellar They found a dead man in the cellar of wine

Collective Nouns for Animals

Collective Nouns for Wild Animals

Animal Collective Noun
Apes Shrewdness
Badgers Colony
Baboons Troops
Bears Sloth
Cubs Litter
Deer Herd
Elephant Herd/Parade
Elk Herd
Foxes Earth/Lead/Skulk
Giraffe Troop
Gorillas Band
Leopards Leaps
Lions Pride
Monkeys Troop
Rhinoceros Crash
Wildcats Dout
Wolves Pack
Zebras Zeal
Collective Nouns for Domestics Animals
Asses Herd

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Buffalo Herd
Camels String
Cattle Herd
Donkeys Train
Goats Herd
Hares Leash
Horses Team/Stud
Kittens Litter
Kangaroos Herd
Ponies Stud
Peacocks Muster
Pigs Litter
Puppies Litter
Rabbits Warren/ Nest/Colony
Sheep Flock
Squirrels Drey
Oxen Team/Yoke
Collective Nouns for Birds
Crows Murder/Clan
Birds Flock
Chickens Flock
Crows Murder/Clan
Curlew Herd
Ducks Safe (on land)
Paddling (on water)
Eagles Convocation
Falcons Cast
Herons Siege
Hawks Cast
Herons Siege
Larks Bevy/Exaltation
Owls Parliament
Ostrich Flock
Parrots Pandemonium
Peacocks Muster
Pigeons Kit
Ravens Unkindness
Swine Herd
Swallows Flight
Snipe Wisp
Teal Spring
Turkeys Raffle
Woodcock Flight
Woodpeckers Descent
Wildfowl Bunch

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Woodpeckers Descent
Collective Nouns for Aquatic Animals
Crocodile Bask
Fish Shoal
Jellyfish brood
Whales School
Rhinoceros Crash
Toads Knot
Turtles Bale
Hippos Pod
Whales School

Collective Nouns for Reptiles and Insects

Ants Colony/Army
Bees Hive/Cluster
Caterpillars Army
Flies Swarm
Insects Flight
Rats Colony
Snakes Den/ Pit
Spiders Clutter
Termite Colony

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Exercise 10
This grammar exercise tests your ability to identify the different kinds of nouns.

1. The book was lying on the table.

A. Book is a common noun 6. Alcohol is injurious to health.
B. Book is a proper noun A. Health is a common noun
B. Health is an abstract noun
C. Book is a collective noun C. Health is a proper noun

2. Love begets love. 7. Smoking is a bad habit.

A. Habit is a common noun
A. Love is a common noun B. Habit is a proper noun
B. Love is a collective noun C. Habit is an abstract noun

C. Love is an abstract noun 8. Wild animals live in forests.

A. Animals is a common noun
3. We cannot live without water. B. Animals is a proper noun
C. Animals is an abstract noun
A. Water is a common noun
B. Water is a material noun 9. The childhood of Peter was full of misery.
A. Childhood is a common noun
C. Water is an abstract noun B. Childhood is an abstract noun
C. Childhood is a proper noun
4. The jury has given its verdict.
10. All the girls were singing.
A. Jury is a collective noun
A. Girls is a common noun
B. Jury is a common noun B. Girls is a proper noun
C. Girls is an abstract noun
C. Jury is an abstract noun

5. The Hindus regard Krishna as an

incarnation of Lord Vishnu.
A. Hindus is a common noun
B. Hindus is a proper noun
C. Hindus is an abstract noun

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16. Pronouns
- Pronouns are words that substitute for nouns.

Every pronoun must have a clear antecedent (the word for which the pronoun stands).

KINDS OF PRONOUNS
A. Personal Pronouns:

SINGULAR PLURAL
Subjective objective possessive subjective objective possessive

1st person I me my, mine we us our, ours

2nd person you you your, yours you you your, yours

3rd person he him his they them their, theirs

she her her, hers
it it its

B. Demonstrative Pronouns:

C. Reflexive / Intensive Pronouns : the "self" pronouns

- These pronouns can be used only to reflect or intensify a word already there in the
sentence.
- Reflexive / intensive pronouns CANNOT REPLACE personal pronouns.

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Examples:

- I saw myself in the mirror. (Myself is a reflexive pronoun, reflecting the pronoun I.)
- I’ll do it myself. (Myself is an intensive pronoun, intensifying the pronoun I.)
Key takeaway: The following words are substandard and should not be used:

theirselves theirself hisself ourself

D. Indefinite Pronouns:
Singular:

One someone anyone no one everyone

Each somebody anybody nobody everybody

(n)either something anything nothing everything

Examples:
- Somebody is coming to dinner.
- Neither of us believes a word Harry says.

Plural:

Examples:

- Both are expected at the airport at the same time.

- Several have suggested canceling the meeting.

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Singular with non-countables / Plural with countables:

Examples:

- Some of the dirt has become a permanent part of the rug.

- Some of the trees have been weakened by the storm.

Indefinite pronouns use apostrophes to indicate possessive case.

Examples:

- The accident is nobody’s fault.

- How will the roadwork affect one's daily commute?

Some indefinite pronouns may also be used as determiners.

one, each, either, neither, some, any, one, all, both, few, several, many, most

Note the differences:

Each person has a chance.

(Each is a determiner describing person.)

Each has a chance.

(Each is an indefinite pronoun replacing a noun.)

Both lawyers pled their cases well.

(Both is a determiner describing lawyers.)

Both were in the room.

(Both is an indefinite pronoun replacing a noun.)

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E. Interrogative Pronouns:

Interrogative pronouns produce information questions that require more than a “yes” or “no”
answer.

Examples:

What do you want?

Who is there?

F. Relative Pronouns:

Relative pronouns introduce relative (adjectival) clauses.

Key takeaway:  Use who, whom, and whose to refer to people.

 Use that and which to refer to things.

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EXERCISE: 11

EXAMPLE: Can and sister come to the meeting? (you)

ANSWER:
Can you and your sister come to the meeting?

1. We can phone my grandma and ask . (she)

2. Are your friends? (they)

3. is working on presentation. (she)

4. Excuse , can ask a question? (I)

5. can ride skateboards. (they)

6. is friend. (he)

7. This is not jacket, was blue. (I)

8. bought it for . (she)

9. These two cats are . (we)

10. don't eat potatoes because don't like . (they)

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17. Subject-Verb Agreement (concord)

- Subject verb agreement simply means the subject and verb must agree in number. This
means both need to be singular or both need to be plural.
Rule 1
Singular subjects take singular verbs.
You must be thinking, what are these singular subjects and singular verbs. Let us clear this.
Singular subject refers to a noun or pronoun that represents one person/doer.
Singular Subjects Singular Verbs
John, David, Rachel, Monica, He, She, it, dog, Am, Is, was, has, does, write(s), drink(s),
rabbit, cow, boy, girl, woman, man, kid, child etc, send(s), explain(s), accepts, rejects, sets,
diagram, graph, picture condemns, calls.
While making Simple Present Tense, we add (s/es) with verbs to make them singular.

Examples
o He goes to the gym every day.
o John invites his friends.
o Robin calls her sister to inform about the accident.
o Rachel is very shy.
o Monica has a beautiful red gown to wear to the party.
o This picture explains the structure clearly.
o Karen does not meet new people.
o Does she play cricket?
Rule 2
Plural subjects take plural verbs.
Now, what are plural subjects and verb?
When we refer to more than one thing, that becomes plural subject. A plural subject always takes
a plural verb.
Singular Subjects Singular Verbs
They, we, people, students, girls, boys, women, Are, were, have, had, drink, explain, run,
men, graphs, pictures, charts, books, tables, chairs, write, explain, study, teach, ask, call, tell,
parents, friends etc. prepare, leave, invite
Example
o Kids were playing in the park.
o We are going.
o John and Sam had a drink.
o The graphs are in the closet.

Note 1
In the sentences "Karen does not like to meet new people." and "Does she play cricket?"
We have already placed "/es" with "do" to make it singular, therefore verbs "meet" and "play"
will not use (s).
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Note 2
Had is a singular and plural verb. It can be used with a singular subject as well as a plural subject.
Example:
o Seeta had cleared the exam.
o Seeta and Geeta had cleared the exam.
"Had" is used in "Past Tenses".

Note 3
"You" represents singular and plural subjects but it always takes plural verbs.
o You are my friend. (singular)
o You are my friends. (plural)
o You were my brother. (singular)
o You were my brother. (plural)
o You have cleared the exam. (singular or plural)
o You had cleared the exam. (singular or plural)

Common Confusion

Students often make mistakes when they get two Subjects i.e. Students and New York. Here, the
main subject must be identified. In the above picture, “Students" is the main subject and therefore,
a plural verb must be used.
Cattle is a plural subject and it always takes plural verbs.

Rule 3
In an optative sentence, a singular subject takes a plural verb.
o Long live the king!
o Long may she reign!

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Rule 4
Two singular nouns joined by "AND"
Case (i)- If two singular nouns are joined by "AND" and the first noun is preceded by articles (a,
an, the) or possessive adjectives( as, my, your, our, hers, his etc), then it expresses the same
person and it takes singular noun.

Case (ii)- If two singular nouns are joined by "AND" and the articles (a, an, the) or possessive
adjectives( as, my, your, our, hers, his etc) are used before each singular noun, then we use a
plural verb because we are referring to "TWO DIFFERENT PEOPLE"

Rule 5
Use of Each
Each+Noun takes a singular verb
o Each girl has a sheet.
Each + Noun1 and Noun2 take a singular verb
o Each girl and boy is working
Each+ Noun1 and Each+Noun2 take a singular verb
o Each boy and each girl is working hard.
Each of+ Plural Noun takes a singular verb
o Each of the boys is intelligent.

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Rule 6
Use of Every
Every+ Noun1 and Noun2 takes a singular verb
o Every boy and girl is studious.
Every+ Noun1 and Every+ Noun2 takes a singular verb.
o Every man and woman is laborious.
Every+Noun1 takes a singular verb
o Every child is precious.

Rule 7
Use of Either
If either is used as the subject, it takes a singular verb
o Either/Neither machine works well.
o There are two pens, either writes well.
Either of + plural subjects takes a singular verb
o Either of these boys is intelligent.
o Either of these cars was black.
o Either of them is guilty

Rule 8
Use of Neither
If neither is used as the subject, it takes a singular verb.
o Neither student was hardworking.
Neither of + plural subjects takes a singular verb
o Neither of the boys was intelligent.

Rule 9
Use of Many
"Many" and " a great many" are used in plural sense referring to " a large number of" and
therefore we use a plural verb with it.

o Many were killed in the bus accidents

o A great many people were present in the auditorium.
Many of/a great many + Plural subject takes a plural verb
o Many of the students were absent
o A great many of them are affected.

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Rule 10
Indefinite Pronouns: Everybody, everything, something, anything, nothing somebody, anybody,
nobody, everyone, someone, anyone and no one take a singular verb when used as the subject of
the sentence.
o Everyone wants coffee.
o Nobody has a pen.
o Someone is here to meet you.
o No one has come yet.
o Nothing is clear.
o Everything looks normal.

Rule 11
If "the amount of/ a large amount of/ a good deal of" is used as the subject, a singular verb is
used.
o The amount of money is not sufficient.
o A large amount of money was stolen.
o A good deal of blood was lost in the accident.

Rule 12
A plural verb is used with
Both/both of+Plural noun
Several/several of +Plural noun
Various/various of+Plural noun
o Both girls are happy.
o Various boys were present.
o Several people have sleeping bags.
o Both of the girls were shy
o Several of them have guns.

Rule 13
Use of None
None/ None of+ singular noun or plural noun take singular verbs.
o None has arrived.
o None of this is true.
o None of the boys is intelligent.

Rule 14
Use of all
If "All" is used in the sense of "everything" it takes a singular verb.
o All is ready.
o All is well.

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All/ all of/ not all of+ singular (uncountable) noun takes singular verbs
o All the money is lost.
o All the milk is spoiled.
All/All of/not all of+ plural (countable) noun takes plural verbs.
o All the boys are intelligent.
o All of the girls were wearing pink suits.
o Not all of the men are loyal.

Rule 15
Use of No
No+ singular noun takes a singular verb.
o No work is hard.
o No girl is ready.
o No boy has a sheet.
No+ plural noun takes a plural verb.
o No pens were on sale.
o No books were available in the market.

Rule 16
If Little of/ a little of/ the little of it/this/that/everything is used as a subject, we use a singular
verb.
o A little of it is enough.
o This works fine.
o Everything is on the position.

Rule 17
The verb is used on the basis of the first subject of the sentences are as follow
o The criminal, along with his followers, has escaped.
o Teachers, accompanied by a soldier, have reached the station.
o The principal, with all his staff members, is sitting on the stage.
This rule is applied when words like with, together with, along with, in addition to, including,
excluding, accompanied by, headed by, are used.

Rule 18
In the sentence with a clause starting with "What" a singular verb is used.
o What I need is none of your concern.
o What they require is not available in the market.
o What he likes is a book by Rana Das.

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Rule 19
The word "Pain" means "ache" or "suffering" or "mental distress" and it takes a singular
verb.
o This pain is unbearable.
The word "Pains" means "troubles", "hardships, "problems" and it takes a plural verb.
o His pains have finally paid off.

Rule 20
Uncountable nouns like "Hair, glass, cloth, force and marriage" take singular verbs.
His hair is black.
o Marriage is a social obligation.
o Cloth has fine colour.
o Force of nature is unfathomable.

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Exercise 12: Circle the correct word in the following sentences.

1) One-half of the water on this planet (is, are) polluted.
2) Many of the lakes (is, are) polluted.
3) Each of the students (is, are) responsible for taking their own notes.
4) Many interesting activities (take, takes) place in the cafeteria.
5) Many varieties of plants (exist, exists) in the Arctic.
6) Either Mr. Jones or his students (count, counts) the Christmas Cheer money each week.
7) The bulls and the donkey (graze, grazes) on the same pasture.
8) One-third of the desks (are, is) orange.
9) The berries and an egg (were, was) on the plate.
10) Everyone working on the project (are, is) proud of the final product.
11) A high percentage of the population (are is) voting on the proposal.
12) A high percentage of the people (was, were) voting on the proposal.
13) Jane Smith, together with her teammates, (forms, form) a formidable opponent on the
basketball court.
14) Neither the vans nor the bus (have, has) enough leg room for Shaquille.
15) The two silver necklaces or the gold necklace (cost, costs) fifty dollars.

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18. Prepositions
 What is a preposition?

o Preposition is a word used to show the relationship between a noun or a pronoun

and some other word in the sentence.
o The relationship includes direction, place, time, cause, manner and amount.
 We use a preposition to relate a noun or a pronoun to some other word in the sentence. For
example, in the sentence, “The water in the glass is cold.”
The preposition “in” shows the relationship between ‘water’ and ‘glass’.
Preposition Examples
Prepositions are short words such as ‘in’, ‘at’, ‘on’ etc. that usually stand in front of nouns
(sometimes also in front of gerund verbs). Some examples of preposition sentences are given
below. Each sentence will show you the type of relationship.
 In the sentence, She went to the store, “To” is a preposition which shows direction.
 In the sentence, He came by bus, “By” is a preposition which shows manner.
 In the sentence, They will be here at three o’clock, “At” is a preposition which shows
time.
 In the sentence, It is under the table, “Under” is a preposition which shows place.
Now, we look at some more examples

Example of Preposition + Noun

I gave a book to Julia.
Example of Preposition + Pronoun
I gave a book to him
Example of Preposition + Gerund
I devote my time to reading.
A preposition is always used with a noun or a pronoun. The noun or pronoun it is used with is
called the object of the preposition.
For example, “You may go with your brother.”
Here the preposition ‘with’ relates its object ‘brother’ to ‘may go’.
When you find a word that you think is a preposition, look for the object. Say the preposition and
then say, ‘what?’. If there is a ‘what’ or ‘when’ you have a preposition. For example, “He
jumped in.” In what? there is no answer; therefore, ‘in’ is not a preposition.

Now, look at the following sentence.

He jumped in the water.

Now when we say, ‘in what?’ there is an answer, ‘water”, so ‘in’ here is a preposition.

See also: In, On, At – Preposition of Time and Place Exercises

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There are following types of prepositions.

1. Simple Preposition
- When a preposition consists of one word is called single or simple preposition.
- Simple Preposition Examples: in, at, on, to for, of, from, up, after, over, under, with, till,
etc.

2. Double Preposition
 When a preposition consists of more than one word, it is called double preposition.
 Double Preposition Examples: into, within, upto etc.

3. Compound Preposition
 Compound preposition consists of two or more words.

 Compound Preposition Examples: on behalf of, according to, in front of, from accross
etc.

4. Participle Preposition
 Participle preposition consists of words that end in “ing”.
 Participle Examples: regarding, barring, concerning, considering, etc.

5. Disguised Prepositions
 Disguised Preposition Examples: ‘by’ can be changed into ‘be’, ‘on’ into ‘a’, and ‘of’
can be changed into ‘o’ for example, 5 O’ clock.

6. Phrase Prepositions
 Group of words used with the force of a single preposition is called phrase preposition.

 Phrase Preposition Examples: according to, by means of, owing to, with a view to, in
place of, in front of, in spite of, instead of, in order to, by virtue of, by way of, etc.

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Exercise 13
Test your understanding of prepositions with this grammar exercise. Fill in the blanks with an
appropriate preposition.
1. We walked ……………………… the edge of the desert.
Please select 2 correct answers
A. as far as
B. up to
C. until
2. It is another three weeks ............................... the holidays.
Please select 2 correct answers
A. to
B. until
C. for
D. up to
3. I don’t know how she manages to support such a large family. She has nothing
................................... her pension.
A. besides
B. except
C. apart from
D. All of the above
4. Are you wearing anything ………………………. your sweater?
A. below
B. under
C. underneath
D. Either under or underneath
5. Do you mind? I was ……………………………. you!
Please select 2 correct answers
A. in front of
B. in front off
C. before

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19. Adjectives

 Traditionally, adjectives are defined as words that describe nouns or pronouns.

 When they describe nouns or pronouns, adjectives typically answer the following
questions:

What kind? Which one? How many?

For example, in the phrase

 Tall is an adjective describing the noun man.

 Tall answers the question "which man?" or "what kind of man?"

Similarly, in the phrase,

 Easy is an adjective describing the noun assignment.

 Easy answers the question, "what kind of assignment?"

Adjectives are usually placed before the nouns they describe, as in the examples, tall
man and easy assignment, above.

 Thus, one may identify an adjective by using the following word-order test:

Adjectives may also follow the noun they describe.

Example:

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Finally, adjectives may follow a verb of being or a linking verb, thus completing the noun
subject

Examples:

Like nouns, adjectives are often recognizable by their suffixes.

Endings such as -ous -ful -ish -able usually designate adjectives.

Examples:

Comparative and superlative forms

Single-syllable adjectives use -er and -est endings to designate comparative and superlative forms:

Examples:

Adjectives of two or more syllables use more and most for comparative and superlative forms.

Examples:

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Note: Two-syllable adjectives ending in -y may also use the -er / -est endings to designate
comparative and superlative.

Examples:

Note: the following adjectives do not follow the regular rules for forming comparative and
superlative forms: good, bad, little, ill.

To create negative comparative and superlative forms, use

less for –er and least for –est

Examples:

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Exercise 14
Complete the following sentences using the appropriate form of the adjective given in the
brackets.

1. He is ………………… than his neighbors.

A. rich
B. richer
C. richest
2. The brides were much ……………… than the grooms.
A. young B. younger C. youngest
3. He is too ………………… to be taught.
A. intelligent
B. more intelligent
C. most intelligent
4. He is ………………… than I thought him to be.
A. clever
B. cleverer
C. cleverest
5. When the old woman became …………………, she began to move about.
A. stronger
B. more strong
6. He is much ………………… now.
A. good
B. better
C. best
7. The offer was too ………………… to be true.
A. good
B. better
C. best

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20. Adverbs

- Adverbs are traditionally defined as words that describe verbs.

Adverbs answer any of the following questions about verbs:

how? when? where? why?

The following examples illustrate adverbs modifying verbs:

- How did he lift the barbell?

- Easily is an adverb.

- When will we use it?

- Tomorrow functions as an adverb.

- Where did she hide the key?

- Nearby is an adverb.

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Adverbs are the most moveable of all parts of speech; therefore, it is sometimes difficult to identify an
adverb on the basis of its position in a sentence.

For example, the adverb slowly will fit into three places in the sentence He climbed the ladder:

Most adverbs end in -ly. In fact, most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to adjectives:

Like adjectives of more than one syllable, adverbs usually become comparative and superlative by
using more and most.

Examples:

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Flat adverbs
- Adjectives that do not change form (add -ly) to become adverbs are called "flat adverbs."
- Typical flat adverbs are early, late, hard, fast, long, high, low, deep, near.

To determine whether these words are functioning as adjectives or adverbs, one must determine

1) what the word is describing (noun or verb)

2) what question the word is answering

The following examples illustrate the distinction.

Early as adjective:

Early describes the noun train and answers the question "which one?"

Early as adverb:

Early describes the verb arrived and answers the question "when?"

Hard as adjective:

Hard describes the noun pass and answers the question "what kind?"

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Hard as adverb:

Hard describes the verb threw and answers the question "how?"

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Exercise 15
Fill in the blanks with a suitable adverb.

1. I ............................... go to bed at 10 o’clock.

A. once
B. ever
C. usually
2. I have …………………. been to the USA.
A. never B. ever
3. I have been to Australia just …………………..
A. one
B. once
C. ones
4. I ………………….. take a bath before I go to bed.
A. once
B. always
C. ever
5. My grandparents live in Kerala. I visit them .......................................
A. once
B. often

6. The situation is ………………………. serious.

A. very
B. much
C. too
7. You are ……………………….. kind.
A. too
B. much
C. too much

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21. Conjunctions

- Conjunctions are words used as joiners.

- Different kinds of conjunctions join different kinds of grammatical structures.

The following are the kinds of conjunctions:

A. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (FANBOYS)

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

Coordinating conjunctions join equals to one another:

words to words, phrases to phrases, clauses to clauses.

- Coordinating conjunctions usually form looser connections than other conjunctions do.

- Coordinating conjunctions go in
between items joined, not at the
beginning or end.

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Punctuation with coordinating conjunctions:

- When a coordinating conjunction joins two words, phrases, or subordinate clauses, no

comma should be placed before the conjunction.

- A coordinating conjunction joining three or more words, phrases, or subordinate

clauses creates a series and requires commas between the elements.

A coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses creates a compound sentence and
requires a comma before the coordinating conjunction

B. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

either. . .or both. . . and

neither. . . nor not only. . . but also

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These pairs of conjunctions require equal (parallel) structures after each one.

C. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS

- These conjunctions join independent clauses together.

The following are frequently used conjunctive adverbs:

after all in addition next

Also incidentally nonetheless
as a result indeed on the contrary
besides in fact on the other hand
consequently in other words otherwise
finally instead still
for example likewise then
furthermore meanwhile therefore
Hence moreover thus
however nevertheless

Punctuation: Place a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after
the conjunctive adverb.

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D. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

- These words are commonly used as subordinating conjunctions

After in order (that) unless

Although insofar as until
As in that when
as far as lest whenever
as soon as no matter how where
as if now that wherever
as though once whether
Because provided (that) while
Before since why
even if so that
even though supposing (that)
How than
If that
inasmuch as though
in case (that) till

- Subordinating conjunctions also join two clauses together, but in doing so, they make
one clause dependent (or "subordinate") upon the other.

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Key takeaway:

o A subordinating conjunction may appear at a sentence beginning or between two clauses

in a sentence.
o A subordinate conjunction usually provides a tighter connection between clauses than a
coordinating conjunctions does.

Loose: It is raining, so we have an umbrella.

Tight: Because it is raining, we have an umbrella.

o Punctuation Note:

When the dependent clause is placed first in a sentence, use a comma between the two clauses. When the
independent clause is placed first and the dependent clause second, do not separate the two clauses with a
comma.

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Exercise 16

Complete the following sentences using an appropriate conjunction. Please circle

1. We brought the food ………………. they supplied the drink.

A. but
B. and
C. for

2. She was poor ………………. she was honest.

A. but
B. or
C. so

3. We can go jogging ………………….. we can stay here.

A. and
B. but
C. or

4. People liked her ………………… she was honest.

A. so
B. because
C. but
D. while

5. I will phone you ………………… I arrive.

A. as
B. while
C. when

6. He told me ………………… he loved me ………………. it was a lie.

A. what, and
B. that, but
C. that, and

7. It is a problem …………………. solution has baffled even the experts.

A. that
B. whom
C. whose

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22. Interjections

An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey an emotion or a sentiment such as

surprise, disgust, joy, excitement, or enthusiasm. For example:
 No, go away.
(No is the interjection.)
 Indeed, I intend to leave as soon as possible.
(Indeed is the interjection.)

An interjection is not grammatically related to any other part of the sentence.

Examples of Interjections
In the following examples, the interjections are bolded.
 Hey! Get off that floor!
 Oh, that is a surprise.
 Good! Now we can move on.
 Jeepers, that was close.

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Yes and No
Expressions such as yes, no, indeed, and well are often used as interjections. For example:
 Indeed, this is not the first time the stand has collapsed.
 Yes, I do intend to cover the bet.

Phew!
Some interjections are sounds. For example:
 Phew! I am not trying that again.
 Humph! I knew that last week.
 Mmmm, my compliments to the chef.

Multi-word Interjections
Some interjections are more than one word. For example:
 Oh, really? I doubt that.
 Holy moly! She won!

They're not always at the start of a sentence. For example:

 It is cold, indeed.

Activity 18
Directions: In the following sentences, identify the interjection and circle it.

1. Hi, I'm glad that you could make it to my party.

2. Wow! You look great tonight.

3. That was the best performance that I have ever seen, bravo!

4. I can't believe you broke my favorite toy, bah.

5. Hmm, I wonder where I put my keys and wallet?

6. Eureka, I've struck gold!

7. "Shoo, go away!" shouted the woman when she saw the cat licking milk from her

cereal bowl.

8. I guess that's the end of the movie, darn.

9. Stop! You should always wear a helmet when riding a bike.

10. Yippee, I made this picture all by myself.

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23. Verbs

- Verbs have traditionally been defined as words that show action or state of being.

Verbs can also sometimes be recognized by their position in a sentence.

In the following two sentence frames, only a verb can be put into the empty slot.
NOUN __________ THERE ________ NOUN
(verb) (verb)

Often, prefixes and suffixes (affixes) will signify that a word is a verb. For example,
the suffixes -ify, -ize, -ate, or -en usually signify that a word is a verb, as in typify,
characterize, irrigate, and sweeten. Prefixes such as be-, de-, or en- may signify that a
word is a verb, as in bestow, dethrone, and encourage.
These affixes, often inconsistent from verb to verb, are called derivational affixes. Added to
a word, they either change the word's part of speech
Example:

or change the word's meaning

Example:

The base form of a verb is derived from the

verb’s infinitive: to + verb

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Four suffixes consistently added to a verb’s base create all forms of a verb used in all tenses:
1. -s creates 3rd person singular / present tense (He talks.)
2. -ing creates the present participle / used with be (He is talking.)
3. -ed creates the simple past (He talked.)
4. -en creates the past participle / used with have (He has talked.)
Note: The -en verb ending used with a form of to have as an auxiliary is generally
written -ed, as in has talked.

Unlike the derivational affixes, these inflectional suffixes are consistently used with all
verbs, even though their form may look different from verb to verb.
Because many verbs in English are irregular; as result, their –ed and/or –en endings may not
follow any obvious pattern.

Examples:
(to write) Smith writes short stories at home. (-s ending)
Smith is writing short stories at home. (-ing ending)
Smith wrote short stories at home. (-ed ending)
Smith has written short stories at home. (-en ending)
*
(to buy) Jones buys a newspaper each day. (-s ending)
Jones is buying a newspaper today. (-ing ending)
Jones bought a newspaper yesterday. (-ed ending)
Jones has bought newspapers every day. (-en ending)
*
(to go) Students go to the library often. (-s ending)
Students are going to the library often. (-ing ending)
Students went to the library often. (-ed ending)
Students have gone to the library often. (-en ending)

The majority of verbs are regular and consistently use -ed and -en to form their simple past
tense and past participles. (e.g. talked, has talked)

Many verbs are irregular, however, and follow no consistent pattern in creating their -
ed and/or -en forms. A list of the major irregular verbs is shown below.

Present Past (-ed form) Past Participle (-en

form)
Arise arose arisen
Ask asked asked
attack attacked attacked
awaken awakened OR awoke awakened
bear bore borne/born
begin began begun
blow blew blown
break broke broken
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Bring brought brought

Burst burst burst
Choose chose chosen
Cling clung clung
Come came come
Dive dived OR dove dived
Do did Done
Drag dragged dragged
draw drew drawn
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
drown drowned drowned
eat ate eaten
Fall fell fallen
Fly flew flown
forgive forgave forgiven
freeze froze frozen
get got got OR gotten
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
hang (things) hung hung
hang (people) hanged hanged
happen happened happened
know knew known
lay laid Laid
lead led Led
lie lay lain
loosen loosened loosened
lose lost lost
pay paid paid
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
see saw seen
set set set
shake shook shaken
shrink shrank OR shrunk shrunk OR shrunken
sing sang sung
sink sank OR sunk sunk
sit sat sat
speak spoke spoken
spin spun spun
spit spat spat

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spring sprang OR sprung sprung

steal stole stolen
sting stung stung
stink stank OR stunk stunk
strive strove striven
study studied studied
swear swore sworn
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
tear tore torn
throw threw thrown
wake woke OR waked woken OR waked
wear wore worn
weave wove woven
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written

A verb phrase is defined as the main verb together with all its auxiliaries (helping verbs).
Auxiliary verbs always precede the main verb.
There are two types of auxiliary verbs:
1. Inflected auxiliary verbs:
Be have do
2. Modal auxiliaries (considered more fully under (auxiliary verbs)
present past no tense
will would must
shall should
can could
may might

Examples of verb phrases:

He has taken the test. (auxiliary has + main verb take.)
He is taking the test. (auxiliary is + main verb take)
He did take the test. (auxiliary do + main verb take)
He has been taking the (auxiliaries has been + main verb take)
test.

Verbs may be divided into three types:

A. Action verbs - show an action -- either physical or mental

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B. Verbs of being (forms of be - is, are, was, were, has/have/had been, will be) - show a
state of existence:

C. **Linking verbs - link a subject with its complement

(A subjective complement "completes" / "equals" the subject.)
Linking verbs: appear, taste, smell, feel, look, sound, grow, seem, remain, become

NOTE: Most linking verbs can also be used as action verbs.

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Action verbs may be either transitive or intransitive.

A. A transitive verb is one that is followed by a direct object.
Example:

B. An intransitive verb is one that is NOT followed by a direct object.

Example:

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Caution: An intransitive verb may be followed by adjectives, adverbs, and/or

prepositional phrases. As long as the verb is not followed by a noun or pronoun
functioning as the direct object, the verb is intransitive.
Example:

NOTE: Some action verbs may be either transitive or intransitive.

Example: (left)

Another example (read):

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Verbs have three moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive.

A. The indicative mood states a fact, asks a question, or exclaims.

B. The imperative mood gives a command. The subject is always "you" understood.

C. The subjunctive mood occurs in two instances:

1. The sentence indicates a situation contrary to fact.

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2. The sentence
 shows a wish, desire, or demand
 in a nominal clause beginning with that
 following verbs such as desire, demand, request, suggest

Exercise 19

Directions for questions: Fill the blanks with the correct form of verb.
1. We ___________ (has paid/have paid) him the money.
2. I _________ (have bought/has bought) my sister a watch.
3. _________ (Show/Shows) me your hands.
4. You _________ (has made/have made) your shirt dirty.
5. We _________ (are waiting/is waiting) for Rohan.
6. These books _________ (belong/belongs) to me.
7. She _________ (want/wants) to go.
8. We _________ (will like/would like) to visit the museum.
9. He _________ (has finished/have finished) talking.
10. My brother _________ (enjoy/enjoys) playing cricket.
11. We _________ (find/found) the house deserted.
12. We _________ (hope/hoped) that you would succeed.
13. She _________ (has assured/have assured) me that she is ready to help.
14. Nobody _________ (know/knows) when he will arrive.
15. We _________ (must find out/find) where to put it.
16. I _________ (shall show/show) you how to operate it.
17. Jack _________ (cannot/could not) decide what he should do next.
18. I _________ (can’t/could not) imagine why she has behaved like that.
19. Can you _________ (tell/told/tells) me where he lives?
20. The club _________ (chose/chosen) Mr. Sam as the treasurer.

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24. Determiners

- Determiners signal (“determine”) that a noun will follow.

- Unlike adjectives, which also signal that a noun will follow, determiners cannot add
the inflectional morphemes -er and -est.
- In addition, because they are function words, determiners do not have other forms or
synonyms.
- Their "meaning" is their function: to signal that a noun will follow.

The following examples illustrate the difference:

Determiner + noun tea

Adjective + noun tea

Note that each adjective has a distinct meaning.

In addition, each adjective may add its comparative (-er) and superlative (-est) form

Types of determiners
1. articles (the hat, a hat, an opera)

2. possessive nouns / pronouns (Mary’s hat, her hat )

3. numbers (five hats, eight hats, twenty hats)
4. indefinite pronouns (each hat ,some hats, both hats)
5. demonstrative pronouns (that hat, those hats)

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Native speakers of English learn when to use articles with nouns as they learn to speak.
However, learning when to use articles is often difficult for non-native speakers.

The difference between article use with town and city illustrates the difficulty:

Correct: I walked to the town. (article the before town)

Correct: I walked to town. (no article before town)

Correct: I walked to the city. (article the before city)

Incorrect: I walked to city. (no article before city)

Exercise 20

Complete the following sentences using an appropriate determiner.

1. There aren’t ………………. animals in this zoo. (much / many)

2. I was …………….. much impressed with their performance. (very / too)

3. ………………. of people want to buy cars. (lots / lot)

4. He has published ……………….. short stories. (a few / few / a little)

5. ……………… short stories that he published were critically acclaimed. (few / the few)

6. I will never forget the day when I met him for ………………… time. (the first / first)

7. He looked out of the window but he didn’t see ………………… (anyone / no one)

8. ……………….. wished me on my birthday. (nobody / anybody)

9. He has a finger in …………….. pie. (each / every)

10. She gave them …………… a prize. (each / every)

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25. Interrogatives

- Interrogatives introduce questions when

1. the question requires more than a yes or no answer

Examples

2. the verb phrase has at least one auxiliary or is a be verb

Examples

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Exercise 21
Fill in the correct question word.

1. do you live? In Miami.

2. is his father's? A pilot.

3. brothers have you got? One.

4. films do you like best? Action films.

5. do you have lunch? At school.

6. do you come home on Mondays? Usually at 6.

7. old are you? Twenty.

8. are your hobbies? Skiing and tennis.

9. is your English teacher? Mr Smith.

10. are you today? Fine, thanks.

11. are you learning? I'm learning Maths.

12. are you late? Because the bus was late.

13. is in the box? Sweets, I think.

14. is your mother? She's in the garden.

15. do you come from? I come from Spain

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26. QUALIFIERS / INTENSIFIERS

- Qualifiers / intensifiers are words like very, too, so, quite, rather.

Key takeaway:
- Qualifiers are function parts of speech.
- They do not add inflectional morphemes, and they do not have synonyms.
- Their sole purpose is to "qualify" or "intensify" an adjective or an adverb.
Qualifiers / intensifiers modify adjectives or adverbs, telling to what degree.

Exercise 22
1. Complete each sentence with the appropriate word. Remember that "extreme"
adjectives are modified by intensifiers, while "normal" adjectives are modified by
qualifiers.
a. I feel bad that you have to go. I really wanted us to spend more time
together.
b. She told me she thinks you're great! She truly liked you.
c. My dad said the movie is fascinating.
d. Whad do you think of this car? Isn't it nice?
e. I couldn't keep my eyes open! That documentary was terrifying!

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27. Elements of Sentence Construction

Subjects and Predicates
Parts of speech have specific tasks to perform when they are put together in a sentence.
A noun or pronoun functions as the sentence subject when it is paired with a verb functioning as
the sentence predicate.
Every sentence has a subject and predicate.
A subject can be a noun or pronoun that is partnered with an action verb.
Example:

Sometimes a verb will express being or existence instead of action.

Example:

Sometimes we use sentences in which a subject is not actually stated, but is,
nevertheless, understood in the meaning.
Example:

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A sentence like this gives an order or a request to someone.

Because we use such statements when we are talking directly to someone, we omit the
word you. It is understood in the sentence. Therefore, in statements like this one, we say the
subject is
you (understood).
This kind of sentence is an imperative sentence.

A predicate is a verb that expresses the subject's action or state of being.

Example:

Sometimes the predicate will be composed of two or three verbs that fit together - the main
verb preceded by one or more auxiliary (helping) verbs.

IMPORTANT NOTE: To be a predicate, a verb that ends in -ing must ALWAYS have a helping
verb with it. An -ing verb WITHOUT a helping verb cannot be a predicate in a sentence.

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A subject and predicate may not always appear together or in the normal order, as the following
examples show:

Phrases
A phrase is a group of related words that
1. does not express a complete thought
2. does not have a subject and predicate pair
One type of phrase is a prepositional phrase.
Examples:

Another kind of phrase is a verbal phrase.

Examples:

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Even though these phrases contain nouns (pronouns) and/or verb forms, none of the
nouns/pronouns/verbs are subjects or predicates. None of them work as a partnership.
Also, these phrases do NOT express complete thoughts.

Clauses
Words and phrases can be put together to make clauses.
A clause is a group of related words that contain a subject and predicate.
Note the difference between phrases and clauses in the following examples:

Only one of the clauses is a sentence.

Clause #1 gives a thought or an idea that is COMPLETE, that can stand by itself, independent of
other words.
However, clause #2 gives an INCOMPLETE thought or idea, one that cannot stand by itself, one
that needs some more words to make it whole. The word after changes the meaning, making the
thought incomplete. After reading this clause, we are left hanging.

These two clauses illustrate the two kinds of clauses:

independent clauses and dependent clauses
An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject, a predicate, and
a complete thought.

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A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate, but does NOT
express a complete thought.

Compounding Sentence Elements

Words, phrases, and clauses may be joined to one another inside a sentence with a conjunction.

The coordinating conjunctions and, but, or, and nor may join subjects, predicates, adjectives,
adverbs, prepositional phrases or dependent clauses within a sentence. This process is called
"compounding."

The following examples show the process of compounding

WORDS

PHRASES

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DEPENDENT CLAUSES

When entire independent clauses (simple sentences) are joined this way, they become compound
sentences.
Avoiding Fragments
A complete sentence needs only two elements:
a subject - predicate unit AND a complete thought
In other words, a simple sentence is actually the SAME thing as an independent clause.
Dependent clauses or phrases are called fragments because they are missing one or more parts
needed to make a sentence.
Therefore, they are only pieces or fragments of complete sentences.
Look at these examples:

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Avoiding Comma Splices and Fused Sentences

- Sometimes two independent clauses (simple sentences) can be joined to form another kind
of sentence: the compound sentence.
Two major errors can occur when constructing compound sentences.
Error #1: The Comma Splice
Writers make this error when they try to separate the two independent clauses in a compound
sentence with a comma alone.
A comma is not a strong enough punctuation mark to separate the two independent clauses by
itself; thus, using it causes the clauses to be spliced together.
Example of a comma splice:

This sentence can be repaired in three ways:

1. by adding an appropriate coordinating conjunction

2. by changing the comma to a semicolon

3. by changing the punctuation and adding an appropriate conjunctive adverb

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Error #2: The Fused Sentence

Writers make this error by joining two independent clauses into a compound
sentence without using any punctuation between them.
No punctuation between the two independent clauses causes them to "fuse" into an INCORRECT
compound sentence.
Example of a fused sentence:

This sentence is also repaired in three ways:

1. by adding a comma and an appropriate coordinating conjunction

2. by placing a semicolon between the two clauses

3. by adding the needed punctuation and an appropriate conjunctive adverb

Another way to repair a comma splice or fused sentence is to make each independent clause into
a simple sentence.

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Activity 23
Identify the subject and the predicate in the following sentences.
1. The sun was shining brightly.

2. The dogs were barking loudly.

3. The pretty girl was wearing a blue frock.

4. My younger brother serves in the army.

5. The man and his wife were working in their garden.

6. My mother and my aunt are trained classical dancers.

7. You don’t have to wait for me.

8. We will no longer tolerate this.

9. The little tree was covered with needles instead of leaves.

10. A rich merchant was passing by the shoemaker’s window.

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28. Active and Passive

a) Active voice
In most English sentences with an action verb, the subject performs the action denoted by
the verb.
These examples show that the subject is doing the verb's action.

Because the subject does or "acts upon" the verb in such sentences, the sentences are said to be in
the active voice.

b) Passive voice
One can change the normal word order of many active sentences (those with a direct object) so
that the subject is no longer active, but is, instead, being acted upon by the verb - or passive.
Note in these examples how the subject-verb relationship has changed.

Because the subject is being "acted upon" (or is passive), such sentences are said to be in
the passive voice.
NOTE: Colorful parrots live in the rainforests cannot be changed to passive voice because the
sentence does not have a direct object.

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To change a sentence from active to passive voice, do the following:

1. Move the active sentence's direct object into the sentence's subject slot

2. Place the active sentence's subject into a phrase beginning with the preposition by

3. Add a form of the auxiliary verb be to the main verb and change the main verb's form

Because passive voice sentences necessarily add words and change the normal doer-action-
receiver of action direction, they may make the reader work harder to understand the intended
meaning.

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As the examples below illustrate, a sentence in active voice flows more smoothly and is
easier to understand than the same sentence in passive voice.

It is generally preferable to use the ACTIVE voice.

To change a passive voice sentence into an active voice sentence, simply reverse the steps shown
above.
1. Move the passive sentence's subject into the active sentence's direct object slot

2. Remove the auxiliary verb be from the main verb and change main verb's form if needed

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3. Place the passive sentence's object of the preposition by into the subject slot.

Because it is more direct, most writers prefer to use the active voice whenever possible.
The passive voice may be a better choice, however, when
 the doer of the action is unknown, unwanted, or unneeded in the sentence
Examples

 the writer wishes to emphasize the action of the sentence rather than the doer of the action
Examples

 The writer wishes to use passive voice for sentence variety.

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Activity 24
Rewrite the following changing the active sentences to passive and passive sentences to active.
1. The thieves have been arrested by the police.

…………………………………………………………………………….. (1)

2. The marvelous performance delivered by the children enthralled us.

…………………………………………………………………………….. (1)

3. He has been invited to their party.

…………………………………………………………………………….. (1)

4. We have shipped your order.

…………………………………………………………………………….. (1)

5. The girl recited the poem beautifully.

…………………………………………………………………………….. (1)

6. The guests enjoyed the party.

…………………………………………………………………………….. (1)

7. The child impressed everyone with his polite manners.

…………………………………………………………………………….. (1)

8. A girl from Chennai won the first prize.

…………………………………………………………………………….. (1)

9. The readers like the latest book of the writer.

…………………………………………………………………………….. (1)

10. They are painting the walls.

…………………………………………………………………………….. (1)

11. The car has been fixed by the mechanic.

…………………………………………………………………………….. (1)

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29. Direct Speech and In direct/ Reported Speech

a) Direct speech means to say exactly what someone else said. It is usually put
inside quotation marks (". . .").

I have the He says, “I

package. have the
package.”

b) Reported speech (also called indirect speech) means to say what someone
else said, without actually quoting them. Meaning, you don't necessarily use
their own words.

You don't use quotation marks with reported speech.

He says he has the package.

I have the package.

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c) Reporting verbs

To report what someone said we usually use verbs such as:

Say, tell, ask, explain, request, etc.

For example:
She says we should go.

 They told us to bring our stuff.

 He asked them the time.
 I explained the rules to her.

d) The word THAT

The word THAT can be used after reporting verbs to begin the statement. But remember – it
is optional.

You can use it or leave it out, as you prefer.

For example:
- She says they are full = She says that they are full

- I told them we could help = I told them that we could help

- I suggest we start = I suggest that we start

e) How to report
When you quote what someone else has said (direct speech) it's very simple: nothing changes and
you put the statement between quotation marks.
But when you report a statement (tell it in your own words), there are obviously some necessary
changes.

f) Reported speech – changes

a) Pronouns

If there are any pronouns present, you may have to change them.
Examples for when and how to change pronouns:

Direct speech Reported speech

She says, "I like ice cream." She says she likes ice cream.
They say, "You are right." They say we are right.
He says, "My name is Gary." He says his name is Gary.

b) Third person singular verbs

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Verbs in the third person singular form usually get an S at the end:

I cook => He cooks

We talk => She talks

You have => It has

I am => He is

So when reporting speech we must apply this rule.

Examples for when and how to change verbs:

Direct speech Reported speech

He says, "I work every day." He says he works every day.
She says, "I am a big girl." She says she is a big girl.
Bonnie says, "I have a question." Bonnie says she has a question.

c) Place and time expressions

In many cases, when you report someone's speech you are in a different place, and almost always
in different point of time (we usually report in the present what someone told us before, in the
past).

So we need to change the place and time expressions accordingly.

Examples for when and how to change place and time expressions:

Direct speech Reported speech

She said, "I work here." She said she worked there.
They said, "We are eating now." They said they were eating then.
You said, "She sings today." You said she sang that day.
He said, "I will come tomorrow." He said he would come the
following day.

d) A list of common place and time expressions

- This - that
- these - those
- here - there
- now - then / at the time
- today - that day / yesterday
- yesterday - the day before / the previous day

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- a week ago / last - a week before / the previous week

week
- last month - the month before / the previous
month
- next year - the following year
- in three years - three years from then

Note: With these things, always use your common sense. If you are reporting something that
someone said ten minutes ago, and your location is still the same, and the time frame is still the
same, then don't change these place and time expressions.

For example:

Direct speech Reported speech

Ten minutes ago you said, Ten minutes ago you said
"We have a lot of work today." we had a lot of work today.

g) Tense backshift
She said she was sorry.
Here are some more examples:

I am sorry.

When reporting what somebody

said in the past, the tenses of the
verbs in the reported statement go one
step backwards.

Here is how the tense backshift works:

Direct speech Reported speech
You said, "We are late." You said we were late.
They said, "We have plans." They said they had plans.
He said, "I work hard." He said he worked hard.
She said, "I drink water." She said she drank water.

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Direct speech Reported speech

Simple present Simple past

He said, "I eat cheese." He said he ate cheese.

Present progressive Past progressive

He said, "I am eating cheese." He said he was eating cheese.

Present perfect Past perfect

He said, "I have eaten cheese." He said he had eaten cheese.

Present perfect progressive Past perfect progressive

He said, "I have been He said he had been
eating cheese." eating cheese.

Simple past Past perfect

He said, "I ate cheese." He said he had eaten cheese.

Past progressive Past perfect progressive

He said, "I was eating cheese." He said he had been eating cheese.

Past perfect Past perfect

(no change)
He said, "I had eaten cheese." He said he had eaten cheese.

Past perfect progressive Past perfect progressive

(no change)
He said, "I had been He said he had been
eating cheese." eating cheese.

h) The backshift also works on certain modal verbs:

Direct speech Reported speech

Will Would
She said, "I will eat cheese." She said she would eat cheese.

Can Could
She said, "I can eat cheese." She said she could eat cheese.

Must Had to
She said, "I must eat cheese." She said she had to eat cheese.

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Shall Would
She said, "I shall eat cheese." She said she would eat cheese.

May Might
She said, "I may eat cheese." She said she might eat cheese.

i) There is NO CHANGE in the following modal verbs:

Direct speech Reported speech

Would
She said, "I would eat cheese." She said she would eat cheese.

Could
She said, "I could eat cheese." She said she could eat cheese.

Should
She said, "I should eat cheese." She said she should eat cheese.

Might
She said, "I might eat cheese." She said she might eat cheese.

Ought to
She said, "I ought to eat cheese." She said she ought to eat cheese.

No tense backshift
When the reporting verb is in the simple past tense, the verbs in the reported statement
usually go one step backwards.

However, if you are reporting facts or something that is still true, you can keep the verbs in the
present:

Direct speech Reported speech

You said, "The Earth is round." You said the Earth is round.
OR
You said the Earth was round.
I said, "Rome is in Italy." I said Rome is in Italy.
OR
I said Rome was in Italy.

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She said, "People sleep at night." She said people sleep at night.
OR
She said people slept at night.

Also, if the reporting verb is in the simple present, present perfect, or future, then there is no
tense backshift:

Direct speech Reported speech

You say, "I jog daily." You say you jog daily.
You have said, "I jog daily." You have said you jog daily.
You will say, "I jog daily." You will say you jog daily.

j) Reporting questions

When reporting a question, you should also change the question into an indirect question. In other
words, you need to change this sentence so that it is a normal positive sentence, not a question.

You can use the words if or whether for YES / NO questions.

Direct speech Reported speech

She asked, "Are you well?" She asked if I was well.
"Where do you live?" he asked me. He asked me where I lived.
"Why don't we meet?" she asked me. She asked me why we didn't meet.
I asked, "How does she make them?" I asked how she made them.
They asked, "Where is the mall?" They asked where the mall is.

k) Reporting orders and requests

When reporting an order or request we change them into an infinitive.

Direct speech Reported speech

"Go home," she told me. She told me to go home.
"Start talking," he told us. He told us to start talking.
"Stop right there," They ordered us
they ordered us. to stop right there.
"Could you please open the door?" She asked me to open the door.
she asked me.
"Don't shout," I asked. I asked them not to shout.

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Activity 25: Direct and Indirect/Reported Speech

Complete the sentences in reported speech. Note whether the sentence is a request, a statement or a
question.
1. He said, "I like this song."
→ He said
2. "Where is your sister?" she asked me.
→ She asked me
3. "I don't speak Italian," she said.
→ She said
4. "Say hello to Jim," they said.
→ They asked me
5. "The film began at seven o'clock," he said.
→ He said
6. "Don't play on the grass, boys," she said.
→ She told the boys
7. "Where have you spent your money?" she asked him.
→ She asked him
8. "I never make mistakes," he said.
→ He said
9. "Does she know Robert?" he wanted to know.
→ He wanted to know

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30. Homonyms, Homographs, Homophones and

Heteronyms

1. Homonyms
A homonym is a word that has the same spelling and sound as another word, but a different
meaning.

For example, saw (a cutting tool) and saw (the past tense of see) are homonyms. They have the
same spelling and sound but different meanings.

Word origin: Greek, "having the same name"

(homos = same, onoma = name)

Partial list of homonyms in English

 The boys are playing with a ball outside /

Cinderella met the prince at the ball

 The bat flies around at night /

I lost my baseball bat.

 This book is very interesting /

I would like to book a flight to Paris.

 She put her necklace inside the jewelry case /

In that case, you should go home.

 In those hot days we used the fan /

She is a great fan of the band.

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 The old lady couldn't walk fast /

It is a religious fast.

 The room seems just fine /

He got a fine for parking on the sidewalk.

 They turn left instead of right /

He left as soon as he could.

 That is a terrible lie /

You can lie on your back.

 Your suitcase was pretty light /

There is nothing like the light of sun.

 We are trying to train our dog /

The train will be here soon.

 Be careful not to trip /

They had a wonderful trip to the country.

 I can't bear this noise any longer /

There was a giant bear in front of us.

 I hope that all is going well /

She lowered her bucket into the well for some water.

2. Homographs

A homograph is a word that has the same spelling as another word, but a different meaning.

For example, bow (a weapon for shooting arrows) and bow (bending forward) are homographs.
They have the same spelling but different meanings.

Word origin: Greek, "having the same writing" (homos = same, grapho = write)

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Partial list of homographs in English

 I can lift a lot of weight /

He brought a can of beans.

 You never close the door /

They were standing close to each other.

 We live in the desert /

You should never desert a friend at a time of need.

 The officers must lead /

These batteries have lead inside.

 You live on the other side /

We are now live from the crime scene.

 I'll be with you in a minute /

Her handwriting is so minute you can hardly see it.

 He likes to read /
I read your essay yesterday.

 I saw a tear in her eye /

She wanted to tear the letter.

 The wind was very strong /

They always wind up eating pizza for dinner.

(Note that these example homographs all have the same spelling and different pronunciation, but
homographs can also have the same spelling and pronunciation. In that case, they can be
classified as homophones and homonyms, too.)

3. Homophones
A homophone is a word that has the same sound as
another word, but a different meaning.

For example, meat and meet are homophones.

Word origin: Greek,

"having the same sound"
(homos = same, phone =
sound)

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Partial list of homophones in English

 I can't bear this noise any longer /

The poor boy had bare feet.

 She has long, dark hair /

The king needed an heir.

 They can't look him in the eye /

This is between you and I.

 You should be together /

There is a bee in the room.

 She can buy it in the market /

Wait for us by the river.

 Our dear Janet is getting married /

We saw a deer in the forest.

 I am doing this for you /

Four bowls of soup, please.

 He is standing right here /

We couldn't hear a thing.

 We arrived an hour ago /

This is our house.

 There is a hole in your shirt /

The whole room was quiet.

 They know everything about it /

No, and that's final.

 She doesn't eat meat /

We meet every now and then.

 He has one test left /

They finally won.

 You are always right /

I write my own letters.

 The sea was calm that day /

It was too dark to see anything.

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 Jonathan is my son /
The sun is high up in the sky.

 Let's go to his place /

There were two of them /
I can help, too.

 He seemed so weak at first /

It'll probably happen this week.

(Note that these example homophones all have the different spelling and the same pronunciation,
but homophones can also have the same spelling and pronunciation. In that case, they can be
classified as homographs and homonyms, too.)

There is yet another group of words called heteronyms.

4. Heteronyms

A heteronym is a word that has the same spelling as another word, but different pronunciation
and meaning. The words in the list of homographs above are all heteronyms, too.

Word origin: Greek, "having a different name"

(hetero = different, onym = name)

What Are Homonyms, Homographs, Homophones and Heteronyms – Summary

Homonym = same spelling + same pronunciation + different meaning

Homograph = same spelling (with same pronunciation or not) + different meaning

Homophone = same pronunciation (with same spelling or not) + different meaning

Heteronym = same spelling + different pronunciation + different meaning

A word with:
Same spelling + same pronunciation + same meaning = same word!

Same spelling + same pronunciation + different meaning = homograph, homophone and

homonym

Same spelling + different pronunciation + different meaning = homograph and heteronym

different spelling + same pronunciation + different meaning = homophone

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Activity 26
Homonyms: Words that have the same spelling and same pronunciation, but different meanings.
Directions: Choose (a) or (b) Example: I hope you are not lying _(a)_ to me. My books are lying
_(b)_ on the table. (a) telling a lie (b) being in a horizontal position

1. The kids are going to watch ___ TV tonight. What time is it? I have to set my watch____.
(a) small clock worn on the wrist (b) look at
2. Which page _____ is the homework on? Please page _____the doctor if you need help.
(a) one sheet of paper (b) to call someone on an electronic pager
3. Let’s play ___ soccer after school. The author wrote a new play ___.
(a) participate in a sport (b) theater piece
4. Ouch! The mosquito bit ___ me! I’ll have a little bit ___ of sugar in my tea.
(a) a tiny amount (b) past tense of bite
5. My rabbits are in a pen ___ outside. Please sign this form with a black pen ___.
(a) a writing instrument which uses ink (b) an enclosed area

Homographs: Words that have the same spelling, but different pronunciations and meanings.
Directions: Choose (a) or (b) Example: The wind _(a)_ is blowing hard. I have to wind _(b)_ my
clock. (a) moving air (rhymes with pinned) (b) turn the stem (rhymes with find)

1. The singer made a low bow ___ to the audience. Maria placed a red bow ___ on the birthday
gift.
(a) decorative ribbon (rhymes with so) (b) bend at the waist (rhymes with how)
2. All the students are present ___ today. The boss will present ___ the award at 10:00.
(a) here (rhymes with pleasant) (b) give (rhymes with resent)
3. Please close ___ the door. The boy sat close ___ to his uncle.
(a) near (rhymes with dose) (b) shut (rhymes with toes)
4. The rope was wound ___ around his ankles. The soldier received a wound ___ in the battle.
(a) tied around (rhymes with pound) (b) an injury (rhymes with moon)
5. I don’t know if I will live ___ or die. Last night I saw the band play live ___ in concert.
(a) to have life (rhymes with give) (b) in real time performance (rhymes with hive)

Homophones: Words that have the same pronunciation, but different spelling and different
meanings. Directions: Choose the correct word. Example: Please try not to (waste, waist) paper.

1. Can I go to the party (to, too, two)?

2. This is my favorite (pare, pair, pear) of jeans.
3. I (sent, scent, cent) a letter to my aunt in Vietnam.
4. The children got (bored, board) during the lecture.
5. Mr. and Mrs. Rodriguez like to work in (there, they’re, their) garden.
6. Alec is going to (wear, ware) his work boots today.
7. Do you think it is going to (rein, rain, reign) this afternoon?
8. I saw a restaurant just off the (rode, road) about a mile back.
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31. Synonyms and antonyms

1. Synonyms
A synonym is a word or expression that has the same or almost the same meaning as another.

Synonym examples:

- awful / terrible
- big / large
- smart / clever
- photograph / picture
Word origin: Greek, syn = same, onyma = a name

Short list of synonyms in English, listed by the part of speech

Nouns
- belly / stomach
- children / kids
- disaster / catastrophe
- earth / soil
- father / dad
- happiness / joy
- instinct / intuition
- mother / mom
- present / gift
- sunrise / dawn
Verbs
- answer / reply
- beat / defeat
- behave / act
- begin / start
- close / shut
- leave / exit
- provide / supply
- select / choose
- shout / yell
- speak / talk
Adjectives
- big / large
- complete / total

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- correct / right
- crazy / mad
- foolish / silly
- happy / glad
- hard / difficult
- ill / sick
- last / final
- near / close
- sad / unhappy
- stable / steady
Adverbs
- abroad / overseas
- almost / nearly
- badly / poorly
- fast / quickly
- intentionally / on purpose
- out / outside
- rarely / seldom
- sometimes / occasionally
- surely / for sure
- very / highly / extremely
Prepositions
- above / over
- about / regarding / concerning
- against / versus
- below / beneath / under
- by / via
- despite / in spite of
- in / into
- off / away
- until / till
- with / including
Conjunctions
- and / plus
- because / since
- but / yet
- if / provided
- once / as soon as

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Interjections

- hello / hi
- gee / gosh
- goodness / goodness me / my goodness
- no / nope
- oh Lord / good Lord
- thanks / thank you
- whoopee / yahoo / hooray
- yes / yeah

Synonyms are not necessarily the same!

You see, they can be very similar, but they do not necessarily mean the same.

Here is a common example.

The following words are all synonyms. Their general meaning is "pleasant to look at."

There are however important nuances.

Look at the illustrations, read the definitions and see for yourself.

Pretty, beautiful, handsome... What's the difference?

Pretty Beautiful Handsome

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Beautiful =
Pretty = Handsome =
(of a woman or
delicate and pleasant to (of a man)
girl) extremely pleasant
look at. pleasant to look at.
to look at.

Lovely Ravishing Good-looking

Lovely =
(of someone that makes Ravishing = Good-looking =
you have a strong feeling very beautiful. physically pleasant to
for them) look at.
graceful and very pleasant
to look at.

Cute Adorable Gorgeous

Cute = Gorgeous =
(of someone young or Adorable =
impressive and
something small) very pleasant to look at
charming and pleasant to look extremely pleasant to
and very easy to love.
at. look at.

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b) Antonyms
An antonym is a word that means the opposite of another word.

Antonym examples:

- old / new
- black / white
- strong / weak
- break / fix
Word origin: Greek, anti = opposite, onym = name

Short list of antonyms in English, listed by the part of speech

Nouns
 day / night
 east / west
 enemy / friend
 failure / success
 guest / host
 health / disease
 question / answer
 speaker / listener
 summer / winter
 top / bottom
Verbs
 agree / disagree
 arrive / leave
 begin / end
 fall asleep / wake up
 find / lose
 lend / borrow
 love / hate
 open / close
 remember / forget
 start / stop
Adjectives
 asleep / awake
 beautiful / ugly

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 big / small
 black / white
 cheap / expensive
 dead / alive
 dry / wet
 easy / difficult
 full / empty
 good / bad
 hot / cold
 intelligent / stupid
 sad / happy
 sick / healthy
 thin / fat
Adverbs
 always / never
 angrily / happily
 fast / slowly
 here / there
 inside / outside
 likely / unlikely
 near / far
 partly / fully
 seemingly / actually
 yesterday / tomorrow
Prepositions
 above / below
 against / for
 before / after
 in / out
 like / unlike
 on / off
 plus / minus
 to / from
 towards / away
 with / without
Conjunctions
 and / or
 therefore / nevertheless

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Interjections

 bravo / boo
 hello / goodbye
 holy cow / duh
 phew / oops
 thanks / no thanks
 yes / no
 yippee / oh my

Why are synonyms and antonyms important?

Knowing synonyms and antonyms can help you express yourself better – more CLEARLY.

If you know different words that describe the same thing (but in a slightly different way, or from a
different angle), you can chose the best word (synonym) to use.

That way, you are able to deliver the exact message you intend to communicate.

Knowing synonyms and antonyms can help you express yourself better – with more VARIETY
and more COLORFULLY. (Here "colorful" means "interesting or exciting.")

Repeating the same words tends to get monotonous. It doesn't sound good in natural speech, and
even more so in artistic writing (poetry, prose). Using synonyms makes your speech or writing
richer and more "colorful."

Using antonyms helps to emphasize your point, show contrast, or explain exactly what you mean.
Antonyms too add "colors" to your speech or writing.

For example, compare these two paragraphs:

"The girl looked out the window. While looking out the window, the girl noticed a little kitty.
The kitty she noticed was not fat. It was very much not fat."

"The girl looked out the window. While glancing outside, she noticed a little kitty. The kitten she
saw was not fat. It was skinny, and not chubby at all."

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In addition, you can really get full understanding of an area if you learn the different synonyms
that apply to it, and their nuances.

For example, cost, charge, and fee, are all used to describe money that you pay for something:

Cost = the amount of money that you need to buy, make or do something. (How much is spent by
the buyer.)

 The total cost was $100.

 You can get a new roof at the cost of $850.
 They protest against the high cost of living.
Charge = an amount of money that is asked in return for goods or services. (How much is
requested by the seller/provider.)

 There is a monthly charge of $7 for using the phone.

 There is an admission charge at the circus.
 The shipment will be free of charge.

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Activity 27: Synonyms and antonyms

Tell whether each pair of words are synonyms or antonyms.

1. agree, disagree _________________________ (1)
2. cold, freezing ___________________________ (1)
3. easy, difficult ___________________________ (1)
4. argue, squabble ________________________ (1)
5. guess, estimate _________________________ (1)

Take a look at the following seven sentences. Each sentence has a key-word. Choose which
word has the same meaning as the key-word
1. I was GLAD to hear that you liked my song.

surprised
happy
hopeful
disappointed

2. She had the ARDUOUS task of carrying all the luggage.

expensive
easy
difficult
short

3. Welcome to my ABODE.

family
farm
car
home

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32. Literature

1. Poetic Devices
There are many ways of creating effects in poetry. This is part of a poet’s style of writing. A
poet plays with words to create images or particular sounds.
ALLITERATION - When two or more words, in close proximity, begin with the same letter or
sound and affect the ear with an echoing sound. This can create a musical effect and can lend
emphasis to what is being said.
Eg: To the tick of two clocks (Heaney)
Dapple-dawn-drawn falcon (Hopkins)
ALLUSION – An indirect reference to some well-known historical or contemporary figure or
event. It is only effective when the reader is familiar with such a figure or event.
AMBIGUITY – Occurs when there is uncertainty about the meaning of words and expressions
that can be understood or interpreted in more than one way. Although generally avoided in
functional English, in poetry, the poet takes advantage of ambiguity to suggest more than one idea
with the same word or phrase.
ANTITHESIS - When contrasting words are used to highlight difference.
Eg: Those who say the most often do the least. (Proverb)
ASSONANCE - When vowel sounds (i.e. a,e,i,o,u,(y)) are repeated in a sequence of sounds
close to each other. This can create atmosphere or convey mood.
Eg: Low sounds by the shore (Yeats)
Stop all the clocks, cut off the telephone (Auden)
ATMOSPHERE – The overall or prevailing mood which is evoked by a poem in generating
feelings or emotions in the reader.
BLANK VERSE – Verse which is unrhymed but adheres to a regular metrical pattern, usually
iambic pentameter where each line consists of ten syllables.
CADENCE – A regular or irregular rhythm in lines of verse that reflects the natural tone or
modulation of voice.
Eg: It was raining
And it was going to rain. (Stevens)
CLICHÉ - Outworn or expressions that have become stale and tired from overuse. They should
be avoided.
Eg: They ate us out of house and home.
When push comes to shove.
EPIGRAM - A snippet of wisdom. Epigrammatic style tends to be concise and laden with
meaning (i.e. full of short, pithy statements). Emily Dickinson’s poetry is a good example of this.
EUPHEMISM - A polite, gentle, or comical way of expressing something which may be
unpleasant to the listener.
Eg: Dying => passing away, kicking the bucket, etc.
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE - Language is described as figurative when metaphors, similes, or
symbols are used.
Eg: Two roads diverged in a wood and I, I took the one less travelled by and that has made all
the difference. (Frost)
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FREE VERSE – A form or arrangement of verse that is very flexible and free from fixed patterns
of meter and rhyme.
HYPERBOLE - Deliberate used of exaggeration for poetic effect and emphasis.
Eg: Ten thousand saw I at a glance (Wordsworth)
IMAGE - A mental picture illustrated through words.
Eg: The Black Lace Fan my Mother Gave me (Boland)
IRONY - A contrast between what words appear to mean (their literal meaning) and what they
actually mean (their true meaning). Sarcasm is an example of irony.
DRAMATIC IRONY - A device used by playwrights to create comedy. It usually occurs when
the audience is more aware of the events occurring on stage than a character in the play.
Shakespeare frequently uses this device.
METAPHOR - This is an implied comparison between two things.
Eg: You’re an angel.
MOTIF – A central idea or distinctive feature in a piece of verse; it may also refer to a recurring
theme in the work of a writer.
ONOMATOPOEIA - This is when the sound of the word suggests the sound of the action being
described.
Eg: Buzz, squeal, click, howl, drip, cuckoo, bash, etc.
OXYMORON – Two words juxtaposed (i.e. placed side by side) that apparently contradict one
other but in fact makes sense together as a phrase.
Eg: Cruel kindness / Slow fast
PARADOX -Similar to an oxymoron but is not contained within a single two-word phrase.
Eg: The child is the father of the man (Yeats)
PERSONIFICATION - When human features or qualities are projected on to inanimate objects.
Eg: How the sick leaves reel down in throngs! (Hardy)
PUN -A play on the double meaning of a word or phrase.
Eg: First come, first severed. (McGough)
RHETORICAL QUESTION - A question which implies the answer. It is used often in
persuasive writing or to convey deep feeling.
Eg: Have you no pride?
RHYTHM / METRE – The flow or movement of words, phrases and sound within a line of
poetry.
SIMILE – A direct comparison between two things using the words ‘like’,‘as’, or ‘than’.
Eg: The evening is spread out against the sky like a patient etherised upon a table (Eliot)
THEME - The main or central idea within the work. The attitude of the speaker towards the
subject matter.
TONE - The feelings expressed by the poet in the poem. The mood or atmosphere evoked by
the poem.

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2. Elements of drama

 A drama is a story told in front of a live audience.

 Playwright or dramatist or scriptwriter is the author of a drama.
 Actors are characters in a drama.
 Script – written words for the actors.
 Acts – units of actions from a drama similar to chapter in a book.
 Scenes – parts of acts in a drama that change with setting or time.
 Dialogue – words spoken by actors in a drama.
 Monologue – long speech given by on actor alone. This can be actors thoughts said it out
aloud.
 Theater- place where drama takes place.
 Props – small movable items that actors use.

3. STORY ELEMENTS DEFINITIONS

1. Setting – the time and place of a story or play.
2. Character – a person in the story.
3. Plot – the series of related events in the story

Elements of the Plot (4-8)

4. Exposition – The opening or the 1st part of the plot, here the author describes the setting,
introduces the characters, and gives background information.
5. Rising Action – the part in which the author describes the conflict or the problem in the
story.
6. Climax – the turning point in the story, the part where the problem is at its worse.
7. Falling Action – the part where the author describes how the problem is solved.
8. Resolution - Comes after the falling action and it brings the story to a satisfactory end.

9. Antagonist – the opponent or rival of the hero in the story.

10. Protagonist – the central character in the story, novel, or play.
11. Foreshadowing – the use of clues to hint at what will occur later in the story.
12. Flashback – a scene in a movie, play, short story, novel, or narrative poem that interrupts
the present action of the plot.

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13. Theme – the message or meaning in a story, poem, or play.

14. Mood – the feeling the reader gets while reading the story.
15. Tone – The attitude a writer takes towards the audience, subject or character.
16. Narrator –the person telling the story.
17. 1st person point of view – The narrator tells the story from his own point of view saying,
“I did this or I did that.”
18. 2nd Person Point of View - The book or story addresses the reader as if the reader is an
active character in the book. For Example: You are walking down the street.
19. 3rd Person Limited – The narrator is outside the story, and sees the events through the
eyes of only one character.
20. 3rd Person All Knowing – The narrator is not one of the characters in the story, but tells
the emotions, motives, and actions of ALL the characters in the story.
21. Suspense – The I\uncertainty or anxiety we feel about what is going to happen next in the
story.
Activity 28: Poetic Devices
Poets intentionally blend sound and imagery to evoke an emotional response in their reader. The
different sound devices at their disposal allow them to convey and reinforce both meaning and
experience in their poems.
DIRECTION: Match the following lines with the literary sound devices they represent.

1. The sweet cake was spiced with cinnamon. A. Assonance

2. She bowed her head in reticence. B. Alliteration

3. Woof woof, said the dog Moo moo, said the cow C. Rhyme

4. Without a light, she felt a fright When something called out in the night D. Rhythm

5. It came upon a midnight clear E. Onomatopoeia

6. Under the bridge Lived a troll with a grudge F. Repetition

7. . . . and the thunder . . . ceases now To bellow through the vast and boundless Deep. (Milton)
G. Internal Rhyme

8. You mustn’t be caught here. Go! Go! H. Near Rhyme

9. His day was fraught with freedom bought with shame and misery I. Resonance

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33. Form Filling (Techniques)

What you should know:

- BLOCK LETTERS AND BLOCK CAPITALS mean the same thing e.g. PAULINA MBAGO
- Tick ˅
- Cross x Circle
go – draw a circle around a word
- Underline good od

- Delete good
- Delete as appropriate means delete the wrong answer
- Postal address and mail address mean the same thing (where people can contact you by
mail) e.g.
P O BOX 123
OSHAKATI
- Residential Address/Home Address/Physical Address mean the same thing (where
people can contact you in person) e.g.
Erf 225 /Ohakweenyanga Village
Sheehama Street/ Ondangwa Rural Constituency
Ondangwa / Oshana Region
- Occupation – his/her work (what a person does)
- Next of kin – someone who is close to you (preferably a family member)
- Relationship – how they are related (mother, father, niece, brother etc)
- Email address: Where people can contact you using internet. Write it using small letters
(lower case) e.g. nathaliahandima@yahoo.com
- Spouse - someone’s wife/husband
- Maiden name – the surname the lady used before she got married
- Gender/sex – biological difference between men & women, way you view yourself
- Initials – the first letter of excluding surname e.g. Caroline Tileni Gabriel, C T is her initials
- Title - Mr. – to address a man, Ms. – to address a married/unmarried woman, Dr. – to
address a doctor, Mrs.- to address a married woman
- Nationality – country of origin

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For example:
Read this passage first and then complete the entry form on the next page.

Theline Tabajane is a keen photographer. He lives in Keetmanshop, Namibia. He is 17 and

was born on 25 December 1997. He read in his local newspaper about a YOUNG
PHOTOGRAPHERS’ competition and is very excited to enter.

He takes photographs in his free time and also freelances for his school’s paper. On
Saturdays you will either find him at school taking photos of all the activities or in nature
taking pictures of animals, although he also loves to take pictures of things that are funny.

He would like to enter the category for young, upcoming photographers, seeing that he does
not feel he is a professional yet, but is definitely not a beginner anymore. He would pay the
entrance fee via internet banking.

Theline lives at Erf 2725, Hendrick Witbooi Street, Keetmashoop. His postal address is P.O.
Box 756, Keetmanshoop. He lives with his mother, Tresia Elifas- Tabajane and he can be
contacted at 0812000057 or at home at 063 47 2224. He does not have an e-mail address
but uses his mother’s, which is thelinet@ymail.com

Imagine you are Theline Tabajane. Complete the form on the opposite page, using the
information above.

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YOUNG PHOTOGRAPHERS’ COMPETITION

SECTION A PERSONAL DETAILS

PLEASE COMPLETE THIS SECTION IN CAPITAL LETTERS
Full Name: ................................................................................................... [1]
Age: ................................................................................................... [1]
Address
Postal: ................................................................................................... [1]
Residential: ...................................................................................................
................................................................................................... [1]
Telephone: ................................................. Cell: ........................................ [1]
E-mail address: ........................................................................................... [1]
Next of kin: ................................................................................................... [1]

SECTION B COMPETITION DETAIL

I want to enter: (please encircle choice)
Beginners Amateur Professional [1]

I will pay by: (please delete as appropriate)

Cash Cheque Internet banking [1]

Most favourite category: (please tick)

Nature Animals People Funny things [1]

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34. Types of Essay

An essay is a piece of writing that systematically analyses and evaluates a topic or issue. In this
book, four essays have been discussed i.e. Narrative, Expository, Argumentative and
Descriptive.

1. Narrative Essay

Narrative essays describe specific experiences that changed how you felt, thoughts, or acted.
The form of a narrative is similar to a story in that it describes how your character is feeling by
"showing" through his/her actions, rather than by coming right out and "telling" your readers.
However, a good narrative isn't just an entertaining story, but has a point to make, a purpose to
convey. In writing a narrative essay, your purpose is not to merely tell an interesting story but to
show your readers the importance and influence the experience has had on you.

o Narratives are generally written in the first person, that is, using I. However, third person
(he, she, or it) can also be used.
o Narratives rely on concrete, sensory details to convey their point. These details should
create a unified, forceful effect, a dominant impression.
o Narratives, as stories, should include these story conventions: a plot, including setting and
characters; a climax; and an ending.

Example: 1 about Once bitten, twice shy, this means an unpleasant experience induces caution.

Once Bitten Twice Shy

I was very mischievous as a young boy. I enjoyed playing pranks and practical jokes on people. I also
liked to chase cats and used a handmade catapult to shoot at birds on the trees. My parents did not
approve of my behavior and constantly berated me for the mischief I caused. I was even given a
good thrashing from my father from time to time. But I did not mend my ways until this incident.

I had just finished lunch at home and I was feeling very bored. My brothers and sisters, all of them
older than I, had not returned home from school. I decided to walk around the neighborhood and I
brought my trusty catapult with me. Soon, I came to Mr. Roben's house. His pet dog, a giant
Schnauzer, was tied to a post outside his house. I looked around and saw that no one was in sight. I
decided to make good use of my catapult and picked a few small pebbles from the ground and aimed
at the dog. A few of the pebbles hit the poor dog and it began to howl and help in pain. Eventually,
the dog's anger was aroused and it began growling and barking fiercely at me while it strained
against the ropes to free itself. I laughed at the dog, feeling amused by my sadistic deed.

Suddenly, the rope that secured the dog snapped and the dog was free from its bonds. With a few
powerful strides the dog was on me. Its teeth sank into the flesh of my calf. I screamed in pain and

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fright and fell to the ground. Luckily, my screams brought Mr. Roben running out of the house and
he managed to free the dog's teeth from my calf. He brought the dog into his house and quickly
brought me to the clinic. The doctor gave me an injection and dressed the wound.

I related the incident to the doctor and Mr. Roben. The doctor reprimanded me for being cruel to a
helpless animal and asked me to be kind and considerate to all creatures in future. I learnt my lesson
that day. I have since stopped playing pranks and being cruel to helpless creatures.

Example: 2

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2. Expository Essay
 An expository essay does exactly what the name implies: it exposes. The main objective of
an expository essay is to inform your reader and back up all your facts with things like
examples, graphs, charts, and statistics.
 It is structured exactly like any other essay with an introductory paragraph, which will
contain a sound thesis statement, as well as main body paragraphs that help to prove your
thesis statement, and a conclusion paragraph that summarizes all your points and wraps up
your essay.
 Note: The most important feature to remember when writing an expository essay is that
you shouldn't write about your own personal opinions.For example:

Drugs are never right!

In society, we face a number of problems. We face many different problems from ocean to ocean, but the
problem that causes the most problems these days are drugs. With drugs come many different problems.
Drugs cause bad decision making, committing crime, and gets people very addicted to bad habits.

Firstly, drugs in the present day are causing people to make bad choices and bad decisions. Drugs aren’t
necessarily making people do things that aren’t right, but make it so that people don’t think straight. When
people don’t think straight they tend to make wrong choices. When people make wrong choices it usually
puts people around them in danger, which isn’t good to have citizens endanger ever.

Secondly, people go simply crazy is awful and sometimes drugs are the reason for going crazy. If you have
ever seen the show Cops or anything like that most of the shows are filled with people going crazy and
committing crimes. That leads into my next subject, committing crime because of drugs. A lot of crimes like
robbing, murder, Suicide or Homicide are horrible things people do while on drugs. If the world was to crack
down on drugs there would be a lot less crime and murders. Less crime and so on the world would be a way
better place.

Finally, bad habits are the worst thing about drugs. Common bad habits of drugs are skipping school, skipping
work, and not paying bills, are just a few common habits caused by drugs. First off skipping school will get
you nowhere, because when you skip a lot school you will get kicked out. Once you’re kicked out you have a
slim chance of getting to college. Once college is ruled out then you have a very shy chance of getting a good
paying job. Second off skipping work is just going to get you fired and that will look bad on your record if you
ever go to get another job. Also then you wouldn’t be able to afford rent, insurance, bills, groceries, the drug
itself, and whatever has to be paid. Once that happens you would lose everything that you were paying and
paying off.

All in all, imagine a world where there are no drugs what so ever. We wouldn’t have to fear as much about
crime. No more worrying about what you chose to try because it wouldn’t drugs in it. No more worries about
what kids are doing when parents don’t know where they are. The world would be a better place less crime,
less bad decision making, less addicted people, and less whackos in our society. Our world would be drug
free! Wouldn’t that be great?

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3. Argumentative/Persuasive Essay

In this kind of essay, we do not only give information but also present an argument with the PROS
(supporting ideas) and CONS (opposing ideas) of an argumentative issue. We should clearly take our stand
and write as if we are trying to persuade an opposing audience to adopt new beliefs or behavior. The
primary objective is to persuade people to change beliefs that many of them do not want to change

Structure of the argumentative essay

 Introduction should clarify the controversy or issue. Your thesis states your position on the
issue. You must take a stand on the issue.
 The body paragraphs of the essay should provide specific support. These supports may
include personal experience, statistics, examples, facts, or experts’ opinions. They may be
garnered from television show, magazine, newspapers, textbooks, studies, or interviews.
 Include enough details to support your position; however, select only the facts that are
relevant.
 A persuasive/argme essay may be strengthened by acknowledging conflict viewpoints and
repudiating them.
 Conclusion should restate your position in different words from the introduction. Do not
introduce new material in the conclusion. You may want to conclude by encouraging some
specific call to action.

For example:

Cell-phones should be allowed/not be allowed in schools.

Who can work while listening to the incessant ringing of a cell phone? This does not create an inviting
classroom environment for students. Although cell-phones would be useful in the event of an emergency,
they should not be allowed in schools because of the increased amount of disruptive and social problems.

Despite the interruptions, cell-phones do provide advantages. They allow quick communications during
times of an emergency; they also enable students to contact their parents at any time for any reason. One
example might be: if a student forgot that they have an after school affair to attend for that day, such as a
sports practice or tutoring, they could easily notify their parents of the newly needed pick-up time.
However, this convenience does not outweigh the problems cell-phones can cause.

Disturbances during the school day can cause students a great distraction. They could ring during class, and
students' attention would divert from the lesson to the phone. Students could want to chat in between
classes, causing lots of late coming. They would also cause a riot if lost or stolen.

Besides these factors, allowing cell-phones in school could cause an influx of social problems. Kids are
already picked on over a number of issues, such as appearances, financial status, etc. If a student is not
fortunate enough to afford a cell phone, this would give cause for the other students to tease them.

In the nutshell, cell phone use in school might be slightly advantageous in an emergency situation, but they
should not be allowed because the problems outweigh the benefits by far.

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4. Descriptive Essay

Descriptive essays answer the questions: how, what, why, when, and where. They can be written about
any subject; a place, person, animal, event, thing, or memory. The writer will share with the reader what he
feels and perceives. The tone should be sensory in nature so the reader can almost see, smell, taste, hear,
and feel what the author experienced.

Introduction

 The writer states the reason he describes a certain object, person or situation.

Body

 The object itself (A vivid portrait of the object with all the details observed)
 The surroundings (A clear description of the atmosphere and surrounding of the object, person
or situation portrayed).
 Sensual and emotional description (It is the sensual and emotional replay of the scene).

Conclusion: Reveals the importance of the described object, person or situation. It also restates the
thesis statement.

For example:

The most beautiful place I have ever visited

It was the month of February. I was sitting with my friends in my drawing room. We were discussing
all the beautiful places we had visited. All of a sudden one of us spoke about the beauty of the
Mughal Gardens. We decided to visit the place on Sunday next.
On Sunday we went there by bus. There ‘was already a great rush of people. Men, women and
children were moving up and down on gravel paths which encircled the garden. The grass was so
soft that it looked like a carpet of velvet. There was symmetry of the grassy plots. The flower beds
were a treat for the eyes. There were flowers of various hues and shapes. The rose, the jasmine and
the marigold were filling the air with their sweet fragrance. In the centre of the garden there was a
pond having multi-coloured fish, a charming spectacle indeed. Fountains and water channels
running across the garden added to this feast of flowers.
The visitors to the gardens are not allowed to sit on the grass. That is why every visitor moves from
one part of the garden to the other looking at the flowers which grow there in abundance. The tall
eucalyptus growing here and there beautify the whole scene.
The Mughal Gardens are indeed a thing of beauty and a joy forever. We went around slowly
watching the flowers with wonder. It took us about two hours to go round the whole place. It was
the most beautiful place that we had seen. The place haunts my mind and I find myself revisiting
the garden in dreams.

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35. Letters

A letter is a written message from one party to another containing information. Presently,
there are two types of letters: formal letters and informal letters.

1. Formal Letter

A formal letter is a letter that is written in the formal language with a specific format for
business or official purpose. A formal letter could be a letter of enquiry, a letter of
request, a letter of complaint etc.

Salutation and Greetings: If you don’t know the name of your recipient, you can use “Dear sir/ Madam’.
If you know the name, use his or her surname preceded by the title.(Dear Mr.Haushona)

Main Body: This part includes the message you want to communicate to the recipient. A subject line can
also be included after the salutation, but this is not strictly essential. Three paragraphs are more than
enough for the body. The first/introductory paragraph should be brief and should include the purpose of
the letter. The concluding paragraph should outline what action you would like the recipient to take.

Conclusion: Place a salutation at the end of the letter. If the name of your recipient is not known, use
“Yours faithfully”, if not you can use “Yours sincerely,”. Then sign your name, include your name and job
title (if appropriate) beneath.

Take note:
Grade 10-12 no addresses

Example of Formal letter:

Dear Mr. Jones

Re: Disappointing Holiday

Following our telephone conversation earlier today, I am writing to give details of my

dissatisfaction with my stay at Mokuti Lodge, on 10– 18 August 2017, which I booked with
your company for me and my family.

My central complaint is that the hotel fell far short of the description in the brochure. We
had booked two double suites, in rooms 212 and 213. Although the rooms were billed as
four-star accommodation, they were very cramped, and the furnishings were worn and
dirty. In addition, the shower in room 212 did not work. The hotel’s grounds, described in

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the brochure as “pleasant, tranquil, and spacious,” were in fact bordered on two sides by a
very busy main road.

Furthermore, the swimming pool was closed the entire week for repairs. When we spoke to
your representative, Frieda Shipanga, she promised to try to get the shower fixed, but this
took an unacceptably long time to happen—three days from when we first complained. I
asked her to fill out an accommodation report form detailing these issues and I enclose a
copy for your information, together with photos of the bedrooms and the hotel grounds.

As I stated in my telephone call, I feel that we are due a full refund for this hotel stay as it
failed to meet the description in the brochure, and it ruined our holiday.

I look forward to hearing from you within the next two weeks.

Yours sincerely
Johannes Shadipeni

2. Informal Letters

An informal letter is a letter you would write to a friend, a family member or an

acquaintance.

There are 5 major parts in informal letter

1. Address Includes your return address and the date of writing the letter. This block is
Block usually right-justified. Take note: No address for Grade 11-12
2. Opening This is the opening greeting; typically "Dear John". Left-justify this block.
Salutation
3. Body Block This is your actual letter content (introduction + main parts + final
paragraphs). It can be anywhere from a few paragraphs in length up to multiple
pages. In the exam the length of the letter will be defined. The body paragraphs
should be left justified.
4. Closing This is where you say goodbye. Typically, closing salutations for informal letters
Salutation include such phrases as: "Yours truly,", "Your friend,", "All the best,", Take
care,". These days, more informal closing salutations are also acceptable, such
as: "See you soon,", "Don't be a stranger,", etc. Left-justify the closing salutation.
5. Signature Since it is an informal letter to someone who knows you reasonably well, just sign
Block your first name. Also left-justify this block.

Example of informal letter:

This is part of a letter you have received from a pen friend.

... and I know that I really need to speak English better. The problem is that I haven`t got
time for extra lessons or regular study sessions. What else can I do to improve my
English? Please write and tell me what you suggest.

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*Write your letter to your pen friend. Do not write any address.

Dear Vincent

Thanks for your last letter. I think it`s great you want to brush up on your English and of course
I`m only too glad to help. Here are a few things you can try.

First of all, it would be a good idea to start reading more in English. You probably won`t have
time to read novels but there are plenty of magazines that also help you improve your English.
As you are so fond of nature, why don`t you take out a subscription to National Geographic?
You`ll be amazed at how fast you pick things up when you actually like the subject.

Another suggestion is to watch films on DVD without the subtitles. That way you force yourself
to listen to the language very carefully. For a film lover like you, that`ll be learning having fun!
The best advice I can give you, though, is to get more English speaking pen-friends and email
friends. That method really worked for me when I wanted to improve my Afrikaans. Not only will
you learn a lot of new phrases, but you`ll also practise language actively yourself.

I hope these ideas will help. And remember, practice makes perfect, so don`t give up too easily!

Write and let me know how you get on.

Yours
Frans

36. Dialogue

Dialogue is a conversation between characters in a story and is very important to add

interest to the piece and to move the plot forward.

Key points:

 A direct quotation begins with a capital letter.

Natangwe shouted, “See you on Saturday!”

“Is it true?" asked Lisias.

 When writing dialogue, all punctuation marks at the end of the quotation go
inside the quotation marks.

“Let's visit the Ondangwa Airport,” suggested Ms. Shipena.

Ms. Junias replied, “Didn't we go there last year?”

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“But when we did,” Vistorina added, “we didn't see any aeroplane.”
 Do not put a period at the end of a quotation followed by things like she said,
mom asked, she explained, etc. Use commas, question marks, and exclamation
marks but not periods. Periods end sentences.
“My PE class is driving me crazy!” Hafeni screamed.
“That's my favorite class,” Ms. Mashina replied.

 Make a new paragraph (indent) when a different person begins to speak.

"Last night, I dreamt that I ate a very big water melon," Petrina said.
"Was that anything like the dream you had about going through the hiking trails
of Fish River Canyon?" asked Suzane.
"Scarier," Helalia explained. "This time I woke up and my pillow was gone."

 Always make it clear who is speaking in the dialogue.

 Try to avoid using the word “said” repeatedly.
 Also, while writing a dialogue, the writer must write instructions on what the
character does, behaves, acts and performs.
 This is indicated by italics and in parentheses by character.

37. Reviews

Reviews refer to a critical evaluation of a book, play, film, article, etc. published in a
newspaper or magazine. Book, movie/film, article and play are the most common in
contemporary society.

18.1 Writing Book/Movie/Play/Article Review

a) Introduction

i. Give the title of the book/play/ movie/article (between speech marks)

ii. Tell whether it is a fiction or non- fiction (book/play/movie)….at least 98% of
article is non-fiction.
iii. Talk about the characters
iv. Give the setting (also indicate when and where)

For example: This educational/stimulating/well-written book is about……….It is set in…………/tells

the story of………../is based on/ The movie/film characters are……../is written by/directed by….

i. Body- Talk about the plot (e.g. the plot revolves around………) Further, indicate
whether the plot is gripping, confusing, dull, unimaginative etc.

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ii. Tell whether the script/dialogue is hilarious/touching or boring (e.g. It is

sensitively/beautifully written/directed..)
iii. Indicate whether the acting is powerful/moving/disappointing
iv. Climax (e.g. the story reached a dramatic climax when……………..)

b) Conclusion

i. Say why people need to see/read……..(e.g. You should see/read…../You might

enjoy…………………./Don’t miss it.)
ii. To conclude/in the nutshell, all in all, bringing it all together, ……….(say why the
book/movie/article/play is worth seeing/reading)( in short your final
analysis)

Activity: 22 - Review Plot: Whole story timeline

Climax: Turning point in a
story
You have recently read/watched a book/play/article/movie. Write a
book/movie/article/play review in which you should;
 briefly say what the book/play/movie/article was about
 talk about the characters
 say why you enjoyed the book/play/article/movie and who you will recommend to
read/watch it.

Example of book, movie and soapie review

Book Review

I read a fiction book called “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer”. It is about a naughty boy named
Tom doing a lot of mischievous tricks and risky adventures.

One of Tom’s crazy adventures is when he and his friend were in a graveyard trying to revive a
dead person with a dead cat at midnight. Before they begin their process they see three men,
Potter, Dr. Robinson, and Joe in the same graveyard. They quickly hide behind the bushes because
they do not want to be seen by the three men. Instead, they witnessed Joe murder Dr. Robinson
for revenge, and then Joe accuses Potter for the crime.

Tom also likes to trick the children to do his white-washing and trade his trinkets for the tickets
that can be used to trade in for the Bible to impress the new girl, Becky Thatcher– when a student
receives a Bible, it shows others that they had been a good student.

I learned that you can make life fun with just about anything if you use your imagination and
how a town can pull together to help those in need.

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Movie Review

I watched a fiction movie called “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer”. It is about a naughty boy
named Tom doing a lot of mischievous tricks and risky adventures.

One of Tom’s crazy adventures is when he and his friend were in a graveyard trying to revive a
dead person with a dead cat at midnight. Before they begin their process they see three men,
Potter, Dr. Robinson, and Joe in the same graveyard. They quickly hide behind the bushes because
they do not want to be seen by the three men. Instead, they witnessed Joe murder Dr. Robinson
for revenge, and then Joe accuses Potter for the crime.

Tom also likes to trick the children to do his white-washing and trade his trinkets for the tickets
that can be used to trade in for the Bible to impress the new girl, Becky Thatcher– when a student
receives a Bible, it shows others that they had been a good student.

I learned that you can make life fun with just about anything if you use your imagination and
how a town can pull together to help those in need.

Soapie Review

“Generations” is a South African soapie opera which first premiered on SABC 1 in 1994. It was
created and is produced by Mfundi Vundla and airs weekdays on NBC2 at 21H00.

The backdrop of Generations is the advertising industry, with a storyline that celebrates the
dreams and aspirations of South Africans. As in all soapies - rivalry and blackmail between
siblings and friends and foes alike make Generations one of the most forceful dramas South
Africa has ever produced. Suspense, intrigue and tension are the order of the day as the plot
unfolds and romance influences relationships between warring parties. It is just the reality of
the present generation's lifestyle, where conflicts are ubiquitous and endless. With themes of
witchcraft and magic it includes African influences.

I feel that Generations is touching on things that do happen in real life or things we grew up
hearing and reading about and now one will get to know the real story behind that. Eventually
the wrong side of it all will come out and we'll all learn our lesson.

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38. Summary writing

This is a shortened/reduced version of a text comprising only the key information.

Types of summaries

i. Prose Summary
ii. Note/Point/Numbered form Summary

Tips on how to write a summary

 read the question to determine what information you need to summarize

 find out what type of summary you will write
 prose, write in a paragraph form
 note/point/numbered form – use bullets or numbers( for numbered form)
 note/point/numbered starts with small letters (lower case) and no period at the end.
Look!!
note – it is not full sentences but short notes or phrases
 do not ask any question (Should you ask? who supposed to answer it?) An
 read the text and underline possible answer to your question example
 only main points are required. of a
 do not write any explanation or give examples Bullet
 do not change the tense Point
Summary
 write the points in order they are appearing in the text or article
 copy it neatly on the spaces provided
 use your own words as far as possible
 only use details which can be supported with facts from the text
 show number of words you used
 to master this, Perfect Practice is required

39. Speech writing

Speeches are talks delivered in public on formal and informal occasions. There are many
types of speeches such as 'welcome speech', 'thank you speech' and 'farewell speech'.
Besides, there are also speeches on topics of interest and social issues. The present tense is
usually used when you write out a speech.

Points to remember:

 Hold the attention of the audience.

 A question or a quotation to start the speech can make it more interesting.
 Convey your opinions and views in an organised and coherent manner.
 Develop each point properly and then move on to the next one.

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 Make use of linking words ………..this would encourage fluency of your speech.
 Give as many examples as possible, statistics and facts that are properly researched
and authentic. (However, for English Paper 1, facts and statistics have to be
taken from the given text/article ………Grade 8 -9).
 End with an emphasis on your point of view and personal inferences so that the
audience thinks about what you have expressed.
 Always thank the audience for listening to you before leaving the stage.
 Use body language, words with motion keep an audience attentive.

For example:

Good morning to our principal, teachers and fellow students. Welcome to the new school term. My name
is …………………………………………………….., the head prefect of Extreme Tutorial Centre. This morning, I
would like to refresh your memory about our school regulations especially regarding attire and
conduct.

Firstly, create a good impression, always dressed neatly in your school uniform complete with white
shoes and white socks. Don’t forget to wear your school badge and name tag.

Secondly, our hair should be short and neatly combed. Boys should always keep their hair short. Girls
are allowed to keep long hair but it should always be neatly combed and tied. No one is allowed to wear
jewellery. If you do, then your jewellery will be confiscated. In addition, you cannot use make-up. Your
nails should always be kept short. Remember, no nail polish is allowed.

Furthermore, regarding your conduct always is punctual. Respect your teacher and pay attention in
class. Remember, no wandering around and playing truant. If you don’t comply with the school rules,
you will have to face the music.

Finally, last term, several students were suspended or expelled from school for fighting, smoking and
other serious offences. Headphones are banned. If you bring headphones, they will be confiscated.

In conclusion, these regulations are meant to create a positive image and environment for the school.
There are, of course, some black sheep who will break the regulations. Do not be influenced by them.
Instead, set a good example for others. Thank you.

40. Diary entry

This is a book/record/journal in which you can write down the experiences or your private
thoughts every day.

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Useful tips:

 Indicate the day and date at the beginning of each entry.

 Write in the first person 'I'
 Clear paragraphs with topic sentences
 Give a clear sense of the writer's personality and explain their feelings and changing
emotions (Without emotions it becomes a FACT BOOK!)
 Focus on key moments or incidents in their world
 Provide a sense of time and sequence (use time connectives: finally, afterwards,
earlier, later that day...)
 Varied Punctuation
 Varied Sentence types The diary is its own entity. It’s
like writing to a person even
though it will never respond
Format back!

I. Top left- Date, day and time.

II. Tense Most frequently used- Simple past, Present perfect and future.
III. First person application.

Steps
I. Begin the entry with general sentence describing the day or momentary feelings.
II. In the body, you may discuss an event, your feelings towards it. How it is likely
to affect your future plans.
III. Conclude with final remark and future course of action.
Structure:

Friday 8th May 2018

17:25

Dear Diary

It’s mums birthday!! We are going to the Ongwediva to have dinner. I can't tell you how old she is
because, I am afraid to specify the number. On the bright side, I can tell you she doesn't look her age (in
a good way).

Today at school, we had a peaceful lesson because it’s Friday so we had a rest! I am excited about the
COSAFA CUP. I am supporting Namibia! Now, do you get why I feel like I was born to be happy? In all of
my holidays, I feel free to play around and it is summer now so it’s nice to go out and play. Right now I
feel extremely hot and I having an ice lolly! Mums calling me sorry got to go!

Bye Bye Diary see you tomorrow xx

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41. Report writing

 A report gives a spoken or written account of something that one has observed,
heard, done, or investigated. Reports can either be investigative(fact-finding) or
eye witness

22.1 Investigative report

Introduction

 You should include just a little background/context and indicate the reasons for
writing the report.
 You may include your terms of reference and procedure/research methods if
not covered elsewhere.
 Your introduction will often give an indication of the conclusion to the report.

Body

 Headings and sub-headings must be used clearly

 A "situation>problem>solution>evaluation" approach may be appropriate.
 Include records of your observations (in the past tense) backed by statistics, tables
or graphs.

Conclusion

 Draw out the implications of your findings, with deductions based on the facts
described in your main body. Don’t include any new material here.

22.2 Eye witness Report

An eyewitness report is a first-person account of an event you personally witnessed. The

goal is to provide details about the event in a clear, concise manner, giving as many
details as you recall as accurately as possible.

Points to remember:

 Ask yourself exactly what you saw and the order of the events.
 Write your eyewitness report in the first person.
 Describe only what you actually witnessed.
 There is no room in an eyewitness report for personal opinion or dramatic effect.
 Include specific time and date information.
 Give your full name and contact information, and the names of anyone who might
have been present who can back up your account.

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For example:

Re: Eye-witness report of a road accident

My name is Loide Wilhelm, a learner at Extreme Private School. This report serves to provide my account of a road
accident that I had witnessed a day ago. On Friday, 30th August 2017, at around 7.00a.m., I witnessed a collision
between a car and a van. This happened at a traffic light along Oshakati-Ongwediva main road, near Kandjengedi
Primary School.

I was on my way to school when I witnessed the accident. I left home at around 6.50am that particular morning. It
was raining then and the ground was wet and slippery. As I made my way to the bus-stop, I noticed a man in a van
by the side of the road. He was talking on his cellphone. A few seconds later, without putting his cellphone down,
the driver sped off. Due to the slippery road condition, the van then skidded when it was a couple of metres ahead
me. I heard the screeching sound of brakes before I witnessed the van veering onto the path of a car which was
travelling in the opposite direction. Both vehicles then met a violent collision.

Both drivers were injured in the crash. A few passers-by who were at the scene of the accident rushed to their aid.
One of them even administered CPR to the driver of the car. Both vehicles were badly crushed and the driver of the
van was trapped inside the wreckage. I called both the ambulance and the police, but could not wait for their arrival
as I was already late for school.

The van was a white Toyota (N888SH) while the car was a red Polo Vivo (N934W). From what I have witnessed, I
believe that the driver of the van was at fault. His irresponsible use of his cellphone while driving may have
contributed to the accident.

I verify that the above information is true and I hope that this report will assist you in your investigation.

Reported by: Loide Wilhelm

Signature: L.W
Date: 31 August 2017

42. Article

An article is a piece of writing usually intended for publication in a newspaper, magazine or

journal. It is written for a wide audience, so it is essential to attract and retain the readers’
attention. It can be formal or informal, depending on the target audience. It should also give
opinions and thoughts, as well as facts.

An article must describe an experience, event, person or place. It also needs to present
an opinion or balanced argument as well as compare and contrast. Further, it must
provide information and offer suggestions or advice.

Structure of the article:

 Catching title – followed by the writer’s name in full

 Introduction- which clearly defines the topic to be covered and keeps the reader’s attention.
 Body - at least 2 or 3 paragraphs in which the topic is further developed in detail.
 Conclusion - summarizing the topic or a final opinion, recommendation or comment.

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For example:

The Importance of School Uniforms

By Tiffany Wily

There are schools all over the world, and many of these schools face the same problems as other
schools. One public issue revolving around schools is the concerns on the dress code. Public schools
have a choice to let students dress as they want or they can be provided with school uniforms. There
are many pros and cons to wearing school uniforms, but so far many issues have been solved! I
personally love being myself and dressing the way I want, but I think that it can benefit many
students from the Medias persuasion, bullying, and identity!

Reality television has become a hit sensation to many young people, parents do not always think that
this is what children should be watching, but however they allow them to do so. Young adults in high
school have become addicted to reality television shows and celebrity magazines. People look up to
celebrities because of their looks and the way that they act, therefore kids will want to act like them
and dress like them. Many movies and television shows, show girls and boys that it is okay to wear
inappropriate clothing. Most of the time these outfits are not always appropriate and should not be
acceptable in school. Mainly girls, should show respect for themselves and their bodies and wear
appropriate clothing to school.

Another issue that can be solved by wearing school uniforms is that some kids in school don’t have
enough money to by nice clothing and many kids choose to make fun of them. Children do not have
power of what their parents and families provide for them, so to make fun of someone for the way
they look is a very cruel thing to do. Everyone has their own personality and they have the ability to
act as they choose. In some cases many kids will be made fun of what they look like and for their
“weird” clothing. When bullying gets so horrific it usually leads to violence! Actions always speak
louder than words and sometimes beating someone up is their way of telling them to stop picking on
them. Many schools that have adapted to uniforms have seen the violence go down. Which I think is
a very important concept, because kids don’t want to go to a school where they can’t be safe.

With having so much technology and power over society, many sick and cruel people like to take
over and do harm to communities and precious lives. Having school uniforms comes along with
being protected. If students wear the school clothing then it would be easier to see their identity. If
there was ever a person who came into the building unidentified then that could show harm to the
students, faculty and staff of that school. Being safe at school is defiantly a main priority that needs
to be addressed to all people, because if someone sees anything that looks sketchy, then that could
be a warning sign to the school. The are some things that people dislike about wearing school
uniforms. An example would be how wearing you’re own clothing is a way of expressing yourself.
Some people show their creativity through their clothing and they like to be recognized.

In the nutshell, I believe that students should have to wear school uniforms, and that they would
benefit greatly from wearing them. Although many children do not want to wear them it is better for
their safety, and I am sure all students would benefit in the end. Being safe and wearing plain
clothing is definitely a lot better than being bright and dead. The Medias persuasion, bullying, and
identity are all important qualities of why there should become a law for all public and private
schools to have school uniforms.

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43. E-mails

E-mail (electronic mail) is the exchange of computer-stored messages by

telecommunication.

Points to remember when writing an email:

 Use a neutral Email address (Your Email address should be a variation of your
real name, not a username or nickname). E.g. wileyhango@gmail.com
 Use a short and accurate subject header.
 Use a proper salutation (Addressing the recipient by name is preferred. Use the
person's title (Mr. Mrs. Ms. or Dr.) with their last name).
 If you don't know the name of the person you're writing to (but you really should try
to find one) use "Dear Sir/Madam" or "Dear Sir or Madam".
 Introduce yourself in the first paragraph (if necessary). Also include why you're
writing, and how you found that person's Email address, or the opportunity
you're writing about.
 Write the actual message in less than 5 paragraphs of less than 5 sentences.
 Use the correct form of leave-taking or signature. Examples include: Yours sincerely
or Best wishes or Your student etc.
 Sign with your full name. If you have a job title, include that in the line after your
name. An example of an email:

To: Tom Davies

Subject: Coming to Windhoek

Hi Tom

Thanks for your email. It’s great to hear from you. I can’t wait to come and visit!

So, about Friday…I would love to see your friend’s band! What kind of music do they play? I’m thinking
of starting my own band so it’ll be good to meet your friends and ask them about it.

On Saturday, I’d prefer to go swim at Municipality pool in Katutura. I’m not really a football fan to be
honest. The swimming pool sounds much more chilled out!

So, you’re learning Afrikaans? I’m impressed! Why don’t you try and find someone who knows the
language to practice with you? If you find someone who is learning English, you could do a language
exchange. It’s the best way to learn. You should try to read some books in Afrikaans as well.

You asked about my skateboard. I’m sorry but I can’t bring it with me to Windhoek. I’ve got loads of stuff
and it’s too big to fit in my suitcase.

I am really looking forward to seeing you!

Best wishes
Helyne

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44. Extreme Examination advice (Grade 10 – 12)

English as a Second Language (Core and Extended)

This section gives you advice to help you do as well as you can. Some of the ideas are general
advice and some are based on the common mistakes that learners make in exams.
Reading and writing: Paper 1 (Core)
Paper 2 (Extended)
Exercises 1 and 2
• Read the questions carefully and make a note of any questions that need two pieces of
information in the answer.
• Underline the question word and think about what it means: ‘Where’ means ‘a place’;
‘How’ means ‘in what way’, and ‘Why’ means ‘look for a reason or cause’.
• Underline other important words in the question – nouns and verbs provide information
that you might need to find in the text.
• Read quickly (skim) through the text – concentrate on finding the main idea in each
paragraph. As you read, underline any names, numbers or dates. Use the pictures and
other visuals to help you understand.
• Try to match the words in the question with the correct point in the text. This is called
scanning. When you locate the sentence, read it more carefully to find the exact answer. If
you can’t match any words, remember, the word in the question might be a synonym (a
different word that has the same meaning) of the word in the text. If you still can’t locate
the right answer, read up or down from the sentence you found, or make a guess.
• Don’t write full sentences in your answer. Keep your answers short – a date or number or
a few words will be enough to get a mark. Too much writing can waste your time, and, if
you give too much information, you might include wrong details which could mean you
lose a mark.
• You can copy the words from the text – you don’t need to use your own words. If you
write in your own words, you won’t lose a mark as long as you include all the correct
information needed in the question.
• Look out for and learn the meaning of signpost phrases such as ‘apart from’, or ‘rather
than’, or ‘According to the graph’, and make sure you understand what they refer to.
• Remember that the questions follow the order of the text in Exercises 1 and 2.

Part 2 Exercise 1
Grammar Section coaching refers to page 97-98 (Extreme English Guide by Wilhelm P. Hango)

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Part 2: Exercise 2 (Core) Form Filling page 68-70 – Extreme English Guide by Wilhelm P. Hango
• The first thing to remember is that this exercise is not only a test of reading and
comprehension, but also a test of writing. This means that you must be completely
accurate in spelling.
• Handwriting is important too, because you often have to write names, addresses, or other
proper nouns.
Examiners are looking for the correct use of capital letters, so you must make these completely
clear when you write.
• If you have to write an answer on the line, remember to make it a short answer.
• Do you know how to use the instructions ‘Tick’, ‘Underline’, ‘Circle’, and ‘Delete’? If not,
ask your teacher to explain before examination.
• Remember that you’re completing this exercise as if you are the person in the text, so you
must use ‘I’ or ‘we’. Answers with ‘he’, ‘she’, or ‘they’ will get no marks.
If asked to write a sentence – make sure it is:

a) within the word limit,

b) completely accurate and
c) relevant (it answers the question).
What does accuracy mean?
 Fill in your form using CAPITAL LETTERS or as per instructions.
 Finish your sentence with a full stop.
 Write a full and complete sentence, using a subject and verb.
 Don’t start your sentence with ‘and’, ‘but’ or ‘because’.

Part 2: Exercise 2 (Extended)

• Use the same skills for reading and understanding as you did in Exercises 1 and 2.
• Try to connect the headings with parts of the text, so that your answers correspond to the
right heading.
Correct answers in the wrong place don’t get any marks.
• Notice the bullet points at the beginning of each line and write short answers that fit the
space on the line – remember this is a note-taking exercise.
• Although your answer must be short, make sure you include all the key information.

Exercise 3
In this exercise you need to write a summary based on the text you have read.

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In a summary you should:

• Keep to the word limit – before the examination, check how many words you write on a
line, then you’ll know approximately how many lines you will need.
• Include all the key facts relating to the subject of your summary. This will mean looking
again at the entire text and underlining relevant points.
• Try to connect your ideas into a paragraph using linking words.
• If you use your own words instead of copying from the text, you have more chance of
getting a higher mark for language.
Paper 1 (Core)
• Use your notes that answer the questions.
• If necessary, try to write connected sentences. Linking words will help you do this.
• Keep on the topic and use your own words if you can(but not compulsory….your own
words do not mean your own ideas).

Paper 2 (Extended)
• Read the instructions carefully – do you need to summarise the whole text or just part of
it? Don’t waste time reading unnecessary parts of the text.
• Practise synonym (different words that have the same meaning) exercises to help you use
your own words but not your own ideas.
• Practise connecting phrases to create sentences, and connecting sentences to create
paragraphs.

Part 3
Exercises 1 – General Advice
These exercises ask you to write a formal piece and an opinion piece of writing.
Make sure you:
• Write at least the minimum word length.
• Use paragraphs to show your different ideas.
• Keep to the topic – it’s easy to wander away from the subject. Remind yourself by looking
again at the question.
• Try to write fluently – use words and phrases to connect your thoughts.
• Don’t use mobile/cell text language – this is a test of English language.
Exercise 2 – Letter Writing

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• Think about who you are writing to.

• Try to write as if you are talking to this person and you’ll automatically use the right tone
and register.
• Don’t forget any of the bullet points – you’ll lose marks if you do.
• Write a paragraph for each bullet point – it will give your writing good balance.
• It’s a good idea to give your writing a start and a finish. If you don’t, it can become more
like a story, and you might lose the tone.
• Try to make your writing enjoyable to read.
• If you like using idioms, be careful not to use too many. It can make your writing sound
unnatural.
Exercise 3 – Article - Extended
• Decide right at the start if you’re going to write about the topic from two sides (for and
against) or from just one (your opinion).
• If you write a two-sided (balanced) piece of writing, don’t forget to include your opinion in
the last paragraph.
• If you want to write only from your own point of view, include it in the first paragraph.
• You can use the phrases and opinions given in the question, but if you want to get higher
marks, you must develop these ideas and not just copy them.
• Try to think of your own ideas on the topic.
• Remember to organise your writing: include an introduction, one paragraph for each idea
in the middle section, and a conclusion.
• Try to keep a few minutes at the end to read through and check your spelling and
grammar.
To conclude:
You will also be asked to write two longer pieces and one shorter piece (Extended). Whereas, you
are required to write one informal and one formal piece of writing (Core).
• Write a letter to a friend telling him/her …
• Write an article for your school Principal ….
• Write an article for your school magazine about …
You will be given some ideas (pictures or opinions), which can start you thinking about the topic.
In these writing exercises, examiners are looking for answers that:
• are the right length – remember to check how many words you need to write
• have paragraphs – these don’t have to be long, but each one should contain a different set of
ideas
• answer the question – don’t forget any bullet points

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• are organized and logical – this helps to keep you on the topic
• are accurate – so be careful to check your spelling, grammar and punctuation
• are clear to read – so keep your handwriting tidy.

Listening: Paper 3 (Core and Extended)

General advice
• Make sure you read the introduction to each question, as this often provides clues as to
what will happen in the exercise.
• You hear everything twice – concentrate all the time and make notes or underline words
(in the question) to help you.
• Be careful with numbers – if you write a number in your answer, you might need to
include a unit – is it kilos, N$, meters, tons?
• Notice any question that needs two details to get one mark or two marks, and make sure
you separate the answers clearly.
• In gap-filling exercises, use your knowledge of grammar to help you work out what kind of
word could fit in the gaps (could it be a noun, verb, adverb?)
• For longer answers, make sure you have communicated the idea clearly. If you don’t know
a word, try to write exactly what you hear.

Paper 4 Speaking

• Remember that the warm up part of the test is not marked. The teacher/examiner will
start with a general, informal, chat just to get you settled down and comfortable. This
should be your aim in the warm up – to calm yourself down and get ready.
• It might be useful if you mention your particular interests (hobbies, things you like doing,
current issues that are on your mind, things you feel strongly about), during the warm up.
One of the topic cards might be a good choice for you – but remember, it’s not you but
the examiner who chooses the topic card.
• You should know exactly how the speaking test will run. The examiner will explain this at
the beginning.
If not, please ask the examiner to explain what will happen during the test. You will need to ask this
before the examiner gives you the topic card.
• You will have some time (2–3 minutes) to look at the topic card and think about what you
want to say in the conversation. You can’t make any notes here, but you can ask any
questions at this point. You can plan to include three or four talking points of your own

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(i.e. that are not suggested on the card). This will help to make the conversation more
interesting, and it might lead to a higher mark. In other words, you can talk about more
than the fi ve or six points listed on the card – you can take the conversation into other
areas of the same topic.
• Don’t worry about the topics that might come up, before the examination. The topics are
chosen so that conversations can be developed easily – you don’t need to have any expert
knowledge of any of the topics. It is not necessary, therefore, to try and revise any topics
which you think might be used. The test is not about how much you know about a topic, it
is about how well you can have a conversation about it.
• The test is not about delivering a speech. If you find that you are doing this, something is
wrong, and you should try to return to having a genuine conversation with the examiner.
Your examiner will be listening carefully and should stop speeches taking place.
• Your examiner will be listening for:
1. Structure – using spoken language, sentences and phrases, accurately.
2. Vocabulary – using a wide range of words.
3. Fluency – a two-way conversation, perhaps extending the prompts/ideas that the
examiner has introduced.
• The key to success in this test is to be relaxed. If you feel that you have enjoyed a ‘good
chat’ with the examiner – a chat based on and keeping to the topic – then it’s likely that
you have performed well.
If you read these tips a few times before you take your NSSCO- examination, hopefully your
confidence will increase.
Reading and listening – General advice
To test your understanding of specific parts of a written or spoken text (e.g. brochure, article,
interview, speech, statement) examiners will use question words/phrases such as:
• How much...?
• How long…?
• How did…?
• Apart from.....what...?
• What other …?
• What can …?
• According to the diagram …?
• What is …?
• Where can... …?
• When does …?

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Your answers to these types of question need to be short, precise, and as accurate as possible.
You can repeat the information in the text, if it helps you to answer the question, but be careful
not to include too much information.
Examiners will test your understanding of specific parts of a text, or test your ability to follow
instructions by asking you to do the following:
• Give two details...Write an article...Give your views …Write a letter...
• Fill in the form...Complete the notes...Make two notes...Write a summary about...Use your
own words...

45. Examination tips (Grade 4 – 12)

1. Grammar Section

 Where there is to be in brackets, you are required to give an

auxiliary verb (helping verb) such as is, am, are, was, were,
will e.t.c
 Empty spaces mainly require preposition or prepositional
phrases
 Where you find options in brackets, one of the options may be
wrongly spelt or the word which is commonly confused with
another for example; accept/except or in appropriate within
context of the text. Do not choose blindly. Carefully consider
all options.
 The rest of the words in brackets require a change from one
form to another for example; from a verb to an adjective,
adverb or noun.
 Know different types of Tenses in the positive, negative and
question form
 Present Simple ( look out for verbs in present , some may have “s” or “es” in singular)
 Changing to negative use “does not” for one subject or “do not” for many (if there is was or were
just add not in the sentence).
 Remove “s” or “es” at the end of the verb.
 Changing to question form, use “does” or “doesn’t” – for negative sentences or “do” or “don’t” –
for negative sentences
 Past simple – lookout for the verb in past without a helping verb. It can be an irregular verb e.g.
went (verb change from present to past) or regular verb e.g. accepted (“d” or “ed” id added at the
end of the verb.
 Changing to negative form use did not (if there is was or were just add “not”) and change the verb
(if not already) to present.
 Changing into question form, use “did” and change the verb into present (if not already in present),
put question marks at the end.
 Present continuous – lookout for “is”, “am” or “are” plus “ing” at the end of the verb

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 Changing to negative just add “not”

 Changing to questions start with “is” or “are” or “am” depending on the subjects
 Past continuous – lookout for “was” or “were” plus “ing” at the end of the verb
 Changing to negative just add “not”
 Changing to questions start with “was” or “were” depending on the subjects
 Future continuous – lookout for “will be” plus “ing” at the end of the verb
 Changing to negative just add “not”
 Changing to questions start with “Will+subject + be + verb with ing” depending on the subjects
 Present perfect (has or have and verb in the past participle)
 Use a 1, 2, 3 system to locate past participle e.g. 1. Go 2. Went 3. Gone (past participle)
 Negative just add “not”
 Question start with Has or Have
 Past perfect (had and verb in the past participle)
 Use a 1, 2, 3 system to locate past participle e.g. 1. Go 2. Went 3. Gone (past participle)
 Negative just add “not”
 Question start with Had
 Future perfect (will have and verb in the past participle)
 Use a 1, 2, 3 system to locate past participle e.g. 1. Go 2. Went 3. Gone (past participle)
 Negative just add “not”
 Question start with Will+subject + have
 Direct to indirect speech – lookout for the reporting verb
 If a reporting verb in the past change the tense, if it is in the present, tenses remain the same
 Time-words and pronouns change
 Active to Passive – lookout for the subject, verb and object
 Start with object, use is, am, are (present) was or were (past), will be (future), had been (past
perfect) has been or have been (present perfect), will have been (future perfect) and all verbs must
be in the past participle (remember the 1, 2, 3 system). For all continuous sentences add being in
the sentence and verb change into past participle (1,2,3 system)

2. Multiple Choice questions

 Read the instruction first

 Determine whether you will tick or cross
 Read the question
 Confirm which answers are not applicable
 Tick or cross neatly in the right box

3. Reading Skills

 Read the questions

 Draw the lines under the clue
 Find answers in the text

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 Draw the line under the answer

 See if it fits on the spaces provided
 Copy it neatly on the lines provided
 If say quote a word or find a word, this means find one (1) word and put it between
inverted or quotation marks “”.
 If a question asks you to say whether True or False, choose one that prove the sentence to
be true or false.
 Proper nouns must be written starting with capital letter
 Do not start with conjunction such as because, but, e.t.c

4. Form Filling (Core-Grade 12 and lower Grades)

 Read instructions to determine what types of letters you will be using

 Residential and home address (same thing) Postal address and Mail address (same thing)
 Email always written with small letters
 Tick in appropriate box means tick in the right box
 Delete as appropriate means delete the wrong answer
 Never use she, he, herself or himself use I and myself or my

5. Summary writing, a diary entry, a letter, report, speech etc.

 Know what type of summary you are writing

 Prose summary means write only one paragraph (start sentences with capital letters and
with a full stop) Extended Grade 12
 Note form or numbered form means use bullets or numbers (start phrase with small letters
and do not put any full stop) Core Grade 12
 For all summaries, do not explain or give examples, do not ask any question
 Tenses remains the same
 Use details from the texts
 Stick to word’s limit
 Unlike in summary, you may be required to clarify issues in a diary entry, a letter, report,
speech etc.

6. Essay writing Examination (Grade 12 compulsory) lower grades optional

 Choose only one topic (Choose the topic you have more information about)
 Descriptive essay (describe a place, an event, a person(you admire or role model or friend)
Introduction – say who, what, where, when
Body – describe what you see and how did you see it, what you hear and how did you hear it,
what did you touch and how did you feel when you touch it and also what did you smell….
If it is about a person, tell us what makes the person special, if it is about an event
describe the activities which have taken place.

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Conclusion – sum up the essay – gives a summary of the essay, it probably looks more or less
like the introduction.
 Argumentative essay – say the subject to be discussed
Indicate whether you agree or disagree with the statement or topic
Body – write your ideas that support your topic in the second paragraph. Give as many
points as possible. Explain all the points and give examples. In the third paragraph, you
need to write counter arguments, give the points against your topic or that support the topic
and indicate why you are not supporting them. Give as many points as possible.
Conclusion – sum up your case by highlighting your strong points in paragraph 2.
 Narrative essay – just write a story
Introduction – tell us who, when and where
Body – how events unfold in your story (rise and fall)
Conclusion – lesson learned
 Factual essay – just write facts in chronological order
 Advantages and disadvantages- have introduction, second paragraph- advantages, third-
disadvantages and conclusion to sum up your case.

7. Friendly letter, formal letter, speech, report, article and reviews

1. Friendly letter (one address) and formal letter (two addresses) use information provided in
the book. No address for Grade 11-12
2. Article - has a topic and a writer’s name (has introduction, body and conclusion)
3. Report – tells who, what, when and where in the introduction. Gives details of the report in
details in paragraph 2. Gives suggestion in the conclusion.
4. Review- book, play, movie or film, article review, soapie review (it has introduction with
topic put between quotation marks)
5. Number of words used should be indicated at the end of your writing.

8. Listening Comprehension Skills

 Listen very careful Golden rules:

 Read the instruction
- Eyes to the page, ears do the listening
 Read the questions
- Never look up to the reader or to the
 Underline the clues
source of the audio
 Listen and answer the questions
 Just write the answers
 Do not start with capital letters unless for proper nouns
 If instruction say tick do not cross, if it says cross do not tick.
 Listening Comprehension Skills examination will only be read twice, make sure that
you finalize your answer during the second reading.
 You hear the material twice, so answer 2 to 3 questions per section after each
listening session.

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46. References

A. Argumentative/Persuasive Essay Guidelines (July, 2011; g:ASC:EngRead)

B. Fundamentals of English grammar 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
C. Hacker, D. (1989). A writer’s reference. New York: St. Martin’s Press, Inc.
D. Hayes, C. (1996). English at hand. Marlton, NJ: Townsend Press.
E. Really-Learn-English.com
F. Shono, S. (1998). ESL 0650 Articles Handout.
G. http://www.wikihow.com/Write-a-Formal-Email
H. MyEnglishPages.com
I. http://www.custom-essays.org/
J. http://www.time4writing.com/
K. http://www.careerpoliceofficer.com/
L. https://www.tesol-direct.com/
M. http://www.studyexam.com
N. http://www.English-at-home.com
O. http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/
P. http://www.english-test.net/townend
Q. http://www.dictionary.com/

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