2.

Small Signal Amplifiers

1.1. Introduction
In order to predict the behavior of a small-signal transistor amplifier, it is important to know its operating
characteristics e.g., input impedance, output impedance, voltage gain etc. These characteristics were
determined by using 𝛽 and circuit resistance values. This method of analysis has two principal
advantages. Firstly, the values of circuit components are readily available and secondly the procedure
followed is easily understood. However, the major drawback of this method is that accurate results
cannot be obtained. It is because the input and output circuits of a transistor amplifier are not completely
independent. For example, output current 𝐼𝑏 is affected by the value of load resistance rather than being
constant at the value 𝛽𝐼𝑏 . Similarly, output voltage has an effect on the input circuit so that changes in
the output cause changes in the input.
One of the methods that takes into account all the effects in a transistor amplifier is the hybrid
parameter approach. In this method, four parameters (one measured in ohm, one in mho, two
dimensionless) of a transistor are measured experimentally. These are called hybrid or h parameters of
the transistor. Once these parameters for a transistor are known, formulas can be developed for input
impedance, voltage gain etc.in terms of h parameters. There are two main reasons for using h parameter
method in describing the characteristics of a transistor;
(i) It yields exact results because the inter-effects of input and output circuits are taken into account.
(ii) These parameters can be measured very easily.
To begin with, we shall apply h parameter approach to general circuits and then extend it to transistor
amplifiers.

1.2. Hybrid Parameters

Every linear circuit (A linear circuit is one in which resistances, inductances and capacitances remain
fixed when voltage across them changes) having input and output terminals can be analysed by four
parameters (one measured in ohm, one in mho and two dimensionless) called hybrid or h Parameters.
Hybrid means “mixed”. Since these parameters have mixed dimensions, they are called hybrid
parameters. Consider a linear circuit shown in Fig. 2.1. This circuit has input voltage and current labeled
𝑣1 and 𝑖1 . This circuit also has output voltage and current labeled 𝑣2 and 𝑖2 . Note that both input and
output current (𝑖1 and 𝑖2 ) are assumed to flow into the box; input and output voltages (𝑣1 and 𝑣2 ) are
assumed positive from the upper to the lower terminals. These are standard conventions and do not
necessarily correspond to the actual directions and polarities. When we analyse circuits in which the
voltages are of opposite polarity or where the currents flow out of the box, we simply treat these voltages
and currents as negative quantities.

Fig. 2.1
It can be proved by advanced circuit theory that voltages and currents in Fig. 2.1 can be related by the

1
following sets of equations:
𝑣1 = ℎ11 𝑖1 + ℎ12 𝑣2 (1)
𝑖2 = ℎ21 𝑖1 + ℎ22 𝑣2 (2)
In these equations, the hs are fixed constants for a given circuit and are called h parameters. Once these
parameters are known, we can use equations (1) and (2) to find the voltages and currents in the circuit. If
we look at eq.(1), it is clear that ℎ11 has the dimension of ohm and ℎ12 is dimensionless. Similarly, from
eq. (2), ℎ21 is dimensionless and ℎ22 has the dimension of mho. The following points may be noted
about h parameters:
(i) Every linear circuit has four h parameters; one having dimension of ohm, one having dimension
of mho and two dimensionless.
(ii) The h parameters of a given circuit are constant. If we change the circuit, h parameters would
also change.
(iii) Suppose that in a particular linear circuit, voltages and currents are related as under:
𝑣1 = 10𝑖1 + 6𝑣2
𝑖2 = 4𝑖1 + 3𝑣2
Here we can say that the circuit has h parameters given by; ℎ11 = 10 Ω; ℎ12 = 6; ℎ21 = 4 and ℎ22 =
10 mhos.

1.3. Determination of 𝒉 Parameters

The major reason for the use of h parameters is the relative ease with which they can be measured. The h
parameters of a circuit shown in Fig. 2.1 can be found out as under:
(i) If we short-circuit the output terminals (See Fig. 2.2), we can say that output voltage 𝑣2 = 0.
Putting 𝑣2 = 0 in equations (1) and (2), we get;
𝑣1 = ℎ11 𝑖1 + ℎ12 × 0
𝑖2 = ℎ21 𝑖1 + ℎ22 × 0
Therefore;
𝑣1
ℎ11 = for 𝑣2 = 0 i. e output shorted
𝑖1
and
𝑖2
ℎ21 = for 𝑣2 = 0 i. e output shorted
𝑖1
Let us now turn to the physical meaning of ℎ11 and ℎ21 . Since ℎ11 is a ratio of voltage and
current (i.e. 𝑣1 ⁄𝑖1 ), it is an impedance and is called “input impedance with output shorted”.
Similarly, ℎ21 is the ratio of output and input current (i.e., 𝑖2 ⁄𝑖1 ), it will be dimensionless and is
called “current gain with output shorted.”

Fig. 2.2 Fig. 2.3

(ii) The other two h parameters (viz ℎ12 and ℎ22 ) can be found by making 𝑖1 = 0. This can be done
by the arrangement shown in Fig. 2.3. Here, we drive the output terminals with voltage 𝑣2 ,
keeping the input terminals open. With this set up, 𝑖1 = 0 and the equations become:

2
 𝑣1 = ℎ11 × 0 + ℎ12 𝑣2
𝑖2 = ℎ21 × 0 + ℎ22 𝑣2
Therefore;
𝑣1
ℎ12 = for 𝑖1 = 0 i. e input open
𝑣2
and
𝑖2
ℎ22 = for 𝑖1 = 0 i. e input open
𝑣2
Since ℎ12 is a ratio of input and output voltages (i.e. 𝑣1 ⁄𝑣2 ), it is dimensionless and is called
“voltage feedback ratio with input terminals open”. Similarly, ℎ22 is a ratio of output current and
output voltage (i.e. 𝑖2 ⁄𝑣2 ),), it will be admittance and is called “output admittance with input
terminals open.”
Example 2.1
Find the h parameters of the circuit shown in Fig. 2.4(i).

(i) (ii)
Fig. 2.4
Solution
To find ℎ11 and ℎ21 , short-circuit the output terminals as shown in Fig. 2.4 (ii). It is clear that input
impedance of the circuit is 10 Ω because 5 Ω resistance is shorted out.
Therefore;
ℎ11 = 10 Ω
Now current 𝑖1 flowing into the box will flow through 10 Ω resistor and then through the shorted path as
shown. It may be noted that in our discussion, 𝑖2 is the output current flowing into the box. Since output
current in Fig. 2.4 (ii) is actually flowing out of the box, 𝑖2 is negative i.e.,
𝑖2 = −𝑖1
Therefore;
𝑖2 −𝑖1
ℎ21 = = = −1
𝑖1 𝑖1
To find ℎ12 and ℎ22 , make the arrangement as shown in Fig. 24.4 (iii). Here we are driving the output
terminals with a voltage 𝑣2 . This sets up a current 𝑖2 . Note that input terminals are open. Under this
condition, there will be no current in 10 Ω resistor i.e 𝑖1 = 0 and, therefore, there can be no voltage drop
across it. Consequently, all the voltage appears across input terminals i.e,
𝑣1 = 𝑣2

Fig. 2.4(iii)
𝑣1 𝑣2
ℎ12 = = =1
𝑣2 𝑣2

3
Now the output impedance looking into the output terminals with input terminals open is simply 5 Ω.
Then ℎ22 will be the reciprocal of it because ℎ22 is the output admittance with input terminals open, i.e,
ℎ22 = 1⁄5 = 0.2 mhos
Thus, the h parameters of the circuit are;
ℎ11 = 10 Ω ; ℎ21 = −1
ℎ12 = 1 ; ℎ22 = 0.2 mhos
It may be mentioned here that in practice, dimensions are not written with h parameters. It is because it is
understood that ℎ11 is always in ohms, ℎ12 and ℎ21 are dimensionless and ℎ22 is in mhos.
Exercise
Find the h parameters of the circuit shown in Fig. 2.5.

Fig. 2.5

1.4. 𝒉 Parameter Equivalent Circuit

Fig. 2.6(i) shows a linear circuit. It is required to draw the h parameter equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.6(i).
We know that voltages and currents of the circuit in Fig. 2.6 (i) can be expressed in terms of h parameters
as restated below:
𝑣1 = ℎ11 𝑖1 + ℎ12 𝑣2 (1)
𝑖2 = ℎ21 𝑖1 + ℎ22 𝑣2 (2)

(i) (ii)
Fig. 2.6
Fig. 2.6(ii) shows the h parameter equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.6(i) and is derived from equations (1) and
(2). The input circuit appears as a resistance ℎ11 in series with a voltage generator ℎ12 𝑣2. This circuit is
derived from equation (1). The output circuit involves two components; a current generator ℎ21 𝑖1 and
shunt resistance ℎ22 and is derived from equation (2). The following points are worth noting about the h
parameter equivalent circuit [See Fig. 2.6(ii)];
(i) This circuit is called hybrid equivalent because its input portion is a Thevenin equivalent, or
voltage generator with series resistance, while output side is Norton equivalent, or current
generator with shunt resistance. Thus it is a mixture or a hybrid. The symbol ‘h’ is simply the
abbreviation of the word hybrid (hybrid means “mixed”).
(ii) The different hybrid parameters are distinguished by different number subscripts. The notation
shown in Fig. 2.6 is used in general circuit analysis. The first number designates the circuit in
which the effect takes place and the second number designates the circuit from which the effect
comes. For instance, ℎ21 is the “short-circuit forward current gain” or the ratio of the current in
the output (circuit 2) to the current in the input (circuit 1).

4
 (iii) The equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.6 (ii) is extremely useful for two main reasons;
a) It isolates the input and output circuits, their interaction being accounted for by the two
controlled sources. Thus, the effect of output upon input is represented by the equivalent
voltage generator ℎ12 𝑣2 and its value depends upon output voltage. Similarly, the effect
of input upon output is represented by current generator ℎ21 𝑖1 and its value depends upon
input current.
b) Secondly, the two parts of the circuit are in a form which makes it simple to take into
account source and load circuits.
1.5. Performance of a Linear Circuit in 𝒉 Parameters
We have already seen that any linear circuit with input and output has a set of h parameters. We shall
now develop formulas for input impedance, current gain, voltage gain etc. of a linear circuit in terms of h
parameters.
1.5.1 Input Impedance
Consider a linear circuit with a load resistance 𝑟𝐿 across its terminals as shown in Fig. 2.7. The input
impedance 𝑍𝑖𝑛 of this circuit is the ratio of input voltage to input current i.e.
𝑣1
𝑍𝑖𝑛 =
𝑖1
ℎ11 𝑖1 + ℎ12 𝑣2 ℎ12 𝑣2
= = ℎ11 + (3)
𝑖1 𝑖1

Fig. 2.7
Also from Fig. 2.7;
𝑣2
𝑖2 = −
𝑟𝐿
The minus sign is used here because the actual load current is opposite to the direction of 𝑖2 .
𝑣2
ℎ21 𝑖1 + ℎ22 𝑣2 = −
𝑟𝐿
𝑣2 1
−ℎ21 𝑖1 = ℎ22 𝑣2 + = 𝑣2 (ℎ22 + )
𝑟𝐿 𝑟𝐿
Therefore;
𝑣2 −ℎ21
= (4)
𝑖1 ℎ22 + 1
𝑟𝐿
Substituting the value of 𝑣2 ⁄𝑖1 from exp. (4) into exp. (3), we get;
ℎ12 ℎ21
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = ℎ11 − 1 (5)
ℎ22 +
𝑟𝐿
This is the expression for input impedance of a linear circuit in terms of h parameters and load connected
to the output terminal. If either ℎ12 or 𝑟𝐿 is very small, the second term in exp. (5) can be neglected and

5
input impedance becomes:
𝑍𝑖𝑛 ≈ ℎ11
1.5.2 Current Gain
Referring to Fig. 2.7, the current gain 𝐴𝑖 of the circuit is given by:
𝑖2
𝐴𝑖 =
𝑖1
where
𝑖2 = ℎ21 𝑖1 + ℎ22 𝑣2
and
𝑣2 = −𝑖2 𝑟𝐿
⟹ 𝑖2 = ℎ21 𝑖1 − ℎ22 𝑖2 𝑟𝐿
⟹ 𝑖2 (1 + ℎ22 𝑟𝐿 ) = ℎ21 𝑖1
𝑖2 ℎ21
⟹ =
𝑖1 1 + ℎ22 𝑟𝐿
ℎ21
𝐴𝑖 =
1 + ℎ22 𝑟𝐿
If ℎ22 𝑟𝐿 ≪ 1, then 𝐴𝑖 ≈ ℎ21 .
The expression 𝐴𝑖 ≈ ℎ21 is often useful. To say that ℎ22 𝑟𝐿 ≪ 1 is the same as saying that 𝑟𝐿 ≪ 1⁄ℎ22.
This occurs when 𝑟𝐿 is much smaller than the output resistance (1⁄ℎ22), shunting ℎ21 𝑖1 generator. Under
such condition, most of the generator current bypasses the circuit output resistance in favour of 𝑟𝐿 . This
means that 𝑖2 ≈ ℎ21 𝑖1 𝑜𝑟 𝑖2 ⁄𝑖1 ≈ ℎ21 .
1.5.3 Voltage Gain
Referring back to Fig. 2.7, the voltage gain of the circuit is given by:
𝑣2
𝐴𝑣 =
𝑣1
𝑣2
= (6)
𝑖1 𝑍𝑖𝑛
While developing expression for input impedance, we found that:
𝑣2 −ℎ21
=
𝑖1 ℎ22 + 1
𝑟 𝐿
Substituting the value of 𝑣2 ⁄𝑖1 in exp. (6);
−ℎ21
𝐴𝑣 = 1
𝑍𝑖𝑛 (ℎ22 + 𝑟 )
𝐿

1.5.4 Output Impedance

In order to find the output impedance, remove the load 𝑟𝐿 , set the signal voltage 𝑣1 to zero and connect a
generator of voltage 𝑣2 at the output terminals. Then, the h parameter equivalent circuit becomes as
shown in Fig. 2.8. By definition, the output impedance 𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 is;
𝑣2
𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑖2

6
 Fig. 2.8

𝑣2
𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑖2
With 𝑣1 = 0 and applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the input circuit, we have;
0 = ℎ11 𝑖1 + ℎ12 𝑣2
ℎ12 𝑣2
⟹ 𝑖1 = −
ℎ11
Also;
𝑖2 = ℎ21 𝑖1 + ℎ22 𝑣2
⁄
Putting the value of 𝑖1 (= −ℎ12 𝑣2 ℎ11 ) in the above eq. we get;
ℎ12 𝑣2
𝑖2 = ℎ21 (− ) + ℎ22 𝑣2
ℎ11
ℎ21 ℎ12 𝑣2
⟹ 𝑖2 = − + ℎ22 𝑣2
ℎ11
Dividing throughout by 𝑣2 , we have;
𝑖2 ℎ21 ℎ12
=− + ℎ22
𝑣2 ℎ11
1
⟹ 𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ21 ℎ12
ℎ22 − ℎ11

Example 2.2
For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.9, determine;
(i) The input impedance
(ii) The voltage gain.

Fig. 2.9
Solution
The h parameters of the circuit inside the box are the same as those calculated in example 2.1 i.e.
ℎ11 = 10 ; ℎ21 = −1
ℎ12 = 1 ; ℎ22 = 0.2

7
 (i) Input impedance is given by;
ℎ12 ℎ21 1 × −1
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = ℎ11 − 1 = 10 − 1
ℎ22 + 𝑟𝐿
0.2 + 5
= 10 + 2.5 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 𝛀
By inspection, we can see that input impedance is equal to 10 Ω plus two 5 Ω resistances in
parallel i.e. 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 10 + 5 Ω‖5 Ω.
(ii) Voltage gain
−ℎ21
𝐴𝑣 = 1
𝑍𝑖𝑛 (ℎ22 + 𝑟 )
𝐿
−(−1) 1
= 1
=
12.5 (0.2 + ) 5
5
It means that output voltage is one-fifth of the input voltage. This can be readily established by
inspection of Fig. 2.9. The two 5 Ω resistors in parallel give a net resistance of 2.5 Ω. Therefore,
we have a voltage divider consisting of 10 Ω resistor in series with 2.5 Ω resistor.
1.6. The 𝒉 Parameters of a Transistor
It has been seen in the previous sections that every linear circuit is associated with h parameters. When
this linear circuit is terminated by a load 𝑟𝐿 , we can find input impedance, current gain, voltage gain, etc.
in terms of h parameters. Fortunately, for small a.c. signals, the transistor behaves as a linear device
because the output a.c. signal is directly proportional to the input a.c. signal. Under such circumstances,
the a.c. operation of the transistor can be described in terms of h parameters. The expressions derived for
input impedance, voltage gain etc. in the previous section shall hold good for transistor amplifier except
that here 𝑟𝐿 is the a.c. load seen by the transistor.
Fig. 2.10 shows the transistor amplifier circuit. There are four quantities required to describe the
external behavior of the transistor amplifier. These are 𝑣1 , 𝑖1 , 𝑣2 and 𝑖2 as shown on the diagram of Fig.
2.10. These voltages and currents are related by the following sets of equations:
𝑣1 = ℎ11 𝑖1 + ℎ12 𝑣2
𝑖2 = ℎ21 𝑖1 + ℎ22 𝑣2

Fig. 2.10
The following points are worth noting while considering the behavior of a transistor in terms of h
parameters;
(i) For small a.c. signals, a transistor behaves as a linear circuit. Therefore, its a.c. operation can be
described in terms of h parameters.
(ii) The value of h parameters of a transistor will depend upon the transistor connection (i.e. CB, CE
or CC) used. For instance, a transistor used in CB arrangement may have ℎ11 = 20 Ω. If we use
the same transistor in CE arrangement, ℎ11 will have a different value. Same is the case with
other h parameters.

8
 (iii) The expressions for input impedance, voltage gain etc. derived in section 2.4 are also applicable
to transistor amplifier except that 𝑟𝐿 is the a.c. load seen by the transistor i.e.
𝑟𝐿 = 𝑅𝐶 ‖𝑅𝐿
(iv) The values of h parameters depend upon the operating point. If the operating point is changed,
parameter values are also changed.
(v) The notations 𝑣1 , 𝑖1 , 𝑣2 and 𝑖2 are used for general circuit analysis. In a transistor amplifier, we
use the notation depending upon the configuration in which transistor is used. Thus for CE
arrangement,
𝑣1 = 𝑉𝑏𝑒 ; 𝑖1 = 𝐼𝑏 ; 𝑣2 = 𝑉𝑐𝑒 ; 𝑖2 = 𝐼𝑐
Here, 𝑉𝑏𝑒 , 𝐼𝑏 , 𝑉𝑐𝑒 and 𝐼𝑐 are the R.M.S values.
1.7. Nomenclature for Transistor h Parameters
The numerical subscript notation for h parameters (viz. ℎ11 , ℎ21 , ℎ12 and ℎ22 ) is used in general circuit
analysis. However, this nomenclature has been modified for a transistor to indicate the nature of
parameter and the transistor configuration used. The h parameters of a transistor are represented by the
following notation:
(i) The numerical subscripts are replaced by letter subscripts.
(ii) The first letter in the double subscript notation indicates the nature of parameter.
(iii) The second letter in the double subscript notation indicates the circuit arrangement (i.e. CB, CE or
CC) used.
Table 1.1 below shows the h parameter nomenclature of a transistor:
Table 1.1 h parameter nomenclature of a transistor

Note that the first letter 𝑖, 𝑟, 𝑓 or 𝑜 indicates the nature of parameter. Thus ℎ11 indicates input impedance
and this parameter is designated by the subscript 𝑖. Similarly, letters 𝑟, 𝑓 and 𝑜 respectively indicate
reverse voltage feedback ratio, forward current transfer ratio and output admittance. The second letters 𝑏,
𝑒 and 𝑐 respectively indicate CB, CE and CC arrangement.
1.8. Transistor Circuit Performance in h Parameters
The expressions for input impedance, voltage gain etc. in terms of h parameters derived in section 2.4 for
general circuit analysis apply equally for transistor analysis. However, it is profitable to rewrite them in
standard transistor h parameter nomenclature.
1.8.1 Input Impedance
The general expression for input impedance is;
ℎ12 ℎ21
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = ℎ11 − 1
ℎ22 + 𝑟
𝐿
Using standard h parameter nomenclature for transistor, its value for CE arrangement will be:

9
 ℎ𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = ℎ𝑖𝑒 − 1
ℎ𝑜𝑒 +
𝑟𝐿
Similarly, expressions for input impedance in CB and CC arrangements can be written. It may be noted
that 𝑟𝐿 is the a.c. load seen by the transistor.
1.8.2 Current Gain
The general expression for current gain is;
ℎ21
𝐴𝑖 =
1 + ℎ22 𝑟𝐿
Using standard transistor h parameter nomenclature, its value for CE arrangement is;
ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝐴𝑖 =
1 + ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑟𝐿
The expressions for current gain for CB and CC arrangements can easily be written down.
1.8.3 Voltage Gain
The general expression for voltage gain is;
−ℎ21
𝐴𝑣 = 1
𝑍𝑖𝑛 (ℎ22 + )
𝑟𝐿
Using standard transistor h parameter nomenclature, its value for CE arrangement is;
−ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝐴𝑣 = 1
𝑍𝑖𝑛 (ℎ𝑜𝑒 + 𝑟 )
𝐿
The expressions for voltage gain for CB and CC arrangements can easily be written down.
1.8.4 Output Impedance
The general expression for output impedance is;
1
𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ21 ℎ12
ℎ22 −
ℎ11
Using standard transistor h parameter nomenclature, its value for CE arrangement is;
1
𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ ℎ𝑟𝑒
ℎ𝑜𝑒 − 𝑓𝑒
ℎ𝑖𝑒
In the same way, the expressions for output impedance in CB and CC arrangements can be written.
The above expression for 𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 is for the transistor. If the transistor is connected in a circuit to form a
single stage amplifier, then output impedance of the stage = 𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 ‖𝑟𝐿 where 𝑟𝐿 = 𝑅𝐶 ‖𝑅𝐿 .
Example 2.3
A transistor used in CE arrangement has the following set of h parameters when the d.c. operating point is
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 10 V and 𝐼𝐶 = 1 mA:
ℎ𝑖𝑒 = 2000 Ω; ℎ𝑜𝑒 = 10−4 mho; ℎ𝑟𝑒 = 10−3 ; ℎ𝑓𝑒 = 50
If the a.c. load seen by the transistor is 𝑟𝐿 = 600 Ω, determine;
(i) The input impedance
(ii) The current gain
(iii) The voltage gain.
What will be approximate values using reasonable approximations?

10
Solution:
(i) Input impedance 𝑍𝑖𝑛 is given by;
ℎ𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = ℎ𝑖𝑒 − 1
ℎ𝑜𝑒 +
𝑟𝐿
−3
10 × 50
= 2000 − 1 (⋆)
10−4 + 600
= 2000 − 28
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝟏𝟗𝟕𝟐 𝛀
The second term in eq. (⋆) is quite small as compared to the first.
Therefore, 𝑍𝑖𝑛 ≈ ℎ𝑖𝑒 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝛀

(ii) Current gain., 𝐴𝑖 is given by;

ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝐴𝑖 =
1 + ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑟𝐿
50
=
1 + (10−4 × 600)
𝐴𝑖 = 𝟒𝟕
If ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑟𝐿 ≪ 1, 𝐴𝑖 ≈ ℎ𝑓𝑒 = 𝟓𝟎

(iii) Voltage gain., 𝐴𝑣 is given by;

−ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝐴𝑣 = 1
𝑍𝑖𝑛 (ℎ𝑜𝑒 + 𝑟 )
𝐿
−50
= 1
1972 (10−4 + )
600
𝐴𝑣 = −𝟏𝟒. 𝟒
The negative sign indicates that there is 180° phase shift between input and output. The
magnitude of gain is 14.4. In other words, the output signal is 14.4 times greater than the input
and it is 180° out of phase with the input.
Example 2.4
Fig. 2.11 shows the transistor amplifier in CE arrangement. The h parameters of transistor are as under:
ℎ𝑖𝑒 = 1500 Ω; ℎ𝑓𝑒 = 50; ℎ𝑟𝑒 = 4 × 10−4 ; ℎ𝑜𝑒 = 5 × 10−5 mho
Find;
(i) The a.c. input impedance of the amplifier
(ii) The voltage gain
(iii) The output impedance of the amplifier.

11
 Fig. 2.11
Solution
The a.c. load 𝑟𝐿 seen by the transistor is equivalent of the parallel combination of 𝑅𝐶 (= 10 kΩ)
and 𝑅𝐶 (= 30 kΩ) i.e.
𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐿 10 × 30 × 106
𝑟𝐿 = = = 7.5 kΩ = 7500 Ω
𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐿 (10 + 30) × 103
(i) The input impedance looking into the base of transistor is given by:
ℎ𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = ℎ𝑖𝑒 − 1
ℎ𝑜𝑒 +
𝑟𝐿
4 × 10−4 × 50
= 1500 − 1
5 × 10−5 +
7500
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝟏390 Ω
This is only the input impedance looking into the base of transistor. The a.c. input impedance of
the entire stage will be 𝑍𝑖𝑛 in parallel with bias resistors i.e.
Input impedance of stage = 80 × 103 ‖40 × 103 ‖1390 = 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝛀
(ii) Voltage gain., 𝐴𝑣 is given by;
−ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝐴𝑣 = 1
𝑍𝑖𝑛 (ℎ𝑜𝑒 + 𝑟 )
𝐿
−50
= 1
1390 (5 × 10−5 + 7500)
𝐴𝑣 = −𝟏𝟗𝟔
(iii) Output impedance of the transistor is;
1
𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ ℎ𝑟𝑒
ℎ𝑜𝑒 − 𝑓𝑒
ℎ 𝑖𝑒
1
= 50×4×10−4
5 × 10−5 − 1500

𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 27270 Ω or 27.27 kΩ

12
 Therefore, output impedance of the stage = 𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 ‖𝑅𝐶 ‖𝑅𝐿

= 27.27 kΩ‖30 kΩ‖10 kΩ = 𝟓. 𝟖𝟖 𝐤𝛀

Exercise
1. A transistor used in CE arrangement has the following set of h parameters when the d.c. operating
point is 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 10 V and 𝐼𝐶 = 1 mA:
ℎ𝑖𝑒 = 1700 Ω; ℎ𝑟𝑒 = 1.3 × 10−4 ; ℎ𝑓𝑒 = 38; ℎ𝑜𝑒 = 6 × 10−6 mho
If the a.c. load seen by the transistor is 𝑟𝐿 = 2 kΩ, determine;
(i) The input impedance
(ii) The current gain
(iii) The voltage gain.
2. The h parameter values of the transistor in Fig. 2.12 are given alongside the figure. Determine;
(i) The current gain
(ii) Output impedance of the amplifier

Fig. 2.12
1.9. Approximate Hybrid Formulas for Transistor Amplifier
The h parameter formulas (CE configuration) covered in section 1.8 can be approximated to a form that is
easier to handle. While these approximate formulas will not give results that are as accurate as the original
formulas, they can be used for many applications.
1.9.1 Input Impedance
ℎ𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = ℎ𝑖𝑒 − 1
ℎ𝑜𝑒 +
𝑟𝐿
In actual practice, the second term in this expression is very small as compared to the first term.
Therefore, the approximate formula for the input impedance is given by;
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = ℎ𝑖𝑒
1.9.2 Current Gain
ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝐴𝑖 =
1 + ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑟𝐿
In actual practice, ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑟𝐿 is very small compared to 1.
Therefore, the approximate formula for the current gain is given by;

13
 𝐴𝑖 = ℎ𝑓𝑒
1.9.3 Voltage Gain
−ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝐴𝑣 = 1
𝑍𝑖𝑛 (ℎ𝑜𝑒 + 𝑟 )
𝐿
−ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑟𝐿
=
𝑍𝑖𝑛 (ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑟𝐿 + 1)
Now approximate formula for 𝑍𝑖𝑛 is ℎ𝑖𝑒 . Also ℎ𝑜𝑒 𝑟𝐿 is very small as compared to 1.
Therefore, the approximate formula for the voltage gain is given by;
ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑟𝐿
𝐴𝑣 = −
ℎ𝑖𝑒
1.9.4 Output Impedance
The output impedance of the transistor is;
1
𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ𝑓𝑒 ℎ𝑟𝑒
ℎ𝑜𝑒 − ℎ𝑖𝑒
The second term in the denominator is very small as compared to ℎ𝑜𝑒 .
Therefore, the approximate formula for the voltage gain is given by;
1
𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
ℎ𝑜𝑒
The output impedance of the amplifier is;
= 𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 ‖𝑟𝐿

= 𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 ‖𝑅𝐶 ‖𝑅𝐿

Example 2.5
For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.13, the h parameters of the transistor are ℎ𝑖𝑒 = 1.94 kΩ and ℎ𝑓𝑒 = 71. Use
the approximate hybrid formulas to determine;
(i) The input impedance
(ii) The voltage gain.
Solution
a. c. collector load, 𝑟𝐿 = 𝑅𝐶 ‖𝑅𝐿
= 12 kΩ‖15 kΩ = 6.67 kΩ
(i) Transistor input impedance
𝑍𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒) = ℎ𝑖𝑒 = 1.94 kΩ
Therefore, circuit input impedance is given by;
= 𝑍𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒) ‖𝑅1 ‖𝑅2
= 1.94 kΩ‖50 kΩ‖5 kΩ
= 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓 𝐤𝛀
(ii) Voltage gain, 𝐴𝑣 is given by;
ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑟𝐿
𝐴𝑣 = −
ℎ𝑖𝑒
71 × 6.67 kΩ
=−
1.94 kΩ
𝐴𝑣 = 𝟐𝟒𝟒

14
Exercise
A transistor used in an amplifier has h parameter values of ℎ𝑖𝑒 = 600 Ω to 800 Ω and ℎ𝑓𝑒 = 110 to 140.
The a.c. collector load, 𝑟𝐿 = 460 Ω. Using the approximate hybrid formula, determine the voltage gain of
the circuit.
1.10. Limitations of h Parameters
The h parameter approach provides accurate information regarding the current gain, voltage gain, input
impedance and output impedance of a transistor amplifier. However, there are two major limitations on
the use of these parameters.
(i) It is very difficult to get the exact values of h parameters for a particular transistor. It is because
these parameters are subject to considerable variation—unit to unit variation, variation due to
change in temperature and variation due to change in operating point. In predicting an amplifier
performance, care must be taken to use h parameter values that are correct for the operating point
being considered.
(ii) The h parameter approach gives correct answers for small a.c. signals only. It is because a
transistor behaves as a linear device for small signals only.
Review Questions
1. What do you understand by hybrid parameters? What are their dimensions?
2. How will you measure h parameters of a linear circuit?
3. Draw the h parameter equivalent circuit of a linear circuit.
4. What is the physical meaning of h parameters?
5. Derive, in terms of h parameters and the load, the general formula for:
(i) Input impedance,
(ii) Current gain,
(iii) Voltage gain
6. What are the notations for h parameters of a transistor when used in;
(i) CB,
(ii) CE,
(iii) CC arrangement?
7. What are the drawbacks of h parameter approach in the design of a transistor amplifier?

15