PART IV

Writing Skills

SENTENCE,
PARAGRAPH AND
ESSAY
What is a sentence?
• A sentence is a group of words
with at least one main clause
that expresses a complete idea.
• A sentence is a group of words
which conveys/ expresses a
complete thought/idea.
 Cont…
• Experienced writers use a variety of
sentences to make their writing
interesting and lively.
• Too many simple sentences, for
example, will sound choppy and
immature while too many long
sentences will be difficult to read
and hard to understand.
 What is a clause
• A clause is a group of words with its
own subject and predicate (verb).

Notice: A clause is a group of words that

contains a subject and a predicate, but
which is usually only part of a sentence
 Types of clauses
1. Independent (main) clause
• An independent clause contains a subject, a
verb, and a complete thought.
Example:

I wrote my first novel last year.

 2. Dependent/subordinate clause

• A dependent clause contains a subject and a

verb, but no complete thought.
Example:
After I wrote my first novel last
year.
 Parts of a sentence
1. Subject
• Identifies the person/place/thing/idea that
is being spoken about.
Subject of a sentence is just a realization of
the first position that is occupied by some
elements of a clause.
 Examples
Damian killed a lion. (‘Damian’ is a subject
because he is the doer of an action-killed).
-Damian was killed by a lion. (‘Damian’ is a
subject not in the sense of performing an
act of killing, but in the sense of being the
concern of the message, (i.e. it is Damian
who got killed and nobody else)
 Types of subjects
i. Simple subject
Usually only one main word ( a noun or pronoun)
.
Tells what or who the sentence is about.
• Dorcas is here.
• She is writing notes.
 ii. Complete subject
 It is the main word plus its modifiers
 Always includes the simple subject.
Example:
An innocent-looking girl who was mutilated by
a serial killer last week will be buried this
evening.
The young and beautiful lady with long hair at
the corner is reading loudly.
 iii. Understood subject

o Do not appear in the sentence.

o The reader understands the subject is the
addressed person.
• (You) Fasten your seat belt.
• (You) Stop writing.
iv. compound subject
• It consists of two or more connected
subjects.
• Subjects share the same verb.
• Examples:
• Cheese, butter and milk are dairy foods.
• Joys, Jesca and Joan are friends.
 2. Predicate

A predicate is that part of a clause

which describes a process
(i.e. action with its duration) and all its
elements that have to be associated
with it.
The part that say something about the
subject
 Examples
-Damian killed a lion. (‘killed’ is a predicate
with one element called an ‘object’-a lion).
-The money is lost. (‘is’ is a predicate with one
element called a ‘complement’-lost).
 Types of predicates
i. Simple Predicate
Always a verb.
She left.
ii. Complete Predicate
Includes the simple predicate and adverbials or
other categories.
The short man with the black moustache is my
beloved uncle who was gone since my
childhood.
 TYPES OF SENTENCES

• According to clause structure,

sentences are divided into four
types/kinds, depending upon
the number and type(s) of
clauses it contains.
 1. Simple sentence
• Contains only ONE independent clause and
NO subordinate clause
The wind blew.
• The subject and the verb can be modified and
may have complements
The wind blew the leaves all over the yard.
• May have compound subject and compound
predicate
Joyce, Jimmy and Joan write stories and
compose beautiful poems
 2. Compound sentence
It has two independent clauses joined by
A. a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor,
but, or, yet, so ),
B. a conjunctive adverb (e.g.however,
therefore ), or
C. a semicolon alone.
Punctuation patterns (to match A, B,
and C above)
• A. Independent clause, coordinating conjunction
independent clause.
• B. Independent clause;conjunctive adverb,
independent clause.
• C. Independent clause;independent clause.
• I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to
speak English.
• Alejandro played football, so Maria went shopping.
• Alejandro played football, for Maria went
shopping.
 Cont…
• Coordinate conjunctions such asand, but, or,
for nor,
, so , andyet
are used to join words, phrases or clauses of
equal grammatical function or importance.
 Examples

-I like this book very much, for it explains each

concept well.
-John was late to class, yet he was not punished.
-We can pay them all the dues, but we need to
verify the details.
-They went to see their lecturer, so they can have a
talk with her.
-What is your name?, and why are you here?
-You can take that one, or the other one.
-The equipment is neither accurate nor safe.
 3 . Complex sentence
• Contains one independent clause and at
least one subordinate clause
• It has one or more dependent clause (s)
(headed by a subordinating conjunction or a
relative pronoun ) joined to an independent
clause.
 EXAMPLES

- If I were you, I would have completed this

assignment.
- Make sure that you wash all the dishes before it
gets dark.
- When it started raining, Miss. Grace was not around.
- You will not pass the test unless you study hard
everyday.
- Provided that we are together, nobody will separate
us.
 Cont…

• When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give

the teacher the last page.
• The teacher returned the homework after she
noticed the error.
• The students are studying because they have a
test tomorrow.
• After they finished studying, Juan and Maria went
to the movies
• Juan and Maria went to the movies after they
finished studying.
Punctuation patterns (to match A, B, C
and D above)
• A. Dependent clause, independent clause
• B. Independent clause dependent clause
• C. Independent, nonessential dependent
clause, clause.
• D. Independent essential dependent clause.
 4. compound-complex sentence
• A compound-complex sentence has two
independent clauses joined to one or more
dependent clauses.
• Examples
• While Tom reads novels, Jack reads comics, but
DEPENDENT INDEPENDENT
Sam reads only magazines.
INDEPENDENT
 CONNECTORS--COMPOUND AND
COMPLEX SENTENCES

• Two independent clauses may be joined by

• 1. Coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS)
• 2. Conjunctive adverbs ;therefore ,
• A dependent (subordinate) clause may be
introduced by
• 1. Subordinating conjunctions (ADVERB CLAUSE)
• 2. Relative pronouns (ADJECTIVE CLAUSE)
• 3. Relative pronoun, subordinating conjunctions,
or adverbs (NOUN CLAUSE)
 Types of sentences according to
purpose/function
Sentences have different functions (i.e. what
purpose the speaker or writer wants to
achieve?)
Whenever we speak or write, we don’t just do
that because we have to do; we do that for
various purposes that we would want our
listeners or readers to get involved in.
The point to remember and notice is this.
‘functions of sentences are determined by
the context in which the sentences are used’.
 1. Declarative function
This function is that of giving or providing information to a reader
who needs that information.
To declare is to state something publicly or to let something known
to people. A declarative sentence always ends with a period (.).
Examples;
- John is my uncle.
- I am a student at the Institute of Finance Management.
- Tanzania attained her independence in 1961.
- Our classes end at 9:00 pm.
- I have brought you some juice and fruits to eat.
Notice: Since this function is that of giving or providing, the
speaker or writer will have the authority of deciding on what to
be given, to what extent and how to be given.
 Cont…
However, there are some declarative sentences that do not just
end by providing information. They also have another function in
them-the function of causing something to happen.
For instance a sentence like;
-I hereby pronounce Lucia and John wife and husband.
This sentence does not only declare, but it also causes a marriage
to happen (i.e. changing a couple from being fiancé/fiancée to
married couple).
-I declare war between X and Y.
Once a sentence like this is said by a head of state, at the
point of finishing saying it, the actual fight at the battle ground
begins.
Sentences of these kinds do perform some acts.
 2. Imperative function
This function is that of causing someone to do
something in favour of a writer or speaker. It is
the function that makes a reader or a listener to
act in some ways according to the writer or
speaker’s wish.

Imperative sentences are of three types;

i) command,
ii) request/entreaty, and
iii) suggestion
 Cont…
i) Command: This function is that of manifesting power,
control, or order one has over another person.
Examples;
-Get out of my office!
-Shut up!
-Go and bring me a glass of water!
-Open the door!
-Provide us some chairs, please!

In most cases, commanding sentences do have hidden subjects

and they end up with an exclamatory mark to indicate that
they
have a rising tone.
 Cont…
ii. Request/entreaty: This function is that of manifesting a
polite
form for demanding something or a serious politeness for
demanding something.
Examples;
-Please call our number in case you have any problem.
-Could you assist me to carry this luggage?
-May I take this bag inside?
-Please our dear Lord, have mercy on us!

Notice: Sentences that perform this function may end up

with
different marks.
 Cont…
iii) Suggestion: This function is that of making someone accept
or get convinced or influenced with an idea, or a plan in favour of
someone who has it.
Examples;
-What do you think if you and I get married?
-It is too dark now; shall we go home?
-I think it is time that you start your own business.
-What if we have a break for a few minutes and then we
continue?

Notice: Sentences of this function may also end up with different

marks.
 3. Interrogative function
This function is that of seeking information or
confirmation about something from another person who
has the information or knows something.
Interrogative sentences are of two types;

i) The Yes/No questions (using forms of Primary

auxiliaries and some modal auxiliary verbs).
ii) Wh-questions (using wh-words like why, where, how
etc).
iii) The Yes/No questions: these kind of questions are
used in two conditions;
a) A person who asks has the ‘provided information’ of
which s/he wants to confirm form another person.
 Cont…
b) A person who asks assumes that the
‘provided information’ is shared by another
person from whom s/he wants to confirm.
Examples;
-Is this house yours?
-Do you know that man?
-Is this chair mine?
-Does this kid go to school?
 Cont…
i) The Yes/No questions: these kind of questions are
used in two conditions;
a) A person who asks has the ‘provided information’ of
which s/he wants to confirm form another person.
b) A person who asks assumes that the ‘provided
information’ is shared by another person from whom
s/he wants to confirm.
Examples;
-Is this house yours?
-Do you know that man?
-Is this chair mine?
-Does this kid go to school?
 Cont…
 The Wh-questions: These kind of questions are
used when a
person is in need of information and believes that
there
is someone who knows or has that information.
Examples;
-How did you get here?
-Why do you want to withdraw your membership?
-When are you coming?
-What are you doing over there?
 4. Exclamatory function
This function is that of expressing individual personal
feelings or emotions towards something. The
feelings or emotions could be anger, surprise,
excitement, pain,
happiness, sadness, shocks etc.
Examples;
-Wow! This looks great!
-Ouch! That hurts!
-Awesome! What a wonderful score this is!
-Aha! So you planned all this, did you?
-That is pretty good!
 PARAGRAPH WRITING
What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a unit of writing that discusses one idea.
A paragraph is a group of related sentences discussing
one topic.
It is a group of related sentences which conveys a single
idea.
A paragraph can be formed by a single sentence, but
they usually contain several sentences.
There is no rule that limits the number of sentences in a
paragraph; however, some writers argue that a good
paragraph is the one which has at least four to five
sentences.
 Parts of a paragraph
• Topic sentence: It is a sentence that expresses
the central/ main idea of a paragraph. It the
one which introduces the main idea of the text.
• The topic sentence is often the first one in a
formal academic paragraph although it can be
placed anywhere in a paragraph.
• Supporting sentences: These come after the
topic sentence.
• They make up the body of a paragraph by giving
details to develop and support the main idea of
the paragraph.
 Concluding/closing sentence
• It is the last sentence in a paragraph.
• This sentence must relate its closing remark
to the topic sentence.
• When one is writing a closing sentence, one
needs to use different words to restate the
topic sentence.
 Placement of a topic sentence

• For emphatic reasons, a topic sentence can be

written at the beginning and at the end of a
paragraph.
• When it is placed at the beginning / as the first
sentence is used to make generalization .
• Serves as a reference point for the rest of the
paragraph.
• Any paragraph which starts with the topic
sentence at the beginning is said to be a loose
paragraph.
 Advantages of a loose paragraph

• Prominent
• Facilitate natural and logical development
of ideas to support it.
• Mostly used in business letters
 Cont…
• As the third or fourth sentence
• Focused details and directs attention to
main the idea.
 Periodic paragraph
• As the final sentence(periodic paragraph):-
• summarizes or draws conclusions from
details.
• Any paragraph which ends with the topic
sentence is said to be periodic.
• This kind of construction is done when the
aim is to gather evidence leading to a
conclusion or to build up an effective climax.
 Benefits of paragraph writing

• Helps the writer to convey his/her message

more clearly: thus makes easer for the reader.
• Helps to facilitate references to particular
items or ideas.
• Helps to strengthen both reading and listening
skills because someone become critically aware
of other writers or speaker’s ideas.
• Helps to make someone a stronger thinker by
following logical ideas.
Types of paragraphs in an essay/text

• Introductory paragraph: An introductory

paragraph often states the essay’s thesis. A
thesis is the general idea of which every single
sentence or paragraph within an essay must
support it.
Thesis statement: the central or main ideas of an
essay expressed in a complete sentence. It
expresses the point you wish to make, your
reason for writing the essay
• Body paragraphs: A body paragraph contains
information that develops or tells the reader
more about the main point in an essay’s thesis.
 The concluding paragraph
• It is the one which ends the essay in a logical
and memorable way. It should not introduce
or discus something new that was not
discussed in the body paragraphs. Rather, it
should summarize the essay by briefly
restarting the thesis and the main
supporting points.
 Example of a paragraph

• There are three reasons why Canada is one of

the best countries in the world.First Canada
has an excellent health care system. All
Canadians have access to medical services at a
reasonable price. Second, Canada has a high
standard of education. Students are taught by
well-trained teachers and are encouraged to
continue staying at Universities. Finally
Canada’s cities are clean and efficiently
managed. Canadian cities have many parka and
lots of spaces for people to live. As a result,
Canada is a desirable place to live.
 Descriptions:
Bolded sentence: topic sentence
Italicized sentences: supporting sentences
Normal type –faced sentence: closing
sentence
 Paragraph Writing
Principles of Paragraph Writing
A good written paragraph has in-built principles. It is
these principles which provide
guidance and direction on how coherent ideas could be in
an essay.

The following are basic principles;

i) Unity (togetherness)
ii) Order (logical arrangement)
iii)Coherence (connectivity)
iv)Variety (good appearance)
v) Concluding or transitional sentence
 Cont…
i) Unity: This means that a paragraph must deal with only
ONE idea. And that ALL sentences in a paragraph must
support the idea. In other words, the sentences must be
connected to the central idea. (Refer to the above paragraph)

ii) Order: This principle has to do with how sentences are

arranged in a logical way. There should be always a
systematic way of putting ideas according to their
relationship. The question of which ideas should come first
or last is of important.

iii) Coherence: This principle has to do with connectivity of

ideas within a paragraph. A paragraph is coherent if all of
its sentences are logically connected.
 How do we connect words, phrases,
clauses and ideas?
Connection of words, phrases, clauses or ideas can be done by;
a) Using transitions
b) Referring to words and ideas that have been mentioned
earlier.

a) Using Transitions
Transitions/connectives are words, phrases, and even
sentences that make a clear connection between one idea
and another, between one sentence and another, or between
one paragraph and another.

When writing a paragraph, we use transitions/connectives

for different purposes.
 Purposes for Using Connectives in
Paragraph Writing
1. We use transitions to indicate time
Transitions that relate to time are; afterwards, after a short while, all
the while, as soon as, all of a sudden, a short time later, at that time, by
then, by that time, during, in a few hours, in the mean time, in those days,
mean while, since, soon, suddenly, then, thereafter, thereupon, until then,
when, whenever, while etc.

2. We use transitions to show similarities and differences

Similarities
Differences
Similarly, in the same way although, even
though
Likewise, as, as if, as though etc though, in
contrast, on the
contrary, on the
other hand etc.
 Purposes for Using Connectives in
Paragraph Writing
3. We use transitions to add information
Transitions used to add information are;and, also, as well, besides,
further, furthermore, in addition, moreover,
too etc.

4. We use transitions to introduce information that contrasts, changes,

or qualifies what we have said earlier.
Examples of transitions;
Although, even so, even though, in contrast, nevertheless, nonetheless,
on the other hand, otherwise, still,
though, then again, while, yet, however, but etc.

5. We use transitions to introduce examples, repeat information, or

emphasize a point.
Examples of transitions;
 Purposes for Using Connectives in
Paragraph Writing
Introduce examples Repeat information Emphasize a point
as an example again as a matter of
facts
for instance once again indeed
specifically, once more more
important
such as to be

6. We use transitions to show cause and effects.

Examples of transitions;
as a result, because, hence, since, so that, then, therefore, thus, consequently, etc.

7. We use transitions to show condition.

Examples of transitions;
as long as, as soon as, in case, in order to, provided that, unless, when, if , etc.
 Purposes for Using Connectives in
Paragraph Writing
a) Using referring words and ideas that have been mentioned earlier.
Sometimes we connect ideas by using words like pronouns, or restating
important details or ideas.
1. Pronouns
Pronouns can be personal pronouns, relative pronouns, demonstrative
pronouns, or indefinite pronouns. [see examples
below]

Several months ago, my son,who is only six years old, came home from
school with an unusual drawing. What made this picture different from
his others wasits brilliant array of colours. Ordinarily, Ibrahimu’s
drawings consist of a fast dash of pencil or marker with the scribble of
They are unusual, to say at least. But
a single colour to fill in the outline.
even more amazing, Ibrahimu had been careful with lines and borders.
Each was clear and distinct. Obviously,something had
intriguedhim to sit still longer than his normal 30 seconds; I wanted to
know what it was…(Buscemi et al, 1998)
 Cont…
2. Restating important details or ideas.
We normally use synonyms (words with similar meaning) to
refer to ideas that mentioned earlier.

For example;
Radon is not new. It is a naturally occurring substance that
results when radium disintegrates. However, only
during the last decade has the Environmental Protection
Agency labeled prolonged exposure to radon a health
hazard. Thegas seeps through the ground and through
cracks in the foundations of houses… (Carole A. Leppig
in Buscemi et al, 1998).
 Paragraph Development
Paragraph development means to use details to support and explain
paragraph’s central idea and arrange those
details in a logical way. Developing paragraphs depends on the
purpose of the writer. And the following
methods can be used to develop paragraphs.

1. Narration
Use narration when you want to recall an event or when you want to
explain how a process works. This method
mostly uses action verbs, which moves a story or a process along.
Transitions that are commonly used are
words like first, then, soon, after, suddenly etc. A paragraph or an
essay that has been developed using this
method is called a narrative paragraph or a narrative essay.
 Cont…
2. Description
To describe means to present the salient features of a thing as they appear.
Unlike narration which presents
information from beginning to end, information under description method
can be arranged in any how as they
appear.

3. Explanation, Persuasion, and Convincement

-Explaining means presenting information as it is.
-Persuading means presenting information that needs actions to be taken.
-Convincing means presenting information based on facts to make one
accepts.

Several techniques can be used to develop paragraphs by using the above

methods.
 Techniques for Developing a
Paragraph
By illustration: means offering vivid examples to explain, persuade, or
convince .

-By comparison and contrast: means giving similarities and

difference of something .

-By definitions: means providing authoritative meaning of some

things.

-By classification: means providing distinctive features among types.

-By cause and effect: means explaining why something happens.

-By conclusion and support: means using facts and statistics to

clarify an idea, to support an opinion, or to support an assumption.
 Paragraph Organisation
Ideas in a paragraph or an essay need to be organized in such
a way that readers can easily understand and
follow the flow of the writer. There are mainly four patterns
that ideas can be organized (reasoned).

1. General to Specific (deductive reasoning)

This kind of reasoning presents an idea in its broad
perspective then it moves to particulars.

Example of a deductive reasoning;

Every day, I leave for work in my car at eleven o’clock.
The drive to work takes 45 minutes. And I arrive to work on
time. Therefore, if I leave for work at eleven o’clock today,
I will be on time.
 2.Specific to General (Inductive
Reasoning)
This kind of reasoning moves from the particular to
general. It provides series of observations of individual
entities and arrives at a general conclusion through
inferences. An Inference is any conclusion drawn from a
set of propositions.

Example of inductive reasoning

Last year I had a cat; it was black in colour. The same
year I visited Jane and I saw a black cat laying on
the sofa. The newly born cat that you brought today is
also black. Therefore all cats are black.
Which Pattern is more appropriate in
writing?
Which Pattern is more appropriate in writing?

NOTE: Deduction and induction by themselves are

inadequate to make a compelling argument.
While deduction gives absolute proof, it never
makes contact with the real world, there is no
place for observation or experimentation, no
way to test the validity of the premises. And,
while induction is driven by observation, it never
approaches actual proof of a theory. Therefore
an effective paper will include both types of
logic.
 3. Order of Importance

This pattern normally starts a paragraph (s) with least

important details and ends with the most important.
Graphically, the pattern appears in the following form.

Conclusion
(High)
Most ideas
Body paragraphs

Introduction

Least ideas
(Low) Coverage of details
 4. Question to Answers

This patterns follows the ways questions have been set

and arranged?
For example;
When setting an outline on an essay about Malaria, one
may start by saying;
-What is Malaria?
-When did the disease actually begin?
-What causes Malaria?
-What are the symptoms of Malaria?
-How can it be combated?
-What consequences Malaria brings to human beings?
 Essay Writing

What is essay?
Is a unit of written information based on the
writer’s point of view about
certain subject matter (Nkoko, 2013). An essay
presents writer’s own
understanding of the reality.

In academia, writing essay is probably the prime

activity. Stuff such as term
papers, reports, essay papers require someone to be
skillful in essay writing.
 Parts of Academic Essays
Academic essays have four parts:

1. Introduction (explains a thesis statement)

2. Main body (provides supportive details/facts)
3. Conclusion, and (provides a summary of what
has been covered)
4. List of references/Bibliography (shows
variety of sources used)
 Classification of Essays
Essays are generally classified into two types.

Essays

Expository Essays
Argumentative Essays
-Narrative essay -
Persuasive essay
-Descriptive essay -
Analytical essay
 The Structure of Essay Questions

In order to respond correctly to essay questions, one needs to

understand the
core structure of essay questions. Most of essay questions will have
the
following three structure;
i) Instruction words/Key words (nature of an essay to be)
ii) Content (central theme)
iii) Requirements/Special requirements (limits of the question)
For example;
Examine the major factors for low quality education among
African nations.
Italicized word: Key word
Underlined words: content/theme
Bolded words: special requirements.
 Cont…
Examples of some of key words that are commonly
used in essay questions.
Name, mention, state, identify, list, etc. (do have
similar meaning in different contexts)
-Explain, account for, discuss, illustrate, trace,
outline, describe, differentiate,
distinguish, demonstrate, etc. (they are of
expository nature)
-Analyze, examine, assess, evaluate, appraise,
scrutinize, study, explore, investigate, probe, etc.
(they are of analytical nature) .