DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

FLUID MECHANICS LAB REPORTS

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FLUID MECHANICS
EMG 3101

SUBMITTED ON :15TH SEPTEMPER 2021

Contents
1
1. OSBORNE REYNOLD EXPERIMENT.......................................................................................................2
2. FLOW THROUGH PIPE WITH DIFFERENT DIAMETERS..........................................................................9
3. FLOWMETERS........................................................................................................................................17
4. SURGE TANK......................................................................................................................................22
5. WATER HAMMER...........................................................................................................................30

1. OSBORNE REYNOLD EXPERIMENT

ABSTRACT
In this experiment we used an Osbourne Reynolds Apparatus. Using this apparatus, we investigated flow
patterns visually using a dye. We injected the dye into a steady stream flow of water and observed the
behavior, which indicated what type of flow it was. We then collected data to calculate Reynolds
Number. This number was an approximate indication of whether the flow was laminar or turbulent.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The objective of this lab experiment is to illustrate laminar, transitional, and fully turbulent flows in a
pipe, and to determine under which conditions each flow regime occurs

INTRODUCTION AND THEORY

The Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter that is the ratio of the inertial force to the
viscosity force. As Reynold number increases, the inertial force becomes relatively larger, and
the flow destabilizes and becomes fully turbulent.
he Reynolds number is defined as
UL ρUL
Re= V = μ
where:
 ρ is the density of the fluid (SI units: kg/m3)
 u is the flow speed (m/s)
 L is a characteristic linear dimension (m)
 μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa·s or N·s/m2 or kg/(m·s))
 ν is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s)

2
The Reynolds experiment determines the critical Reynolds number for pipe flow at which
laminar flow becomes transitional and the transitional flow becomes turbulent.
For Reynolds number less than 2100, the pipe flow will be laminar. For Reynolds number from
2100 to 4000 the pipe flow will be considered a transitional flow. Turbulent occur when
Reynolds number is above 4000. The viscosity of the fluid also determines the characteristic of
the flow becoming laminar or turbulent. Fluid with higher viscosity is easier to achieve a
turbulent flow condition. The viscosity of fluid is also dependent on the temperature.
Laminar Flow
Laminar flow denoted a steady flow condition where all streamlines follow parallel paths, there
being no interaction (mixing) between shear planes. Under this condition the dye observed will
remain as a solid, straight and easily identifiable component of flow.
Transitional Flow
Transitional flow is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow with turbulence in the center of the
pipe, and laminar flow near the edges. Each of these flows behaves in different manners in terms
of their frictional energy loss while flowing, and have different equations that predict their
behavior.
Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow denotes an unsteady flow condition where streamlines interact causing shear
plane collapse and mixing of the fluid. In this condition the dye observed will become disperse in
the water and mix with the water. The observed dye will not be identifiable at this point

METHOD
APPARATUS
 F1-10 hydraulics bench,
 The F1-20 Reynold’s apparatus,
 Cylinder for measuring flow,
 Stopwatch for timing the flow measurement
 Thermometer
PROCEDURE
Reynold apparatus were fixed on vibrational free surface ensuring that the base was horizontal.
Bell mouth entry was attached and marble were carefully added to the head tank, placing them
carefully in by hands. Bench outflow connection was connected to the head tank inlet pipe and
the head tank over flow was connected to the hydraulic bench volumetric tank. Overflow tube
was attached to the apparatus flow control and its ends were clamped at a fixed position above
the volumetric tank while allowing enough space for inserting the measuring cylinder.

3
The pump was then started. Apparatus flow control valve was slightly opened to allow the
system to fill with water. The flow in the visualization pipe was checked (it should be properly
filled). Once the water level in the head tank reached the overflow tube, bench control valve was
adjusted to produce a low overflow rate.
Ensuring that the dye control valve was closed, dye was added to the cycle reservoir till it was
full and hypodermis needle was attached to it. Dye assembly was held over a sink and the valve
opened to ensure there was free flow of the dye.
Dye control valve was closed and dye injector was mounted on head tank and injector lowered
until its outlet was just above the bell mouth and centered on its axis. Bench valve and apparatus
flow control valve were adjusted to slow trickle, then apparatus were allowed to stand for at least
five minutes before proceeding.
Flow control valve was adjusted to reach a slow trickle outflow, then the dye control valve
adjusted till a slow flow with clear dye indication was achieved. The volumetric flow rate was
measured by the timed water collection. The flow pattern were observed(needed to classify the
flow regime).
The flow rate was increased by opening the flow control valve and dye injection was repeated to
visualize transitional flow and then the highest flow rates (turbulent flow) as characterized by
continuous and very rapid mixing of the dye. As the flow rate increased, bench valve was
adjusted to keep the water level constant in the head tank.
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP

Fig 1.1: experimental set up

4
RESULTS
Diameter of test pipe: d = 0.010 m
Cross-sectional area of test pipe: A =7.854×10-5 m2

Laminar flow
Volume Time to Temperature Pipe area Volume Kinemati Reynolds
collected collect (0c) (M2) flow rate c number
(m3)×10-5 (s) (m3/s)× viscosity (-)
(106×m2/s
6.1 29.25 22 7.854×10-5 2.0855×10−6 9.55×107 277.92
3.2 14.64 22 7.854×10-5 −6 9.55×107
2.1858×10 291.4
3.5 16.22 22 7.854×10-5 2.1578×10−6 9.55×107 287.64

Transitional flow
Volume Time to Temperature Pipe area Volume Kinematic Reynolds
collected collect (0c) (M2) flow rate viscosity number
(m3)×10-5 (s) (m3/s) (106×m2/s (-)
5.4 9.07 23 7.854×10-5 5.954×10−6 9.33×107 812.54
3.7 6.02 23 7.854×10-5 6.146×10−6 9.33×107 838.69
3.4 5.48 23 7.854×10-5 6.204×10−6 9.33×107 946.46

Turbulent flow
Volume Time to Temperature Pipe area Volume Kinematic Reynolds
collected collect (0c) (M2) flow rate viscosity number
(m3)×10-5 (s) (m3/s) (106×m2/s (-)
21.8 4.08 21 7.854×10-5 5.3431 9.33×107 7291.53
−5
×10
11.0 2.09 21 7.854×10-5 5.2632 9.33×107 7182.21
−5
×10
15.9 3.01 21 7.854×10-5 5.2824 9.33×107 7227.22
−5
×10

RESULT ANALYSIS
Laminar flow

5
 volume collected Velocity(U) Reynolds
Q= (m3/ Q number(Re)
Time
U= (m/s) Ud
s) A
Re= V
−5 −6
1 6.1× 10 2.0855 × 10 Re=
Q= =2.0855 U= 0.02654 ×0.010
29.25 7.854 ×10−5
−6 7
×10 =0.02654 9.55× 1 0
=277.92
−5 −6
2 3.2× 10 2.1858 × 10 Re=
Q= =2.1858 U= 0.02783 ×0.010
14.64 7.854 ×10−5
−6 7
×10 =0.02783 9.55× 10
=291.4
−5 −6
3 3.5× 1 0 2.1578 × 10 Re=
Q= =2.1578 U= 0.02747 ×0.010
16.22 7.854 ×10−5
−6 7
×10 =0.02747 9.55× 1 0
=287.64
average 2.1430×10−6 0.02728 285.57

Transitional flow
volume collected Velocity(U) Reynolds
Q= (m3/ Q number(Re)
Time
U= (m/s) Ud
s) A
Re= V
−5 −6
1 5.4 ×1 0 5.954 × 10 Re=
Q= =5.954 U= 0.07581× 0.010
9.07 7.854 ×10−5
−6 7
×10 =0.07581 9.33 × 10
=812.54
−5 −6
2 3.7 ×1 0 6.146 × 10 Re=
Q= =6.146 U= 0.07825 ×0.010
6 7.854 ×10−5
−6 7
×10 =0.07825 9.33× 10
=838.69
−5 −6
3 3.4 ×1 0 6.204 × 10 Re=
Q= =6.204 U= 0.07899 ×0.010
16.22 7.854 ×10−5
−6 7
×10 =0.07899 9.33× 10
=946.46
−6
average 6.101 ×10 0.07768 865.86

6
Turbulent flow
volume collected Velocity(U) Reynolds
Q= (m3/ Q number(Re)
Time
U= (m/s) Ud
s) A
Re= V
1 21.8× 1 0
−5 −5
5.3431× 10 0.6803 ×0.010
Q= =5.3431 U= Re= 7
4.08 7.854 ×10−5 9.33× 10
−5 =0.6803 =7291.53
×10
2 11×1 0
−5 −5
5.2632× 10 0.6701× 0.010
Q= =5.2632 U= Re= 7
2.09 7.854 ×10−5 9.33 × 10
−5 =0.6701 =7182.21
×10
3 15.9× 10
−5 −5
5.2824 × 10 0.6743 ×0.010
Q= =5.2824 U= Re= 7
3.01 7.854 ×10−5 9.33× 10
−5 =0.6726 =7227.22
×10
−5 0.6743 7233.65
Average 5.2962 ×10

DISCUSSION
In this experiment, laminar flow occurred when the dye injected into flow formed a clear blue
single line. It mixed with the water only minimally, due to molecular diffusion and there was no
dispersion of dye throughout the flow. In this experiment the value of average Reynolds number for
the laminar flow was 285.57. This was theoretically true since Reynolds number for laminar flow
theoretically is supposed to be less than 2000.
As the flow rate was increased, flow changed from laminar flow to transitional flow. Transitional
flow occurred when dye injected into the flow formed thin threads-like swirling blue line.
Transitional flow occurs when the flow changes from laminar to turbulent. In this experiment the
value of average Reynolds number for the transitional flow was 865.86. This was not
theoretically true since Reynolds number for transitional flow theoretically is supposed to be
greater than 2000 and less than 4000. This was as a result or experimental errors such as reading
of measuring cylinder.
When the flow in the pipe was turbulent, the dye mixed rapidly with the water and the blue dye
was not visible, due to the substantial lateral movement and energy exchange in the flow. The
value of average Reynolds number for the laminar flow was 7233.65. This was theoretically true
since Reynolds number for laminar flow theoretically is supposed to be greater than 4000.

7
CONCLUSION
Laminar flow occurs when the Reynolds number is less than 2000, transitional flow occurs when
Reynolds number is between 2000 and 4000 and turbulent occurs when Reynolds number is
greater than 4000.

REFERENCES
1. Saleh, J.M (2002). Fluid flow handbook. McGraw-Hill Education.
2. White, F.M and Majdalani, J. (2006). Viscous fluid flow (Vol. 3, pp. 433-34). New York:
McGraw Hill.
3. Bruce R Munson, Donald F. Young, Theodore H. Okiishi, Fundamental of Fluid Mechanics, fourth
edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc
4. Clayton T. Crowe, Donald F.Elger and John A Roberson, Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 8th ed,
Wiley, 2005

2. FLOW THROUGH PIPE WITH DIFFERENT DIAMETERS

ABSTRACT
In this experiment we used C11-MKII pipe network apparatus to investigate head loss and flow
rate through pipe with different diameters. Through this experiment were able to determine
several factors affecting head losses in pipe such as pipe diameter, pipe diameter and pipe length
and how they affect the head loss.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this experiment was to measure head losses verses discharge for water flowing
through individual pipes with different internal diameter.

INTRODUCTION AND THEORY

The total energy loss in pipe system is the sum of the major losses and minor losses. Major
losses are associated with the frictional energy loss that is caused by the viscous effect of the

8
fluid and the roughness of the pipe wall. Major losses create a pressure drop along the pipe since
pressure must work to overcome the frictional resistance.
The head loss due to friction can be calculated from the Darcy-Weisbach equation:
L v2
Hf = f d
2g
where:
hf: head loss due to flow resistance
f: Darcy-Weisbach coefficient
L: pipe length
D: pipe diameter
v: average velocity
g: gravitational acceleration.
In this experiment, hL is measured directly by the water manometers and the differential pressure
gauge that are connected by pressure tapping to the test pipe. The average velocity, v, is
calculated from the volumetric flow rate (Q ) as:
Q
v= π D2
4
Through this experiment were able to determine that for any pipeline with diameter d and length
l carrying a flow rate of Q will have a head loss hf ,due to friction along its length that is defined
by the equation
Hf= K¿)
Where
Hf=head loss due to friction
K=constant dimension
L=length of the pipe
Qv=volumetric flow rate m3/s
D=inside diameter of the pipe m
The actual head loss due to friction H1-2 can be measured using the hand held pressure meter so
K can be determined from the equation

9
 5
HF ⅆ
K= 2
LQ

METHOD
Equipment
 C11-MKII pipe network apparatus
 F1-10 hydraulic bench
 Stop watch
PROCEDURE
All the pipework were first primed then the system was configured to allow testing of the pipe C
and pipe B in series by opening and closing the appropriate isolating valves as shown in the set
up.
Ensuring the system is fully primed, the inlet flow valve was opened fully at the base and hand
held pressure meter connected to the tapping H1 and H3 to measure the head loss across pipes
A. The pressure meter was primed by holding the meter over the volumetric tank on F1-10 then
opening the bleed valve at the connection of the meter until air has been expelled from the
flexible tubing meter.
The flow through the test pipe(pipe A) was varied from zero to maximum by adjusting the outlet
flow control valve at the top or adjusting the inlet flow control valve at the bottom as convenient.
The conditions(head loss and flow rate) were allowed to settle then the head loss was measured
and recorded using hand held pressure meter and the corresponding flowrate was also measured
and recorded using the volumetric tank on F1-10 with a stopwatch.
After head loss and flow characteristic were obtained in pipi A the isolating valve were
reconfigured to test pipe B, pipe C and pipe D by repeating the procedure above.

EXPERIMENTAL SET UP

10
Fig 1 : Experimental setup for pipe A

Fig 2 : Experimental setup for pipe B pipe C and pipe D respectively

RESULTS
when d= 0.009
Test Pipe Pipe Head Volume Elapsed Flow rate K
diameter length L loss collected time t (QV)
11
 d(m) (m) H1-2 V(m3) (sec) M3/sec HF ⅆ
5

mH2O LQ
2

1 0.009 0.7 0 0 0 0 0
2 0.009 0.7 13.65 0.01 13.82 0.000723 0.022
3 0.009 0.7 14.00 0.01 14.30 0.000699 0.0242
4 0.009 0.7 13.76 0.01 14.22 0.000703 0.0235
when d=0.01
Test Pipe Pipe Head Volume Elapsed Flow rate K
5
diameter length L loss collected time t (QV) HF ⅆ
d(m) (m) H1-2 V(m3) (sec) M3/sec LQ
2
mH2O
1 0.01 0.7 0 0 0 0 0
2 0.01 0.7 11.45 0.01 12.86 0.000778 0.027
3 0.01 0.7 11.59 0.01 12.26 0.000817 0.0248
4 0.01 0.7 11.74 0.01 12.28 0.000814 0.0253

when d=0.006
Test Pipe Pipe Head Volume Elapsed Flow rate K
5
diameter length L loss collected time t (QV) HF ⅆ
d(m) (m) H1-2 V(m3) (sec) M3/sec LQ
2
mH2O
1 0.006 0.7 0 0 0 0 0
2 0.006 0.7 17.96 0.01 36.15 0.000277 0.0260
3 0.006 0.7 18.01 0.01 36.15 0.000277 0.0260
4 0.006 0.7 17.85 0.01 36.07 0.000277 0.0258
when d=0.014
Test Pipe Pipe Head loss Volume Elapsed Flow K
5
diameter length L H1-2 collected time t rate HF ⅆ
d(m) (m) mH2O V(m3) (sec) (QV) LQ
2
M3/sec
1 0.014 0.7 0 0 0 0 0
2 0.014 0.7 6.46 0.01 8.42 0.00119 0.0351
3 0.014 0.7 6.24 0.01 8.82 0.00113 0.0386
0.014 0.7 6.37 0.01 8.54 0.00117 0.0378

RESULT ANALYSIS
when d=0.009

12
 Flow rate (QV) K
5
M3/sec HF ⅆ
volume collected 2
Q= LQ
time
1 0.01 13.65 ×0.009
5
Q= =0.000723 2 = 0.022
13.82 0.07 ×0.000723
2 0.01 14.00 ×0.009
5
Q= =0.000699 2 = 0.0242
14.30 0.07 ×0.000699
3 0.01 13.76 ×0.009
5
Q= =0.000703 2 = 0.0235
14.22 0.07 ×0.000703
Average 0.000708 0.02323

when d=0.01
Flow rate (QV) K
5
M3/sec HF ⅆ
volume collected 2
Q= LQ
time
1 0.01 11.45× 0.01
5
Q= =0.000778 2 = 0.027
12.86 0.07 ×0.000778
2 0.01 11.59× 0.01
5
Q= =0.000817 2 = 0.0248
12.26 0.07 ×0.000817
3 0.01 11.74 ×0.01
5
Q= =0.000814 2 = 0.0253
12.28 0.07 ×0.000814
Average 0.000708 0.0257

when d=0.006
Flow rate (QV) K
5
M3/sec HF ⅆ
volume collected 2
Q= LQ
time
1 0.01 17.96 ×0.006
5
Q= =0.000277 2 = 0.0260
36.15 0.07 ×0.000277
2 0.01 18.01× 0.006
5
Q= =0.000277 2 = 0.0260
36.16 0.07 ×0.000277
3 0.01 17.85 ×0.006
5
Q= =0.000277 2 = 0.0258
36.07 0.07 ×0.000277
Average 0.000277 0.0259

13
when d=0.014
Flow rate (QV) K
5
M3/sec HF ⅆ
volume collected 2
Q= LQ
time
1 0.01 6.468 × 0.014
5
Q= =0.00119 2 = 0.0351
8.42 0.07 ×0.00119
2 0.01 6.241 × 0.014
5
Q= =0.00113 2 = 0.0386
8.82 0.07 ×0.00113
3 0.01 6.37 × 0.014
5
Q= =0.00117 2 = 0.0378
8.54 0.07 ×0.00117
Average 0.00116 0.0372

a graph of head loss against flow rate of each pipe

20
18
16
14
12
head loss

10
8
6
4
2
0
0 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.001 0.0012 0.0014
flow rate
diameter 0.009 diameter 0.01 diameter 0.006 diameter 0.014

Discussion
From the data collected above, it shows that the flow rate increased as the pipe diameter
increased. This is clear as the average discharge was minimum when the pipe diameter was 6mm
and maximum when pipe diameter was 14mm. At 6mm diameter the average discharge was
0.000277m3/s, at 9mm diameter was 0.000708 m3/s, at 10mm diameter was 0.000708 m3/s and at
14mm diameter was 0.00116 m3/s.
The head loss was maximum when the pipe diameter was 6mm and minimum when the pipe
diameter was 14mm. when pipe diameter was 6mm head loss was 17.92m H2O, when pipe
diameter was 9mm head loss was 13.76m H2O, when pipe diameter was 10mm head loss was
11.59m H2O, when pipe diameter was 14mm head loss was 6.37m H2O. This clearly shows that

14
head loss is dependent on diameter of flow and is maximum when the diameter is minimum and
minimum when the diameter is maximum.

Increasing the diameter of the pipe reduces the velocity of fluid therefore decreasing the head
loss in the pipe. This is clear as the head loss was highest when the pipe diameter was 6mm
(17.92m H2O) and was lowest when the pipe diameter was 14mm (6.37m H2O)
From the line graph above of head loss against flow rate for the four pipes tested in the
experiment, head loss highest value was obtained when the pipe diameter was 6mm and lowest
head loss value was obtained pipe diameter was 14mm. This shows that head loss is maximum
when the flow rate is minimum and is minimum when the flow rate is maximum

Conclusion
From this experiment it is clear that the head loss in pipe is dependent on pipe diameter, flow
rate, velocity, pipe length and constant k. it is minimum when the flow rate is maximum and pipe
diameter is minimum and vice versa.

References
1) White, F.M and Majdalani, J. (2006). Viscous fluid flow (Vol. 3, pp. 433-34). New York:
McGraw Hill.
2) Bruce R Munson, Donald F. Young, Theodore H. Okiishi, Fundamental of Fluid Mechanics, fourth
edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc
3) Clayton T. Crowe, Donald F.Elger and John A Roberson, Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 8th ed,
Wiley, 2005

15
3. FLOWMETERS
ABSTRACT
In this experiment we used F1-21 flow meter apparatus demonstrate the operation and
characteristics of three flow meters; orifice, rotameter and venturi meter. These flowmeters were
used to determine the flow rate, head loss and flow rate error and compare the differences in
them.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The aim of this experiment was to investigate the operation and characteristic of three different
basic types of flow meters that is orifice, rotameter and venturi meter, including accuracy and
energy losses

INTRODUCTION AND THEORY

The three meters are orifice, venturi meter and rotameter. They operates with the same principle
which is the decrease in flow area in a pipe will causes an increase in velocity that will cause
decreasing in pressure.
Venturi meter
A venturi meter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid flowing through a pipe.
The working of venturi meter is based on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation. Bernoulli’s
Statement states that in a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy at any
point of the fluid is constant. The total energy consists of pressure energy, kinetic energy and
potential energy or datum energy.

Mathematically

Pressure energy + Kinetic energy +Potential energy = constant

16
 2
p v
ρg
+ + z = constant
2g
Considered a venturi meter is fitted to a horizontal pipe through which fluid ( water) is flowing
as shown in the figure given below.
Let d1, p1, v1 & a1, are the diameter at the inlet, pressure at the inlet, velocity at the inlet and
area at the cross section 1. And d2, p2, v2 and a2 are the corresponding values at section 2.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections 1 and 2
2 2
p1 v1 p2 v2
ρg
+ + z1 = ρg + + z2
2g 2g
As the pipe is horizontal, so z1 = z2 Therefore
2 2
p1 v 1 p2 v2
ρg
+ = +
2 g ρg 2g
p 1− p2 2
v −v
2
= 2 1 ………………..1
ρg 2g
(P1 – P2)/ρg is the difference of pressure heads at section 1 and 2 and it is equal to h. so
p 1− p2
h=
ρg
Substituting this value of h in equation (1), we get
2 2
v −v
h = 2 1 ………..2
2g
now applying the continuity equation at section 1 and 2

a1v1 = a2v2
a1 v 2
v2 = a
1

Substituting this value of v1 in equation (2) and solving, we get

a1
V2 = √ 2 gh
√ a −a
2
1
2
2

Discharge
Q = a2 v2
Substituting value of v2 in above equation

17
 a1 a2
Q= √ 2 gh
√ a −a
2
1
2
2

Q is the theoretical discharge under ideal conditions. Actual discharge will be less than the theoretical
discharge. The actual discharge is given by the formula
a1 a2
Q act = cd √ 2 gh
√ a −a
2
1
2
2

Where Cd is the coefficient of venturi meter and its value is less than 1.

orifice
orifice meter is constructed by inserting a flat plate with a hole between the two flange plates.
The orifice plate flow rate is calculated by
c a
Q = √1−¿
d 2

¿¿
METHOD
Equipment
 Hydraulic bench which allow to measure flow by timed volume collection
 F1-21 flow meter apparatus
 Stopwatch
PROCEDURE

The flow meter ring was placed on the bench and ensured that it was in level (it was necessary
for accurate reading of the manometer). The inlet pipe was connected to the bench supply and
the and the outlet pipe connected to the volumetric tank then the ends of the pipe secure to
prevent them from moving about. The pump was started and the bench valve and test ring flow
control valve were opened to flush the system.
Bench valve and test rig flow valve were closed and air bleed screw opened and the cap from
the adjacent air valve removed to bleed air from the pressure tapping points and manometers in
order to minimize errors in data collection. Length of the small bore tubing from the air valve
was connected to the volumetric tank.
Next, the bench valve was opened to allow the flow through the manometer tubes to purge them
of air. Then the air bleed screw was tightened and the test rig flow control valve partially opened
and bench valve partially closed.
The air bleed screw was opened to allow air to be drawn into the top of the manometer tubes.
The screw was then re-tightened when the manometer levels reached the convenient height.
Different water manometer levels h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, and h6 were recorded.

18
 Experimental set up

RESULTS
Test pipe area Orifice area Venturi Volume Time Variabl H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 H8
A1 A2 area A3 collected to e area
(m2) (m2) (m2) V collec meter (mm (mm (mm (mm (mm (mm (mm (mm
(m3) tt reading ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )
(sec) (l/min)

0.00079 0.000314 0.000176 6×10-3 53.07 6 325 305 315 310 245 245 230 235
0.00079 0.000314 0.000176 6×10-3 42.08 8 295 260 280 270 200 205 180 185
0.00079 0.000314 0.000176 6×10-3 69.82 4 375 365 370 370 300 300 290 295

Timed flow variable Orifice Venturi Variable Orifice Venturi Variable Orifice Venturi Timed flow
rate area flow plate flow meter flow area % plate % meter % area head plate meter rate
Qt (m3/sec) rate rate area flow rate flow flow loss head head squared
Qo Qa Qt error rate rate loss loss Qt2
(m3/sec) (m3/sec) (m3/sec) % error error H3 (mm) H0 hv
% % (mm) (mm)

0.00011 0.0001 9.54×10-5 7.83×10-5 -9.09 -13.19 -28.75 65 10 10 1.21×10-8

0.00014 0.00013 1.35×10-5 9.57×10-5 -7.14 -3.571 -31.44 70 20 15 1.96×10-8
0.000086 0.000067 6.75×10-5 5.54×10-5 -22.09 21.51 -31.44 70 5 5 7.396×10-8

RESULT ANALYSIS
Orifice plate diameter =20mm
Throat diameter =15mm
Test pipe diameter= 31.75mm

19
DISCUSSION
The venturi meter had low head losses compared to the other flowmeters. The sudden change in
the flow area in the orifice meters causes considerable decrease in the flow rate. As the area
reduces suddenly in the throat there will be build up in the pressure difference, and thus the
higher the energy loss and thus significant head loss. The head loss in the venturi meter was
5mm,in variable flow meter was 65mm, and in orifice was 10mm.
The flow rate measured by the variable flow meter, venturi meter and orifice was theoretically
supposed to be equal to the timed flow rate but in this practical they were different. This was due
to experimental errors such as reading errors. The timed flow rate was 0.0011m3/s, variable flow
meter flow rate was 0.0001m3/s, venturi meter flow rate was 0.000054m3/s and the orifice flow
rate was 0.000135m3/s.
The variable area meter was more accurate in measuring the flow rate than other flow meters
since the flow rate obtained in the variable flow meter was close to the actual value of flow rate.
Also the flow rate percentage error of the variable area meter was less than other flow meters.
The percentage flow error of the variable flow meter was 9.09, in venturi meter was 13.19 and in
orifice was 28.75.

CONCLUSION
From the data obtained, the flow rate measured by all the flowmeters was different to the actual
flow rate. The venturi meter has less head loss then other flowmeters due to decrease in area at
the throat and the variable flow meter is more accurate in measuring the flow rate.
REFERENCES
1) Saleh, J.M (2002). Fluid flow handbook. McGraw-Hill Education.
2) White, F.M and Majdalani, J. (2006). Viscous fluid flow (Vol. 3, pp. 433-34). New York:
McGraw Hill.

20
 3) Bruce R Munson, Donald F. Young, Theodore H. Okiishi, Fundamental of Fluid Mechanics, fourth
edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc
4) Clayton T. Crowe, Donald F.Elger and John A Roberson, Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 8th ed,
Wiley, 2005
5) Fluid Machines and Hydraulic machines by Bansal R K.

4. SURGE TANK.

ABSTRACT

In this experiment we used Armfield C7-MKII-10 (pipe surge circuit)to investigate characteristic of
pipe surge, determine the oscillatory characteristics of a surge shaft and demonstrate frictional
head loss between reservoir and surge shaft. Through this experiment were able to determine that
when flowing fluid is suddenly stopped at a point it results to pressure build at that point, this pressure
(known as backward pressure)is then propagated backwards on form of wave.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this experiment was

 To demonstrate the phenomenon of pipe surge resulting from a change in velocity of water
flowing along a pipe.
 To demonstrate the use of pipe surge resulting from a change in pressure associated with pipe
surge and the oscillatory characteristic of water level in surge shaft.
 To demonstrate head loss between the reservoir and the surge shaft due to friction in the pipe.
 To determine characteristic of water hammer.

INTRODUCTION AND THEORY

SURGE TANK

21
Fig 1.1 surge tank

a= cross-section of pipe (from d), and

A= cross-section of surge shaft (from D), at any time t after the flow through the valve is
changed.
Velocity in the pipe=u.
Level in the surge shaft (rises or falls with velocity) = y.
Discharge through the valve = q
dy
Level in the surge shaft (rises or falls with velocity) =
dt
Applying newton’s second law to the motion of the water,
Mass
× acceleration=force due ¿ pressure difference at ends+ component of weight of water −force due ¿ friction∈ pipe
du
Therefore ρal = ρga H 1− ρga ( H 2 − y ) + ρgalsinθ− ρgah f
dt
If θ is small thenlsinθ ≈ k∧H 2=H 1 + k
l du
Therefore + y+ hf =0 . …1
g dt
Where h f is the head loss in the pipe and h f =hs +h v

NOTEh s=H 1=H 2 when water is stationary with valve closed .

h v =H 2 when water is flowing along the pipe thereforeh f 0=H 1−H 2

h f 0 will vary with setting of flow control valve at the exit from pipe

22
For continuity, flow in the pipe = flow into surge shaft+ flow through valve I.e.
dy A dy q
au= A + q or u = + …..2
dt a dt a
substituting for u from (2) in (1)

[
l d A dy q
]
+ + y+ hf =0 … … 3
g dt a dt a

This is the general equation with

h f =f ( U 2 ) , q=f ( t )∧q=f ( y )

And there is no general solution.

A simplified solution is obtained if q = 0 (i.e. flow through the valve is zero) and if the frictional
losses are neglected i.e. h f =0
Equation 3 then becomes:
2
A Ld y
+ y=0
a g dt 2
2
d y ga
Or 2
+ y =0
dt LA

This is the equation for the undamped SHM in the form

2
d y 2 ga
+ω y=0 where ω=√
dt
2
LA

The periods of oscillations;

2π
T 0=
ω
Therefore
LA
T 0=2 π √ ……5
ga
Maximum amplitude Y is found from V= yω where v is the orbital velocity for SHM .
a u0
In this case u= whereu 0is the steady pipe velocity
A

v a u0
=
Y= ω ga
A√
LA

23
 La
Therefore by rearranging the equation maximum amplitude Y= u0 √ ……6
gA
As stated previously, this result does not account for frictional effects. If friction is taken into
account, the following approximate solutions apply for the case of instantaneous closure of the
valve.
Maximum surge height =Y-0.6h f 0 …..7
hf 0 2
Therefore maximum surge height = Y(1− ¿ …..7a
3Y

METHOD
EQUIPMENT
Armfield C7-MKII-10 (pipe surge circuit)
F1-10 Hydraulic bench
Stopwatch

Armfield C7-MKII-10 (water hammer)

PROCEDURE
The USB cable on the electrical console was connected to the USB port on the pc with the C7-MKII
software installed. Drainage valve was fully closed on the F1-10. Sump tank of F1-10 was filled with cold
water. The hydraulic bench was connected to electric supply the operation of RCD was checked on the
hydraulic bench.
Operating of pipe surge circuit on C7-MKII-10
Flow control valve was closed on the front of F1-10 and all valve on the C7-MKII-10 closed then the
centrifugal switch was started on F1-10. Flow control valve on F1-10 was slowly opened to allow the
header tank to gradually fill with water. With the outlet valves all closed the level in the reservoir is
indicated in the clear acrylic surge tank. When at the level of the overflow water will return to the sump
tank via the overflow and can be seen in the viewing section in the return pipe.

The level operated gate valve and the flow control valve in the pipe surge test were fully opened. Then
the water was checked to be flowing into the volumetric tank from the flexible outlet tube (the level of the
surge tank should drop to a position near the bottom indicating the loss in the test pipe due to friction ).

The level operated valve in the pipe surge test pipe was closed while holding the valve body with the
other hand to avoid shaking the equipment. It was then observed that water rushes up the surge shaft then
settles near the top after several oscillations. on C7_MKII software, pipe surge demonstration new
experiment was loaded. Mimic diagram was displayed then pressure reading sensor p3 was confirmed to
be sensible.

24
The flow control and lever operated valve were fully opened. On C7_MKII software, the go icon was
clicked to start recording the values.

EXPERIMENTAL SET UP

Fig 1.2: surge tank

RESULTS
Surge tank

25
Volume Time Taken Flow rate Initial Static Head Head in Initial head
Collected velocity Shaft with loss
flow
V T Q U0 hs hv Hf0

26
(I) (s) (m3/s) (m/s) (m) (m/s) (m/s)
10 15.78 0.000634 1.9788 0.683 0.283 0.400
10 16.21 0.000617 1.9257 0.683 0.284 0.399
10 15.85 0.000631 1.9694 0.683 0.283 0.400

RESULT ANALYSIS
a. Surge tank
1. Flow rate(q)
q = V/t
q1 =0.01/15.78 =0.000634 m3/s
q2= 0.01/16.21=0.000617 m3/s
q3 = 0.01/15.85= 0.000631 m3/s
2. Initial Velocity.
u0 = q/a
where a is the cross section area of the pipe
a = 0.3204 x 10 -3 m2
u01= 0.000634/0.3204 x 10 -3 m2=1.9788
u02= 0.000617/0.3204 x 10 -3 m2=1.9257
u03= 0.000631/0.3204 x 10 -3 m2=1.9694
3. Initial head loss
Head loss hf0 = hs - hv
Hf01= 0.683- 0.283= 0.400
Hf02=0.683- 0.284 =0.399
Hf03= 0.683- 0.283= 0.400

4. graph

27
 graph of p3 against elapsed time
700

600

500

400
p3

300

200

100

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
elapsed time

Fig 1.3: graph of p3 against elapsed time

From the graph

To = 12.5 – 5.0 = 7.5 sec
Y = 653 – 593 = 60 mm H20

5. Theoretically the value of period To= 2 π

√ LA
ga

To= 2 π
√
=7.570 sec
3 × 1.521× 10−3
9.81 ×0.3204 × 10
−3

Maximum height Y= u0
√ La
gA
−0.6 h f

√
−3
3 ×0.3204 × 10
Y= 1.95 −3
−0.6 ×0.4
9.81× 1.521× 10
=0.09202m

DISCUSSION
Surge tank
The theoretical value of time period and maximum surge height is 7.57s and 96.02mm respectively. And
the experimental value of time period maximum surge height is 7.5s and 60mm respectively. The
theoretical value is higher than experimental value. In this experiment theoretical value and the
experimental value were supposed to be same but this was not the case. This because there was vibrations
of pipe during the experiment and time delay after the valve close for fluid to go up and also some delays
in time when recording. Thus why they were not the same.

28
From the line graph fig 1.3, there was damping in the oscillations. This is because when the valve closed
suddenly result to pressure surge which is propagated backward in form of wave. The back pressure will
go to the surge tank and causing oscillation to push the fluid upward and downward. After certain of time,
the oscillation becomes small. It is because the energy is loss to push the fluid up and down.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, when flowing fluid is suddenly stopped at a point it results to pressure build at that point,
this pressure (known as backward pressure)is then propagated backwards on form of wave.
REFERENCES
1. Batchelor, G. K. (1967). An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics. Cambridge University Press.
pp. 211–215
2. Morkovin M. V., Reshotko E., Herbert T. 1994. "Transition in open flow systems—a
reassessment". Bull. Am. Phys. Soc. 39:1882
3. Fluid Machines and Hydraulic machines by Bansal R K
4. Fluid Mechanics And Machinery by S Ramachandran and V Saikrishnan

5. WATER HAMMER

ABSTRACT

In this experiment we used Armfield C7-MKII-10 (water hammer)to investigate the characteristic of
water hammer, determine the oscillatory characteristics of a water hammer. Through this
experiment were able to determine that when flowing fluid is suddenly stopped at a point it results to
pressure build at that point, this pressure (known as backward pressure)is then propagated backwards on
form of wave.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this experiment was

29
  To demonstrate the phenomenon of water hammer resulting from a change in velocity of water
flowing along a pipe.
 To demonstrate head loss between the reservoir and the water hammer due to friction in the pipe.
 To determine characteristic of water hammer.

INTRODUCTION AND THEORY

WATER HAMMER
Water Hammer is a pressure surge or wave that occurs when there is a sudden momentum change of a
fluid (the motion of a fluid is abruptly forced to stop or change direction) within an enclosed space. This
commonly occurs in pipelines when a valve is closed suddenly at the end of a pipeline where the velocity
of the fluid is high. The pressure wave created will propagate within the pipeline.
Water hammer is caused by a change in fluid momentum. The most common cause of this change in
momentum is sudden closure of a valve on a pipeline. When this occurs, a loud hammer noise can be
produced, and vibrations can be sent through the pipe. The pressure wave produced from this event can
cause significant damage to pipe systems. The large increase in pressure can cause pipes to crack and in
some cases burst. It also causes cavitation within pipelines and if is severe enough can cause the pipeline
to implode

Fig 1.1 water hammer

The kinetic energy of a moving column of liquid in a pipe is converted to potential energy in the form of
pressure if the column is suddenly brought to rest by the closing of a valve.
Then kinetic energy lost = strain energy gained.

1 π 2 2 1 p2 π 2
i.e. ρ d lu = d L
2 4 2K 4
or p=u √ Kρ ….1

but the velocity of sound c through water in a rigid pipe is given by

K
c =√ …..2
p
∴ substituting for k ∈ ( 1 )

30
 p=u √ ρ c 2 ρ=ρuc … 3
In practice the velocity of sound is reduced because of elasticity in the pipe wall. The speed of the wave is
designated C e.

Equation (2) becomes modified to

K
C e =√
Kd …..(2a)
(1+ )
tpE
And equation (3) becomes modified to
p= ρuC e ….(3a).
This sudden pressure will be transmitted from the valve down the pipe at the velocity of sound to the
reservoir where it will be reflected back to the valve.
Here reflection produces a low pressure wave which will, in turn, be transmitted to the reservoir and
reflected back. This sequence of events may be repeated and is illustrated in the figures B2 and B3 below,
the latter illustrating the effect of energy losses in the system. The corresponding ideal sequence of events
at a point along the pipe is shown below
There will be a time delay of SC before the first pressure pulse reaches the pressure sensor half-way along
the pipe, where s is the distance between the sensors. Thus, measurement of this time delay may be used
to determine the velocity of sound in the water/pipe system which should compare with that derived from
the theoretical expression (3a) above.
The theoretical pressure waves of figures B2, B3, B4 will be dramatically modified when the normal head
in the pipe is low. The negative-going pressure waves of water hammer may then reduce the pressure in
the system to the vapor pressure of the liquid. The pressure waves at the valve will then ideally take the
form shown in figure B5 where the initial pressure pulse may be expected to be similar to figure B2 but
subsequent events will be different. The first low pressure pulse falls to the vapor pressure of the liquid
with the generation of gas and/or vapor bubbles(boiling) and will remain there until the bubbles collapse.
The energy is then converted into a second pressure pulse, thereby repeating the process.

METHOD
EQUIPMENT
F1-10 Hydraulic bench
Stopwatch
Armfield C7-MKII-10 (water hammer)
PROCEDURE
The USB cable on the electrical console was connected to the USB port on the pc with the C7-MKII
software installed. Drainage valve was fully closed on the F1-10. Sump tank of F1-10 was filled with cold

31
water. The hydraulic bench was connected to electric supply the operation of RCD was checked on the
hydraulic bench.
Operating of water hammer circuit on C7-MKII-10
Flow control valve was closed on the front of F1-10 and all valve on the C7-MKII-10 closed then the
centrifugal switch was started on F1-10. Flow control valve on F1-10 was slowly opened to allow the
header tank to gradually fill with water. With the outlet valves all closed the level in the reservoir is
indicated in the clear acrylic surge tank. When at the level of the overflow water will return to the sump
tank via the overflow and can be seen in the viewing section in the return pipe

The trigger operated fast acting valve was opened in water hammer circuit by pushing the black knob
inwards until the shaft latches. The flow control valve was opened to fast acting valve. Then the water
was checked to be flowing into the volumetric tank from the flexible outlet tube (the level of the surge
tank should remain high indicating the level the reservoir ). It was then confirmed that a small flow of
water is returning to the sump tank via the clear tube in the return pipe.

Fast acting valve was closed by pressing the trigger button on top of the valve and confirm that the valve
closes with a ringing sound and water flow ceases from the outlet tube. on C7_MKII software, water
hammer demonstration new experiment was loaded. Mimic diagram was displayed then pressure reading
sensor p1 and p2 was confirmed that are displayed.

The flow control and lever operated valve were fully opened. On C7_MKII software, the go icon was
clicked to start recording the values.

Fig 1.3 :experimental for water hammer.

Water hammer

32
RESULT
When the valve is fully open:

Volume collected Time taken Flow rate Initial water velocity,

V T Q u0
(I) (s) (M3/s) (m/s)
10 29.19 0.000343 1.0705
10 30.11 0.000332 1.0362
20 60.01 0.000167 0.5212

When the valve is half-open:

Volume collected Time taken Flow rate Initial water velocity,

V T Q u0
(I) (s) (M3/s) (m/s)
10 33.95 0.00029 0.9051
15 51.77 0.00029 0.9051
20 69.33 0.000288 0.8989

33
RESULT ANALYSIS
1. When the valve is fully open:

a. Flow rate q = V/t

= (0.01) / (29.19) = 0.000343
= (0.01) / (30.11) = 0.000332
= (0.01) / (60.01) = 0.000167
b. Initial water velocity u0 (q/a where a = 0.3204 x 10 -3 m2
= 0.000343 / (0.3204 x 10 -3) =1.0705
=0.000332 / (0.3204 x 10 -3) =1.0362
= 0.000167 / (0.3204 x 10 -3) =0.5212

c.

graph of p1 and p2 against sample number when

valve is fully open
7
6
5
4
P in bars

3
2
1
0
16871701171417271740175317661779179218051818183118441857187018831896
-1
-2
sample number

p1 p2
fig 1.3.graph of p1 and p2 against sample number when valve is fully open

34
d. From the graph determine the maximum amplitude of first pressure purse for each setting of
flowrate
Maximum amplitude= 5.2 bars
e. Determine start of first pressure pulse at the valve and the midway along the pipe and delay
between the start of pulse p1 and the start of the pulse p2
Start of first pressure pulse at the valve= - 0.536 bars
Start of first pressure pulse at the midway along the pipe= -0.506bars
delay between the start of pulse p1 and the start of the pulse p2= -0.536—0.506= 0.030 bars

2. When the valve is half-open:

A. Flow rate q = V/t
= (0.01) / (33.95) =0.00029
= (0.015) / (51.77) = 0.00029
= (0.02) / (69.33) = 0.000288
b. Initial water velocity u0 = q/a
Where a= 0.3204 x 10-3 m2
= (0.00029/(0.3204 x 10-3))=0.9051
= (0.0 0029/(0.3204 x 10-3))=0.9051
= (0.000288/(0.3204 x 10-3))=0.8989

b.

a graph of p1 and p2 against sample

number when the valve is half open

5.000
4.000
3.000
p in bars

2.000
1.000
0.000
1800181318261839185218651878189119041917193019431956196919821995
-1.000
-2.000
sample number

p1 p2

35
 fig 1.4: graph of p1 and p2 against sample number when valve is fully open

c. From the graph determine the maximum amplitude of first pressure purse for each setting of
flowrate
Maximum amplitude= 5.2 bars
d. Determine start of first pressure pulse at the valve and the midway along the pipe and delay
between the start of pulse p1 and the start of the pulse p2
Start of first pressure pulse at the valve= - 0.536 bars
Start of first pressure pulse at the midway along the pipe= -0.506bars
delay between the start of pulse p1 and the start of the pulse p2= -0.536—0.506= 0.030 bars
e. Calculate the actual speed of the pressure wave c

C=
√ √
K = 2.15 × 109 = 1467.75
ρ 998
f. Calculate the theoretical speed of the sound in the test pipe from the delay measured

Cc =
√ K
ρ¿ ¿
¿

K=2.15GNM-2

√
9
Cc = 2.15 × 10 ¿ =1322.22
998 ¿ ¿
DISCCUSSION
From the line graphs above fig 1.3 and fig 1.4 clearly shows that, the value of pressure at point 1 was
slightly greater than the value of pressure at point 2. This because when the valve is closed it result to
pressure surge, or high-pressure shockwave at point 1 that propagates through a piping system when a
fluid in motion is forced to change direction or stop abruptly. P1 was slightly greater than p2 as it was
pressure recorded at valve when water abruptly stops while p2 was pressure when pressure at point 1
propagates.
The graph fig 1.6, the graph is wave like as when valve was fully closed rapidly stopping the flow of
water instantly resulting in a high pressure wave that travels along the pipe in form of wave ant a speed of
sound.
Theoretically the speed of sound is 343m/s but in this experiment the speed was 1322.22m/s. This was as
a result of experimental errors such as vibrations of pipe during the experiment and also some delays in
time recording. Thus why they were not the same.

CONCLUSION

When flowing fluid is suddenly stopped at a point it results to pressure build at that point, this pressure
(known as backward pressure)is then propagated backwards on form of wave.

36
REFERENCES
1. Batchelor, G. K. (1967). An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics. Cambridge University Press.
pp. 211–215
2. Morkovin M. V., Reshotko E., Herbert T. 1994. "Transition in open flow systems—a
reassessment". Bull. Am. Phys. Soc. 39:1882

37