BAS-104/204 : ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY

UNIT-4
Current Environmental Issues of Importance

GLOBAL WARMING
“Global warming is a gradual increase in the earth’s temperature generally due to the
greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, CFCs, and other pollutants. “

What is Global Warming?

Global warming is the phenomenon of a gradual increase in the temperature near the earth’s
surface. This phenomenon has been observed over the past one or two centuries. This change has
disturbed the climatic pattern of the earth. However, the concept of global warming is quite
controversial but the scientists have provided relevant data in support of the fact that the
temperature of the earth is rising constantly.
There are several causes of global warming, which have a negative effect on humans, plants and
animals. These causes may be natural or might be the outcome of human activities. In order to
curb the issues, it is very important to understand the negative impacts of global warming.

Causes of Global Warming

Following are the major causes of global warming:

 Man-made Causes of Global Warming

Deforestation
Plants are the main source of oxygen. They take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen thereby
maintaining environmental balance. Forests are being depleted for many domestic and
commercial purposes. This has led to an environmental imbalance, thereby giving rise to global
warming.
Use of Vehicles
The use of vehicles, even for a very short distance results in various gaseous emissions. Vehicles
burn fossil fuels which emit a large amount of carbon dioxide and other toxins into the
atmosphere resulting in a temperature increase.
Chlorofluorocarbon
With the excessive use of air conditioners and refrigerators, humans have been adding CFCs into
the environment which affects the atmospheric ozone layer. The ozone layer protects the earth
surface from the harmful ultraviolet rays emitted by the sun. The CFCs have led to ozone layer
depletion making way for the ultraviolet rays, thereby increasing the temperature of the earth.

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Industrial Development
With the advent of industrialization, the temperature of the earth has been increasing rapidly. The
harmful emissions from the factories add to the increasing temperature of the earth.
In 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change reported that the increase in the global
temperature between 1880 and 2012 has been 0.9 degrees Celsius. The increase is 1.1 degrees
Celsius when compared to the pre-industrial mean temperature.
Agriculture
Various farming activities produce carbon dioxide and methane gas. These add to the greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere and increase the temperature of the earth.
Overpopulation
An increase in population means more people breathing. This leads to an increase in the level of
carbon dioxide, the primary gas causing global warming, in the atmosphere.

 Natural Causes of Global Warming

Volcanoes
Volcanoes are one of the largest natural contributors to global warming. The ash and smoke
emitted during volcanic eruptions goes out into the atmosphere and affects the climate.
Water Vapour
Water vapour is a kind of greenhouse gas. Due to the increase in the earth’s temperature, more
water gets evaporated from the water bodies and stays in the atmosphere adding to global
warming.
Melting Permafrost
Permafrost is frozen soil that has environmental gases trapped in it for several years and is
present below Earth’s surface. It is present in glaciers. As the permafrost melts, it releases the
gases back into the atmosphere, increasing Earth’s temperature.
Forest Blazes
Forest blazes or forest fires emit a large amount of carbon-containing smoke. These gases are
released into the atmosphere and increase the earth’s temperature resulting in global warming.

Effects of Global Warming

Following are the major effects of global warming:

Rise in Temperature
Global warming has led to an incredible increase in earth’s temperature. Since 1880, the earth’s
temperature has increased by ~ 1 degree. This has resulted in an increase in the melting of
glaciers, which have led to an increase in the sea level. This could have devastating effects on
coastal regions.

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Threats to the Ecosystem
Global warming has affected the coral reefs that can lead to the loss of plant and animal lives.
Increase in global temperatures has made the fragility of coral reefs even worse.

Climate Change
Global warming has led to a change in climatic conditions. There are droughts at some places
and floods at some. This climatic imbalance is the result of global warming.

Spread of Diseases
Global warming leads to a change in the patterns of heat and humidity. This has led to the
movement of mosquitoes that carry and spread diseases.

High Mortality Rates

Due to an increase in floods, tsunamis and other natural calamities, the average death toll usually
increases. Also, such events can bring about the spread of diseases that can hamper human life.

Loss of Natural Habitat

A global shift in the climate leads to the loss of habitats of several plants and animals. In this
case, the animals need to migrate from their natural habitat and many of them even become
extinct. This is yet another major impact of global warming on biodiversity.

GREENHOUSE EFFECT

“Greenhouse effect is the process by which radiations from the sun are absorbed by the
greenhouse gases and not reflected back into space. This insulates the surface of the earth and
prevents it from freezing.”

What is the Greenhouse Effect?

A greenhouse is a house made of glass that can be used to grow plants. The sun’s radiations
warm the plants and the air inside the greenhouse. The heat trapped inside can’t escape out and
warms the greenhouse which is essential for the growth of the plants. Same is the case in the
earth’s atmosphere.
During the day the sun heats up the earth’s atmosphere. At night, when the earth cools down the
heat is radiated back into the atmosphere. During this process, the heat is absorbed by the
greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere. This is what makes the surface of the earth warmer,
that makes the survival of living beings on earth possible..

Greenhouse Gases
“Greenhouse gases are the gases that absorb the infrared radiations and create a greenhouse
effect. For eg., carbon dioxide and chlorofluorocarbons.”

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The major contributors to the greenhouse gases are factories, automobiles, deforestation, etc. The
increased number of factories and automobiles increases the amount of these gases in the
atmosphere. The greenhouse gases never let the radiations escape from the earth and increase the
surface temperature of the earth. This then leads to global warming.

Causes of Greenhouse Effect

The major causes of the greenhouse effect are:

Burning of Fossil Fuels

Burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide. With the increase in population, the utilization of
fossil fuels has increased. This has led to an increase in the release of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere.

Deforestation
Plants and trees take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Due to the cutting of trees, there is a
considerable increase in the greenhouse gases which increases the earth’s temperature.

Farming
Nitrous oxide used in fertilizers is one of the contributors to the greenhouse effect in the
atmosphere.

Industrial Waste and Landfills

The industries and factories produce harmful gases which are released in the atmosphere.
Landfills also release carbon dioxide and methane that adds to the greenhouse gases.
Effects of Greenhouse Effect
The main effects of increased greenhouse gases are:

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Global Warming
It is the phenomenon of a gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere.
The main cause for this environmental issue is the increased volumes of greenhouse gases such
as carbon dioxide and methane released by the burning of fossil fuels, emissions from the
vehicles, industries and other human activities.

Depletion of Ozone Layer

Ozone Layer protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. It is found in the
upper regions of the stratosphere. The depletion of the ozone layer results in the entry of
the harmful UV rays to the earth’s surface that might lead to skin cancer and can also change
the climate drastically.
The major cause of this phenomenon is the accumulation of natural greenhouse gases including
chlorofluorocarbons, carbon dioxide, methane, etc.

Smog and Air Pollution

Smog is formed by the combination of smoke and fog. It can be caused both by natural means
and man-made activities.
In general, smog is generally formed by the accumulation of more greenhouse gases including
nitrogen and sulfur oxides. The major contributors to the formation of smog are automobile and
industrial emissions, agricultural fires, natural forest fires and the reaction of these chemicals
among themselves.

Acidification of Water Bodies

Increase in the total amount of greenhouse gases in the air has turned most of the world’s water
bodies acidic. The greenhouse gases mix with the rainwater and fall as acid rain. This leads to
the acidification of water bodies.
Also, the rainwater carries the contaminants along with it and falls into the river, streams and
lakes thereby causing their acidification.

Runaway Greenhouse Effect

This phenomenon occurs when the planet absorbs more radiation than it can radiate back. Thus,
the heat lost from the earth’s surface is less and the temperature of the planet keeps rising.
Scientists believe that this phenomenon took place on the surface of Venus billions of years ago.
This phenomenon is believed to have occurred in the following manner:

 A runaway greenhouse effect arises when the temperature of a planet rises to a level of
the boiling point of water. As a result, all the water from the oceans converts into water
vapour, which traps more heat coming from the sun and further increases the planet’s
temperature. This eventually accelerates the greenhouse effect. This is also called the
“positive feedback loop”.
 There is another scenario giving way to the runaway greenhouse effect. Suppose the
temperature rise due to the above causes reaches such a high level that the chemical

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 reactions begin to occur. These chemical reactions drive carbon dioxide from the rocks
into the atmosphere. This would heat the surface of the planet which would further
accelerate the transfer of carbon dioxide from the rocks to the atmosphere, giving rise to
the runaway greenhouse effect.
In simple words, increasing the greenhouse effect gives rise to a runaway greenhouse effect
which would increase the temperature of the earth to such an extent that no life will exist in the
near future.

CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. These shifts may
be natural, such as through variations in the solar cycle. Human actions are causing Earth to
warm by increasing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
The main causes of climate change include:

1. Emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere

2. Deforestation for human settlements
3. Overutilization and exploitation of natural resources
4. Pollution caused by human activities
5. Changes in solar output which is associated with sunspot activities
6. The aerosols that reach the atmosphere after volcanic eruptions

ACID RAIN
Acid Rain, as the name suggests, can be said as the precipitation of acid in the form of rain in the
simplest manner. When atmospheric pollutants like oxides of nitrogen and sulphur react with

rainwater and come down with the rain, then this result in Acid Rain.

Acid Rain Definition

Acid rain is made up of highly acidic water droplets due to air emissions, most specifically the
disproportionate levels of sulphur and nitrogen emitted by vehicles and manufacturing processes.
It is often called acid rain as this concept contains many types of acidic precipitation.
The acidic deposition takes place in two ways: wet and dry. Wet deposition is any form of
precipitation which removes acids from the atmosphere and places them on the surface of the
earth. In the absence of precipitation, dry deposition of polluting particles and gases sticks to the
ground through dust and smoke.

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Causes of Acid Rain
The causes of acid rain are Sulphur and Nitrogen particles which get mixed with the wet
components of rain. Sulphur and Nitrogen particles which get mixed with water are found in
two ways either man-made i.e as the emissions that are given out from industries or by natural
causes like lightning strike in the atmosphere releasing nitrogen oxides and volcanic eruptions
releasing sulphur oxide.
According to the Royal Society of Chemistry, which considers him the “father of acid rain,” the
word acid rain was invented in 1852 by Scottish chemist Robert Angus Smith. Smith decided on
the word while studying rainwater chemistry near industrial towns in England and Scotland.
The regular clean rain we experience, even though it is not clean i.e water and carbon dioxide
react together to form weak carbonic acid which essentially by itself is not extremely harmful.
The reaction occurring is :

H2O (l) + CO2 (g) ⇌ H2CO3 (aq)

The pH value of regular rainwater is around 5.7, giving it an acidic nature. The oxides of
nitrogen and sulphur are blown away by the wind along with the dust particles. They settle on the
earth’s surface after coming down in the form of precipitation. Acid rain is essentially a by-
product of human activities which emit oxides of nitrogen and sulphur in the atmosphere.
Example – the burning of fossil fuels, unethical waste emission disposal techniques.
Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide undergo oxidation, and then they react with water resulting
in the formation of sulphuric acid and nitric acid, respectively. The following reaction will
clarify the acid formation reaction:
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 2H2SO4 (aq)
4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 4HNO3 (aq)

Effects of Acid Rain

 Acid rain is very harmful to agriculture, plants, and animals. It washes away all nutrients
which are required for the growth and survival of plants. Acid rain affects agriculture by
the way it alters the composition of the soil.

 It causes respiratory issues in animals and humans.

 When acid rain falls down and flows into the rivers and ponds it affects the aquatic
ecosystem. It alters the chemical composition of the water, to a form which is actually
harmful to the aquatic ecosystem to survive and causes water pollution.
 Acid rain also causes the corrosion of water pipes, which further results in leaching of
heavy metals such as iron, lead and copper into drinking water.
 It damages the buildings and monuments made up of stones and metals.

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Real-Life Examples

 Taj Mahal, one of the 7 wonders of the world, is largely affected by acid rain. The city
of Agra has many industries which emit the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen in the
atmosphere. People continue to use low-quality coal and firewood as a domestic fuel,
adding to this problem. Acid rain has the following reaction with the marble (calcium
carbonate):
CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(l) → CaSO4(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
The formation of calcium sulphate results in the corrosion of this beautiful monument.

 Statue of Liberty which is made of copper has also been damaged by the cumulative
action of acid rain and oxidation for over 30 years and is, therefore, becoming green.

Prevention of Acid Rain

 The only precaution that we can take against acid rain is having a check at the emission
of oxides of nitrogen and sulphur.
 Acid rain is harmful to animals, plants and the monuments.
 Being responsible citizens, one should be aware of the harmful effects they cause and of
the industries which give out nitrogen and sulphur compound wastes unethically.

OZONE LAYER
Ozone
All of us are aware of how the concern related to depletion of ozone layer and the ozone hole, which
also led to the ban of many chemicals such as the chlorofluorocarbon (CFC). Depletion of O3 can
increase UV radiation entering Earth surface. This can not only lead to different type of severe
diseases like cancer but it can also threaten the entire life on earth. Thankfully, the latest evidence
suggests that the ozone depletion has come to a halt due to global initiatives were taken everywhere.

One of the types of air or water purifier utilizes ozone for removal of unwanted toxic substances.
The chemical compound can trap the bacteria and kill them. Hence, ozone is not only present in
earth’s atmosphere but it is also possible to artificially produce this chemical substance.

It is a type of gaseous compound. It is made from the combination of three oxygen atoms.
Therefore, the chemical formula of this compound is O3. The formation of O3 is a two-step reaction.
In the first step, the oxygen molecule is broken down into oxygen atoms with the help of sunlight.
In the second step, the collision of oxygen atoms with another oxygen atom leads to the formation
of ozone.

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 Structure of ozone

We can also produce ozone artificially with the help of oxygen molecules in the laboratory. The
principle is similar to natural process. However, voltage electric current is applied in place of
sunlight. Ozone formation takes place by placing dry oxygen in ozonizer and passing it through
high voltage electric current by silent electric discharge. The electricity will transform the oxygen
molecule into ozone. The most commonly known ozonizers for laboratory purposes are Siemens
and Brodie ozonizer’s reaction:

Can you name another planet other than Earth that has ozone layer? Venus has a thin ozone layer
near at an altitude of 100 kilometres from the surface of the planet. Thus, large concentrations of
O3 molecules are present in the upper layer of atmosphere, specifically troposphere.

Ozone Layer

French Physicist Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson discovered ozone in the year 1913. Ozone layer/
shield is a region present in the stratosphere of the earth’s atmosphere and this region absorbs
majority sun’s UV radiation. Mainly found in the lower region of stratosphere almost 20 to 30
kilometres above Earth.

The thickness of the layer differs according to the season and geographic region. The Earth’s
stratosphere contains high concentrations of this compound. However, it is still a small portion in
comparison to other gases present in Earth’s atmosphere. United Nations General Assembly
declared International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer on September 16th.

Importance of Ozone Shield

The stratosphere of the earth’s atmosphere contains a significant amount of O3. Thus, this gaseous
compound protects living organisms including humans from the harmful UV radiations (λ = 255
nm). Excessive exposure to the UV radiation for a longer period of time can cause melanoma or
skin cancer in humans.

Furthermore, it can cause many other forms of cancer and other diseases. Overall excessive UV
radiation is a threat to any living organism. Hence, it is essential to maintain and protect the ozone
layer.

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Formation of Ozone Layer

The reaction of UV radiation with O2 or dioxygen molecules results in the formation of O3. The UV
radiation splits the oxygen molecule into the free oxygen or O atoms. These O atoms combine with
molecular form of oxygen to form ozone (O3). It is thermodynamically an unstable compound and
has a tendency to decompose into molecular oxygen. Therefore, a constant dynamic equilibrium is
present between the production and decomposition of O3 molecules.

O2(g) → O(g) + O(g)

(in presence of UV Radiation)

O(g) + O2(g) ↔ O3(g)

(in presence of UV Radiation)

Depletion of Ozone Layer

In the past decade, we have come across constant news about depletion of the ozone layer. The
seriousness of the situation made global regulatory bodies like the UN and the countries to work
together to bring this constant depletion to a halt. So, what is the reason for depletion of ozone?

The depletion of the protective O3 layer is because of the presence of particular chemicals in the
stratosphere of earth’s atmosphere. The constant release of compounds like carbon tetrachloride,
carbon tetrafluoride, CFCs (chlorofluorocarbon) or freons and other chlorine or bromine containing
halogens in the atmosphere is the main reason for the depletion.

CFC compounds are non-inflammable, non-toxic, nonreactive organic molecules. Hence, it is used
in air conditioners, refrigerators, plastic foam production, cleaning computer parts, etc.

However, these chemicals mix with normal atmospheric gases and finally reach the stratosphere.
Thus, these compounds break down into free chlorine radicals in the presence of powerful UV
radiation in the stratosphere.

CF2Cl2 (g) → Cl(g) + CF2Cl(g)

(in presence of powerful UV Radiation)
The chlorine radicals combine with the stratospheric O3 thereby forming molecular oxygen and
chlorine monoxide radicals.

Cl(g) + O3(g) → ClO(g) + O2(g)

Chlorine monoxide radicals will further react with atomic oxygen to form more chlorine radicals.

ClO(g) + O(g) → Cl(g) + O2(g)

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This process will continue and constantly regenerate chlorine radicals. This, in turn, will lead to the
breakdown of ozone. Hence, CFCs are transporting agents that are responsible for damaging the
ozone layer.

Ozone Hole

The first report of depletion in O3 layer came out in the 1980s by an atmospheric scientist in
Antarctica. This was observed over the South Pole. Later it was found that certain specific set of
conditions were responsible for the formation of the hole. During summer season a reaction
between nitrogen dioxide and methane leads to the formation of chlorine monoxide.

ClO(g) + NO2(g) → ClONO2(g)

Moreover, methane will also react with chlorine atoms to form chlorine sinks.

Cl(g) + CH4(g) → CH3(g) + HCl(g)

This helps in prevention of excess ozone depletion. However, a special type of clouds “polar
stratospheric clouds” formation occurs over Antarctica during the time of winters. These clouds
provide a surface for the reaction of chlorine nitrate. Thus, the chlorine nitrate undergoes hydrolysis
to form hypochlorous acid.

ClONO2(g) + H2O(g) → HOCl(g) + HNO3(g)

Chlorine nitrate also undergoes reaction with hydrogen chloride to produce molecular chlorine.

ClONO2(g) + HCl(g) → Cl2(g) + HNO3(g)

However, during the springtime when the sun returns to Antarctica again, the warmth emits sun and
undergoes photolysis reaction with HOCl and Chlorine molecule.

HOCl(g) → OH(g) + Cl(g)

(in presence of light)
The above reaction leads to the formation of chlorine and begins a chain reaction thereby causing
ozone depletion.

Cl2(g) → 2Cl(g)
(in presence of light)

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Effects of Ozone Depletion
O3 depletion leads to the entry of more UV radiation into the troposphere. UV radiations are very
harmful and can cause health issues such as skin cancer, ageing of skin, cataract, sunburn, etc. It not
only affects human health but it is also a threat to plants and other living organisms.

Depletion in the O3 layer is responsible for killing the phytoplankton’s, decrease the productivity of
fish, etc. It can cause mutation in plant cells by affecting the plant protein.

Furthermore, UV radiation increases the rate of evaporation from a surface through the surface of
stomata. Therefore, it decreases the moisture content of the soil. It also affects constructions and
materials. Thus, it damages paints and fibres which lead to fading of the colour faster.

POPULATION GROWTH
Population growth is one of the major concerns of the present world as the human population is
not a static factor. Rather, it is growing at a very alarming rate. In spite of the increasing world
population, the resources of the earth remain constant. Thus, the ability to maintain sustainable
development is becoming a major challenge to mankind today.

Factors that Influence Population Fluctuation

The fluctuations in the population in a given area are influenced by four major factors, which
include the following:

 Natality – It is the number of births in a given period of time in a population

 Mortality – It is defined as the number of deaths that takes place in a population at a
given period of time.
 Immigration – It is defined as the number of individuals who come from another
population and add to the population under consideration during a period of time.
 Emigration – It is defined as the number of individuals from a population who leave
the habitat and go to a different habitat at a given period of time.
Thus, it is clearly visible, that Natality (N) and Immigration (I) add to a population, thus
increasing the population whereas, Mortality (M) and Emigration (E) decrease the population.
The population density (Pt) at a given point of time can be given as:
Pt =P0 + (N + I) – (M + E)
where P0 is the initial population density.
We have two growth models which describe the basic growth trend in a population. These are:

1. Exponential growth – In an ideal condition where there is an unlimited supply of food

and resources, the population growth will follow an exponential order. Consider a

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 population of size N and birth rate be represented as b, death rate as d, the rate of change
of N can be given by the equation.

Exponential growth is a function that shows an increase within a population that occurs at
the same rate over time. When populations experience doubling or tripling in numbers,
you can assume the data increases exponentially. The opposite of exponential growth is
exponential decay, where data shrinks rather than grows.

2. Logistic (sigmoid)) growth – This model defines the concept of ‘survival of the fittest’.
Thus, it considers the fact that resources in nature are exhaustible. The term ‘Carrying
capacity’ defines the limit of the resources beyond which they cannot support any
number of organisms. Let this carrying capacity be represented as K.

A logistic growth curve is an S-shaped (sigmoidal) curve that can be used to model
functions that increase gradually at first, more rapidly in the middle growth period, and
slowly at the end, leveling off at a maximum value after some period of time. The initial
part of the curve is exponential; the rate of growth accelerates as it approaches the
midpoint of the curve. At the midpoint (K/2), the growth rate begins to decelerate but
continues to grow until it reaches K which is called the "Carrying Capacity" for the
environment.

Causes of Population Growth

1. Decrease in the death rate due to improved medical facilities with the birth rate remaining
the same is one of the major causes of population growth in India.
2. Illiteracy prevalent in major parts of India make people believe that 'children are god's
blessings' hence making them against the concept of ‘family planning’.
3. People of India follow different religions of which some of them do not advocate the
concept of ‘family planning’.
4. As most of the families in rural areas are below the poverty line, they think having a large
family will increase their source of income by sending children to work.
5. Decrease in infant mortality rate due to improved medical facilities.

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 6. Many of the Indian families are superstitious about the fact that ‘children are a sign of
prosperity’.
7. Indian families believe that a male child is responsible to continue one's lineage and the
constant attempt to have a male child results in number of female children.
8. Industrialization and growth of opportunities in urban areas have increased the urban
population.
9. Average life span of people has increased due to control of epidemics by immunization
programs.
10. In rural areas, children are considered a source of recreation, hence giving birth to more
children is a practice in rural areas.

Different Shape of the Population

The terms "pyramid," "bell," and "urn" shapes are used to describe the age distribution within a
population. These shapes are visual representations of how different age groups are distributed
among the population.

1. Pyramid Shape:

- A population with a pyramid shape has a broad base representing a high proportion of young
people, with each successively older age group becoming smaller in size, resulting in a pyramid-
like structure.

- This shape is characteristic of developing or youthful populations with high birth rates and
lower life expectancies.

Example: Many Sub-Saharan African countries have populations with a pyramid shape due to
high fertility rates and a significant portion of the population being young.

2. Bell Shape (or Rectangular):

- A population with a bell shape, also known as a rectangular shape, shows a relatively uniform
distribution of ages across the different age groups.

- This shape is often observed in developed countries with stable birth rates, lower mortality
rates, and more balanced age distributions.

Example: Many European countries exhibit a bell-shaped population structure, where birth rates
are moderate, and life expectancy is relatively high, resulting in a more even distribution of ages.

3. Urn Shape (or Inverted Pyramid):

- An urn-shaped population has a narrow base, indicating a smaller proportion of young

individuals, with a larger percentage of older individuals, resembling an inverted pyramid.

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 - This shape typically results from low birth rates, declining fertility, and increased life
expectancy, leading to an aging population.

Example: Japan is often cited as an example of an urn-shaped population due to its declining
birth rates and increasing life expectancy, resulting in an older population with a smaller younger
cohort.

AUTOMOBILE POLLUTION
Automobiles are a necessary evil, while they have made living easy and convenient, they have
also made human life more complicated and vulnerable to both toxic emissions and an increased
risk of accidents.

Urban people are most affected and amongst the worst sufferers are traffic policemen who are
particularly close to the fumes of automobile exhaust. Studies made in Jaipur, India, indicate that
there is high rate of occurrence of respiratory, digestive, ocular and skin problems amongst the
traffic policemen and a significant number of them become victims of lung disorders in the very
first few months of their posting to a traffic department. Traffic policemen everywhere should
wear pollution masks for their own safety and to arouse public awareness of the risk of
automobile pollution.

Automobiles include cars, trucks, motorcycles and boats (anything that burns gas). They leave
oil, antifreeze, grease and metals on streets and driveways. They also emit nitrogen and other
contaminants, which settle in water.

Sources of Automobile Pollutants

i. Hydrocarbons:
A class of burned or partially burned fuel, hydrocarbons is toxins and is a major contributor to
smog, which can be a major problem in urban areas.

ii. Carbon monoxide (CO):

A product of incomplete combustion, carbon monoxide reduces the blood’s ability to carry
oxygen.

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iii. Nitrogen oxides (NOx):
Generated when nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen at the high temperature and pressure
inside the engine.

iv. Particulate matter:

Soot or smoke made up of particles in the micrometre size range.

v. Sulfur oxide (SOx):

A general term for oxides of sulphur, which are emitted from motor vehicles burning fuel
containing a high concentration of sulphur.

Effect of Automobile Pollutants

i. Prolonged exposure to hydrocarbons contributes to asthma, liver disease, and cancer,
overexposure of carbon monoxide poisoning may be fatal.

ii. NOx is a precursor to smog and acid rain. NOx is a mixture of NO and NO2. NO2 destroys
resistance to respiratory infection.

iii. Particulate matter causes negative health effects, including but not limited to respiratory
disease.

iv. Oil, petroleum products and other toxins from automobiles kill fish, plants, aquatic life and
even people. One quart of oil will contaminate thousands of gallons of water because it doesn’t
dissolve. These toxins as well as trace metals and degreasing agents used on automobiles
contaminate drinking water and can cause major illness. Some of these toxins and metals are
absorbed in various sea life and cause medical problems to people when eaten.

v. Phosphorus and nitrogen cause explosive growth of algae, which depletes water of oxygen,
killing fish and aquatic life.

Control of Automobile Pollution

i. Engine efficiency has been steadily improved with improved engine design.

ii. One of the first-developed exhaust emission control systems is secondary air injection.
Originally, this system was used to inject air into the engine’s exhaust ports to provide oxygen so
unburned and partially-burned hydrocarbons in the exhaust would finish burning.

Air injection is now used to support the catalytic converters oxidation reaction, and to reduce
emissions when an engine is started from cold. After a cold start, an engine needs a fuel-air
mixture richer than what it needs at operating temperature, and the catalytic converter does not
function efficiently until it has reached its own operating temperature.

The air injected upstream of the converter supports combustion in the exhaust head pipe, which
speeds catalyst warm up and reduces the amount of unburned hydrocarbon emitted from the
tailpipe.

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iii. Converter does not function efficiently until it has reached its own operating temperature. The
air injected upstream of the converter supports combustion in the exhaust head pipe, which
speeds catalyst warm up and reduces the amount of unburned hydrocarbon emitted from the
tailpipe.

iv. The catalytic converter is a device placed in the exhaust pipe, which converts hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide, and NOx into less harmful gases by using a combination of platinum,
palladium and rhodium as catalysts.

v. Evaporative emissions control-Emissions are the result of gasoline vapours escaping from the
vehicle’s fuel system. In a typical system, vapours from the fuel tank and carburetor bowl vent
(on carbureted vehicles) are ducted to canisters containing activated carbon. The vapours are
adsorbed within the canister, and during certain engine operational modes fresh air is drawn
through the canister, pulling the vapour into the engine, where it is burned.

vii. Reduce use, and car pool.

viii. Monitor and repair any leaks.

ix. Always take used oil, batteries and other fluids to a repair shop for proper disposal.

x. Never allow oil or other toxins to runoff into the ground, street gutters or storm drains.

xi. Take your car to a commercial car wash or use detergents that don’t contain phosphorus to
wash your car and direct the flow of runoff to grass clippings or gravel instead of the street.

xii. When purchasing a new automobile look for cars with high fuel efficiency ratings.

BURNING OF PADDY STRAW (STUBBLE BURNING)

Stubble (PARALI) burning is a term that is frequently seen in the news nowadays. It is one of
the major causes of winter pollution in northern India, particularly, in Delhi and adjoining areas.
The NGT (as of April 2023) has started imposing fines of between Rs 2500 and Rs 5,000, Rs
7,500, and Rs 15,000 for properties larger than 10 acres for stubble burning.
up to five years, fines going as high as Rs 1 crore, or even both.
News in detail:

 In 2021, there were 86,000 reported stubble fires, with Punjab accounting for 71,304 of
those. The number decreased to about 54,000 in 2022, but the issue is still difficult
because 40–50% of crop residue is still burned.

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  Punjab saw a rise in paddy production area from 29.6 million acres in 2021 to 3.14
million acres in 2022. As a result, it is probable that Punjab produced 19.99 million
tonnes of straw total in 2022 as opposed to 18.74 million tonnes in 2021.
 The 2020 ordinance that led to the establishment of the CAQM to oversee and coordinate
interstate action on pollution control in the Delhi-NCR airshed area treated all infractions,
including stubble burning, equally and prescribed a prison term of

What is Stubble Burning?

Stubble burning is the intentional burning or setting on fire of crop residue to remove them from
the field in order to sow the next crop.

 Leaving stubble on the field will invite termites and other pests which can damage the
subsequent crop.
 In Punjab and Haryana, farmers burn the stubble (rice chaff) left after the rice harvest so
that the field may be readied for the next Rabi (winter) crop like wheat.
 In these areas, it begins around October, the same time at which the southwest monsoon
withdraws.
 Section 188 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) makes stubble burning a crime. Additionally,
it was notified as an offence under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1981.
 Despite being banned, the practice continues in India, where farmers cite a lack of viable
alternatives to clear their fields of stubble.

Why do farmers burn stubble?

Stubble burning has been practised by farmers from all over the world although many
governments have prohibited the practice to various degrees. In this section, we will see why
farmers in northern India burn stubble.

 In the 1960s, as part of the Green Revolution, farmers in Punjab and Haryana were
encouraged to do wheat-paddy crop rotation to make India self-reliant in grain
production.
 As a result and because of assured procurement of rice and subsidies, rice acreage
increased.
 The Punjab Preservation of Subsoil Water Act (2009) made it mandatory for farmers to
transplant paddy late during the Kharif season to prevent loss of water.
 This gives the farmers very little time between harvesting the rice crop and preparing the
field for the next winter crop.
 Hence, stubble burning is a quick, cheap and easy way to clear the field of any rice chaff
residue.
 One reason for the large quantity of rice stubble left behind after harvesting is the
increased modernisation and mechanisation of agriculture. Mechanised harvesting
extracts the rice grains only leaving behind a huge residue. Manual harvesting is not an
option for farmers because of the huge labour charges and the increased time taken.

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  Earlier, the stubble used to be used by farmers as hay to keep animals or homes warm,
and even for cooking. However, these uses of stubble have now become outdated.
 Also, rice straw is not considered suitable as fodder for animals because of its high silica
content (this is true for the non-basmati variety of rice).
 Despite the Punjab government making available tractor-mounted ‘happy seeders’ to cut
down the rice stubble and sow wheat seeds simultaneously, many farmers find the prices
of these machines or their rents prohibitive. So, they continue to burn stubble.
A few other machines/devices have been introduced by the government. However, many farmers
cite suitability as an issue.
Also, stubble burning requires only a matchbox whereas the adoption of these machines incurs
additional costs for the farmers.

Advantages of Stubble Burning

 It is the cheapest and quickest way to deal with crop waste.

 It destroys weeds including those that are resistant to herbicides.
 It kills other pests also, such as slugs.
 It can decrease nitrogen tie-up.

What are the effects of stubble burning?

Stubble burning has very adverse effects on the environment.

 Pollution: According to a study, the burning of crop residue released about 149 million
tonnes of carbon dioxide, more than 9 million tonnes of carbon monoxide, 0.25 million
tonnes of oxides of sulphur (SOX), 1.28 million tonnes of particulate matter (PM) and
0.07 million tonnes of black carbon. As evident, it contributes to a lot of greenhouse
gas emissions.
 In particular, the stubble burning across Punjab and Haryana contributes to the
winter haze in Delhi where about 40% of the near-surface PM can be attributed to
the stubble burning.
 It also contributes to the winter smog seen in these parts of the country.
Soil fertility: Burning stubble also adversely affects soil fertility. It destroys the soil’s nutrients
making it less fertile. This is because the heat generated during the burning kills the bacterial and
fungal populations which are crucial for fertile soil.
Stubble burning can also cause an increase in ‘enemy’ pests because, during the burning, many
microorganisms in the air are killed. The loss of these organisms leads to an increase in pests, in
turn, causing increased diseases in crops.

Loss of wealth from stubble

Another ill-effect of stubble burning is the loss of ‘wealth’ from the stubble.

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  High-grade organic fertilizers can be prepared by mixing the stubble with cow dung and
some natural enzymes.
 This has been initiated by the Chhattisgarh government which has set up gauthans
in many villages. In these, gauthans, farmers bring their stubble to a ‘gauthan’
where it is mixed with cow dung and enzymes to obtain organic fertilizer. This
initiative also provides employment to the rural youth.
A lot of nitrogen, potassium, sulphur, phosphorous as well as organic carbon are destroyed every
year on account of stubble burning. They should ideally be used to make organic manure. This
will also reduce the dependency on and use of chemical fertilizers.
Straw can also be used in electricity generation.

Measures to Curb Stubble Burning

The administration has taken several measures to curb the practice of stubble burning by farmers.

 In 2019, the Supreme Court directed the governments of Haryana, Punjab and Uttar
Pradesh to pay farmers a financial incentive to curb the practice.
 In 2020, the Government of Punjab appointed 8000 nodal officers in villages that grow
paddy in order to put a check on stubble burning.
 Already, penalties for stubble burning are imposed on farmers who break the law and
resort to burning crop residue.
 More than 23,000 crop residue management machines are being given to farmers for on-
site management of straw.
 The state had been demanding the Centre to give ₹100 per quintal to farmers for
managing the paddy straw without burning. However, the Environment Pollution
(Prevention and Control) Authority or EPCA had said that this was not viable.
 Under a 100% centrally-funded scheme, in-situ residue management machines are given
to individual farmers at a 50% subsidy and to CHCs (custom hiring centres) at an 80%
subsidy.
 The states of Punjab and Haryana are also providing such machines and setting up more
CHCs.
 In October 2020, the Centre informed the Supreme Court that it would bring in a law to
curb stubble burning.
 The SC had also decided to form a one-man committee chaired by Justice Madan Lokur
to monitor/prevent stubble burning in Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab. This order has
been kept in abeyance as of 28 October 2020.

Solutions to Stubble Burning Problem

A few solutions to the problem of stubble burning are discussed below.

 Incentivise farmers for not burning the stubble and provide economic value for the crop
residue. The stubble can be converted into fodder or organic fertilizer or fuel. The
government should also subsidise or incentivise the industries that are engaged in
converting stubble into economically viable products.

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 Efforts should be made to improve the combine harvester that farmers use to harvest the
crop. The current machine used leaves behind a huge residue. Improvement should be
made in the technology used in such machines so that minimal residue is left behind.
 Encourage and incentivise the farmers to go for early paddy, so as to give them enough
time to harvest and thereafter prepare their fields for the next Rabi crop.
 Encourage farmers to sow alternate crops and shift them away in the long run from paddy
to maize, fruits, vegetables and cotton.
 Use machinery like the Happy Seeder to remove the stubble. The government should
make these machines available and economically viable for farmers.
 Penalise farmers that indulge in stubble burning. Despite penalties, many farmers engage
in this practice because they find it cheaper to pay the fines rather than incur the expenses
for the alternatives for stubble burning. The government can also consider reinterpreting
the MSP scheme to disallow the benefits of the scheme to farmers who practice crop
residue burning.
 The government has to increase monetary incentives for avoiding stubble burning and
also make machines that counter stubble burning an affordable, viable and accessible
option for farmers.
 Farmers have a difficult time unlearning the practice of stubble burning and they should
be educated about its ill effects and also offered attractive alternatives.
 Eminent agricultural scientist M.S. Swaminathan has suggested that the Delhi, Haryana
and Uttar Pradesh governments could set up ‘Rice Bio Parks’, where farmers could
convert stubble into products including paper, cardboard and animal feed.

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