Chapter 11.

Solutions

545
Introduction to Solutions

546
More than 70% of the earth’s surface is covered by a very important solution—seawater. It is likely that without
seawater, no life would exist on Earth.

At its simplest, seawater is mostly H2O. But about 3.5% of seawater is dissolved solids, mostly NaCl but other
ions as well. Table 11.1 “Percentage by Mass of Ions in Seawater and Blood” lists the percentage by mass of the
various ions in seawater.

Because it is highly likely that life on Earth originated in the oceans, it should not be surprising that many bodily
fluids resemble seawater—especially blood. Table 11.1 “Percentage by Mass of Ions in Seawater and Blood” also
lists the percentage by mass of ions in a typical sample of blood.

Table 11.1 Percentage by Mass of Ions in Seawater and Blood

Ion Percentage in Seawater Percentage in Blood

Na+ 2.36 0.322

Cl− 1.94 0.366

Mg2+ 0.13 0.002

SO42− 0.09 —

K+ 0.04 0.016

Ca2+ 0.04 0.0096

HCO3− 0.002 0.165

HPO42−, H2PO4− — 0.01

Most ions are more abundant in seawater than they are in blood, with some notable exceptions. There is far more
hydrogen carbonate ion (HCO3−) in blood than in seawater; indeed, it is the third most common ion in blood. This
difference is significant because the HCO3− ion and some related species [CO32−, CO2(aq)] have an important
role in controlling the acid-base properties of blood. Although there is a negligible amount of the two hydrogen
phosphate ions (HPO42− and H2PO4−) in seawater, there is a small amount in blood, where these ions affect acid-
base properties. Another notable difference is that blood has a negligible amount of the sulfate ion (SO42−), but
this ion is present in seawater.

Gold is present in seawater—but only a tiny amount. A current estimate of the amount of gold is about 1 part per
every 1 × 1013 parts of seawater, which makes the extraction of gold from seawater unfeasible. However, it does
mean that there are about 1.4 × 1014 g of gold in the world’s oceans!

547
548 • INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY

There are approximately 1.4 × 1014 g of gold in the oceans, but extracting it effectively is beyond current technologies. Source:
“Ocean” by Stephen Edgar is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic

A solution is a homogeneous mixture—a mixture of two or more substances that are so intimately mixed that the
mixture behaves in many ways like a single substance. Many chemical reactions occur when the reactants are
dissolved in solution. In this chapter, we will introduce concepts that are applicable to solutions and the chemical
reactions that occur in them. In a solution what is present in the larger amount is the solute. Substances that are
present in a smaller amount are called the solutes. There is only one solvent but there can be multiple solutes. In
seawater water is the solvent and the ions shown in table 11.1 are the solutes. Together the solute(s) and solvent
are a solution.

Solution = solvent + solute(s)

Concentrations as Conversion Factors

Learning Objectives

1. Apply concentration units as conversion factors.

Concentration can be a conversion factor between the amount of solute and the amount of solution or solvent
(depending on the definition of the concentration unit). A s such, concentrations can be useful in a variety of
stoichiometry problems. In chemistry concentration is often expressed as molarity, M. Molarity is the moles of
solute per liters of solution.

M = moles of solute
L of solution
A simple example of using a concentration unit as a conversion factor is one in which we use the definition of the
concentration unit and rearrange; we can do the calculation again as a unit conversion, rather than as a definition.
For example, suppose we ask how many moles of solute are present in 0.108 L of a 0.887 M NaCl
solution. Because 0.887 M means 0.887 mol/L, we can use this second expression for the concentration as a
conversion factor:

0.108 L NaCl solution × (0.887 mol NaCl /(1 L NaCl solution)) = 0.0958 mol NaCl
(There is an understood 1 in the denominator of the conversion factor.) Like any other conversion factor that
relates two different types of units, the reciprocal of the concentration can be also used as a conversion factor.

Example 10

Using concentration as a conversion factor, how many liters of 2.35 M CuSO4 are needed to
obtain 4.88 mol of CuSO4?
Solution
This is a one-step conversion, but the concentration must be written as the reciprocal for the
units to work out:

562
 CONCENTRATIONS AS CONVERSION FACTORS • 563

4.88 mol CuSO4×(1 L solutions/ 2.35 mol CuSO4) = 2.08 L of solution

Test Yourself
Using concentration as a conversion factor, how many liters of 0.0444 M CH2O are needed to
obtain 0.0773 mol of CH2O?
Answer
1.74 L

Of course, once quantities in moles are available, another conversion can give the mass of the substance, using
molar mass as a conversion factor.

Example 11

What mass of solute is present in 0.765 L of 1.93 M NaOH?

Solution
This is a two-step conversion, first using concentration as a conversion factor to determine the
number of moles and then the molar mass of NaOH (40.0 g/mol) to convert to mass:
0.765 L × (1.93 mol NaOH / L solution) × (40.0 g NaOH / 1 mol NaOH) = 59.1 g NaOH
Test Yourself
What mass of solute is present in 1.08 L of 0.0578 M H2SO4?
Answer
6.12 g

More complex stoichiometry problems using balanced chemical reactions can also use concentrations as
conversion factors. For example, suppose the following equation represents a chemical reaction:

2 AgNO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq) → 2 AgCl(s) + Ca(NO3)2(aq)

If we wanted to know what volume of 0.555 M CaCl2 would react with 1.25 mol of AgNO3, we first use
the balanced chemical equation to determine the number of moles of CaCl2 that would react and then use
concentration to convert to liters of solution:

1.25 mol AgNO3 × (1 mol CaCl2 / 2 mol AgNO3) × (1 L solution / 0.555 mol CaCl2) =1.13 L CaCl2

This can be extended by starting with the mass of one reactant, instead of moles of a reactant.
564 • INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY

Example 12

What volume of 0.0995 M Al(NO3)3 will react with 3.66 g of Ag according to the following
chemical equation?
3 Ag(s) + Al(NO3)3(aq) → 3 AgNO3 + Al(s)
Solution
Here, we first must convert the mass of Ag to moles before using the balanced chemical
equation and then the definition of molarity as a conversion factor:
3.66 g Ag × (1 mol Ag / 107.97 g Ag) × (1 mol Al(NO3)3 / 3 mol Ag) × (1 L solution /
0.0995 mol Al(NO3)3) = 0.114 L
Test Yourself
What volume of 0.512 M NaOH will react with 17.9 g of H2C2O4(s) according to the following
chemical equation?
H2C2O4(s) + 2 NaOH(aq) → Na2C2O4(aq) + 2 H2O(ℓ)
Answer
0.777 L
566 • INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY

Key Takeaways

• Know how to apply concentration units as conversion factors.

Exercises

1. Using concentration as a conversion factor, how many moles of solute are in 3.44 L
of 0.753 M CaCl2?

2. Using concentration as a conversion factor, how many moles of solute are in 844 mL
of 2.09 M MgSO4?

3. Using concentration as a conversion factor, how many liters are needed to provide
0.822 mol of NaBr from a 0.665 M solution?
 CONCENTRATIONS AS CONVERSION FACTORS • 567

4. Using concentration as a conversion factor, how many liters are needed to provide
2.500 mol of (NH2)2CO from a 1.087 M solution?

5. What is the mass of solute in 24.5 mL of 0.755 M CoCl2?

6. What is the mass of solute in 3.81 L of 0.0232 M Zn(NO3)2?

7. What volume of solution is needed to provide 9.04 g of NiF2 from a 0.332 M solution?

8. What volume of solution is needed to provide 0.229 g of CH2O from a 0.00560 M

solution?

9. What volume of 3.44 M HCl will react with 5.33 mol of CaCO3?
2 HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

10. What volume of 0.779 M NaCl will react with 40.8 mol of Pb(NO3)2?
Pb(NO3)2 + 2 NaCl → PbCl2 + 2 NaNO3

11. What volume of 0.905 M H2SO4 will react with 26.7 mL of 0.554 M NaOH?
H2SO4 + 2 NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2 H2O

12. What volume of 1.000 M Na2CO3 will react with 342 mL of 0.733 M H3PO4?
3 Na2CO3 + 2 H3PO4 → 2Na3PO4 + 3 H2O + 3 CO2
568 • INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY

Answers
1.
2.59 mol
3.
1.24 L
5.
2.40 g
7.
0.282 L
9.
3.10 L
11.
8.17 mL
Quantitative Units of Concentration

Learning Objective

1. Learn to determine specific concentrations with several common units.

Rather than qualitative terms (Section 11.1 “Some Definitions”), we need quantitative ways to express the amount
of solute in a solution; that is, we need specific units of concentration. In this section, we will introduce several
common and useful units of concentration.

Molarity (M) is defined as the number of moles of solute divided by the number of liters of solution:

which can be simplified as

As with any mathematical equation, if you know any two quantities, you can calculate the third, unknown,
quantity.

For example, suppose you have 0.500 L of solution that has 0.24 mol of NaOH dissolved in it. The concentration
of the solution can be calculated as follows:

The concentration of the solution is 0.48 M, which is spoken as “zero point forty-eight molarity” or “zero point
forty-eight molar.” If the quantity of the solute is given in mass units, you must convert mass units to mole units

569
570 • INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY

before using the definition of molarity to calculate concentration. For example, what is the molar concentration of
a solution of 22.4 g of HCl dissolved in 1.56 L? First, convert the mass of solute to moles using the molar mass of
HCl (36.5 g/mol):

Now we can use the definition of molarity to determine a concentration:

Example 3

What is the molarity of a solution made when 32.7 g of NaOH are dissolved to make 445 mL
of solution?
Solution
To use the definition of molarity, both quantities must be converted to the proper units. First,
convert the volume units from milliliters to liters:

Now we convert the amount of solute to moles, using the molar mass of NaOH, which is 40.0
g/mol:

Now we can use the definition of molarity to determine the molar concentration:

Test Yourself
What is the molarity of a solution made when 66.2 g of C6H12O6 are dissolved to make 235
mL of solution?
Answer
 QUANTITATIVE UNITS OF CONCENTRATION • 571

1.57 M

The definition of molarity can be used to determine the amount of solute or the volume of solution, if the other
information is given. Example 4 illustrates this situation.

Example 4

How many moles of solute are present in 0.108 L of a 0.887 M NaCl solution?
Solution
We know the volume and the molarity; we can use the definition of molarity to mathematically
solve for the amount in moles. Substituting the quantities into the definition of molarity:

We multiply the 0.108 L over to the other side of the equation and multiply the units together;
“molarity × liters” equals moles, according to the definition of molarity. So
mol NaCl = (0.887 M)(0.108 L) = 0.0958 mol
Test Yourself
How many moles of solute are present in 225 mL of a 1.44 M CaCl2 solution?
Answer
0.324 mol

If you need to determine volume, remember the rule that the unknown quantity must be by itself and in the
numerator to determine the correct answer. Thus rearrangement of the definition of molarity is required.

Example 5

What volume of a 2.33 M NaNO3 solution is needed to obtain 0.222 mol of solute?
Solution
Using the definition of molarity, we have
572 • INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY

To solve for the number of liters, we bring the 2.33 M over to the right into the denominator,
and the number of liters over to the left in the numerator. We now have

Dividing, the volume is 0.0953 L = 95.3 mL.

Test Yourself
What volume of a 0.570 M K2SO4 solution is needed to obtain 0.872 mol of solute?
Answer
1.53 L

Another way to specify an amount is percentage composition by mass (or mass percentage, % m/m). It is defined
as follows:

It is not uncommon to see this unit used on commercial products (Figure 11.1 “Concentration in Commercial
Applications”).

Another way to specify an amount is percentage composition by volume ( % v/v). It is defined as follows:

% v/v = (volume of solute/volume of solution) X 100%

Finally percentage composition mass per volume can be used (% m/v). In this case the units are specified and
cannot be changed:

% m/v = (mass of solue in g/volume of solution in mL) X 100%

Example 6

What is the mass percentage of Fe in a piece of metal with 87.9 g of Fe in a 113 g sample?
Solution
Using the definition of mass percentage, we have
 QUANTITATIVE UNITS OF CONCENTRATION • 573

Test Yourself
What is the mass percentage of H2O2 in a solution with 1.67 g of H2O2 in a 55.5 g sample?
Answer
3.01%

Related concentration units are parts per million (ppm), and parts per billion (ppb). Parts per thousand is
defined as follows:

and

Each unit is used for progressively lower and lower concentrations. The two masses must be expressed in the
same unit of mass, so conversions may be necessary. This method is often used to represent very small
concentrations and is seen in regulations of things such as allowable lead in drinking water.

Example 7

If there is 0.6 g of Pb present in 277 g of solution, what is the Pb concentration in parts per
thousand?
Solution
Use the definition of parts per thousand to determine the concentration. Substituting

Test Yourself
574 • INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY

If there is 0.551 mg of As in 348 g of solution, what is the As concentration in ppm?

Answer
1.58 ppm

As with molarity and molality, algebraic rearrangements may be necessary to answer certain questions.

Example 8

The concentration of Cl– ion in a sample of H2O is 15.0 ppm. What mass of Cl– ion is present
in 240.0 mL of H2O, which has a density of 1.00 g/mL?
Solution
First, use the density of H2O to determine the mass of the sample:

Now we can use the definition of ppm:

Rearranging to solve for the mass of solute,

Test Yourself
The concentration of Fe3+ ion in a sample of H2O is 335.0 ppm. What mass of Fe3+ ion is
present in 3,450 mL of H2O, which has a density of 1.00 g/mL?
Answer
1.16 g

For ionic solutions, we need to differentiate between the concentration of the salt versus the concentration of
each individual ion. Because the ions in ionic compounds go their own way when a compound is dissolved in a
solution, the resulting concentration of the ion may be different from the concentration of the complete salt. For
example, if 1 M NaCl were prepared, the solution could also be described as a solution of 1 M Na+(aq) and 1 M
Cl−(aq) because there is one Na+ ion and one Cl− ion per formula unit of the salt. However, if the solution were 1
M CaCl2, there are two Cl−(aq) ions for every formula unit dissolved, so the concentration of Cl−(aq) would be 2
M, not 1 M.
 QUANTITATIVE UNITS OF CONCENTRATION • 575

In addition, the total ion concentration is the sum of the individual ion concentrations. Thus for the 1 M NaCl, the
total ion concentration is 2 M; for the 1 M CaCl2, the total ion concentration is 3 M.

Key Takeaways

• Quantitative units of concentration include molarity, molality, mass percentage, parts

per thousand, parts per million, and parts per billion.

Exercises

1. Differentiate between molarity and molality.

2. Differentiate between mass percentage and parts per thousand.

3. What is the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 13.4 g of NaNO3 in 345 mL of

solution?

4. What is the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 332 g of C6H12O6 in 4.66 L of

solution?

5. How many moles of MgCl2 are present in 0.0331 L of a 2.55 M solution?

6. How many moles of NH4Br are present in 88.9 mL of a 0.228 M solution?

7. What volume of 0.556 M NaCl is needed to obtain 0.882 mol of NaCl?

8. What volume of 3.99 M H2SO4 is needed to obtain 4.61 mol of H2SO4?

9. What volume of 0.333 M Al(NO3)3 is needed to obtain 26.7 g of Al(NO3)3?

10. What volume of 1.772 M BaCl2 is needed to obtain 123 g of BaCl2?

11. What are the individual ion concentrations and the total ion concentration in 0.66 M
Mg(NO3)2?

12. What are the individual ion concentrations and the total ion concentration in 1.04 M
Al2(SO4)3?

13. If the C2H3O2– ion concentration in a solution is 0.554 M, what is the concentration
of Ca(C2H3O2)2?
576 • INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY

14. If the Cl− ion concentration in a solution is 2.61 M, what is the concentration of
FeCl3?
Answers
1.
Molarity is moles per liter, whereas molality is moles per kilogram of solvent.
3.
0.457 M
5.
0.0844 mol
9.
1.59 L
11.
0.376 L
13.
Mg2+ = 0.66 M; NO3− = 1.32 M; total: 1.98 M
15.
0.277 M
Colligative Properties

Learning Objectives

1. Determine the colligative properties of solutions of ionic solutes.

Some of the properties of solutions are proportional to the fraction that the solute particles occupy in the solution.
These properties are called colligative properties; the word colligative comes from the Greek word meaning
“related to the number,” implying that these properties are related to the number of solute particles, not their
identities.

For molecules the property will be impacted by the number of molecules present. For ionic substances there is a
complicating factor: ionic solutes separate into ions when they dissolve. This increases the total number of
particles dissolved in solution and increases the impact on the resulting colligative property. Historically,
this greater-than-expected impact on colligative properties was one main piece of evidence for ionic compounds
separating into ions (increased electrical conductivity was another piece of evidence).

For example, when NaCl dissolves, it separates into two ions:

NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq)

This means that a 1 M solution of NaCl actually has a net particle concentration of 2 M. The observed colligative
property will then be twice as large as expected for a 1 M solution.

It is easy to incorporate this concept into our equations to calculate the respective colligative property. We define
the van’t Hoff factor (i) as the number of particles each solute formula unit breaks apart into when it dissolves.
Previously, we have always tacitly assumed that the van’t Hoff factor is simply 1. But for some ionic compounds,
i is not 1, as shown in Table 11.5 “Ideal van’t Hoff Factors for Ionic Compounds”.

Table 11.5 Ideal van’t Hoff Factors for Ionic Compounds

577
578 • INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY

Compound i

NaCl 2

KBr 2

LiNO3 2

CaCl2 3

Mg(C2H3O2)2 3

FeCl3 4

Al2(SO4)3 5

The ideal van’t Hoff factor is equal to the number of ions that form when an ionic compound dissolves.

Example 20

Predict the van’t Hoff factor for Sr(OH)2.

Solution
When Sr(OH)2 dissolves, it separates into one Sr2+ ion and two OH− ions:
Sr(OH)2 → Sr2+(aq) + 2 OH−(aq)
Because it breaks up into three ions, its van’t Hoff factor is 3.
Test Yourself
What is the van’t Hoff factor for Fe(NO3)3?
Answer
4

Because the vapour pressure of a solution with a nonvolatile solute is depressed compared to that of the pure
solvent, it requires a higher temperature for the solution’s vapour pressure to reach 1.00 atm (760 torr). Recall that
this is the definition of the normal boiling point: the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid equals
1.00 atm. As such, the normal boiling point of the solution is higher than that of the pure solvent. This property is
called boiling point elevation.

The boiling point of a solution is higher than the boiling point of the pure solvent, but the opposite occurs
with the freezing point. The freezing point of a solution is lower than the freezing point of the pure solvent.
Think of this by assuming that solute particles interfere with solvent particles coming together to make a
solid, so it takes a lower temperature to get the solvent particles to solidify. This is called freezing point
depression.

Freezing point depression is one colligative property we use in everyday life. Many antifreezes used in
automobile radiators use solutions that have a lower freezing point than normal so that automobile
engines can operate at subfreezing temperatures. We also take advantage of freezing point depression
when we sprinkle various compounds on ice to thaw it in the winter for safety (Figure 11.2 “Salt and
Safety”). The compounds make solutions that have a lower freezing point, so rather than forming slippery
ice, any ice is liquefied and runs off, leaving a safer pavement behind.
 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF IONIC SOLUTES • 579

Before we introduce the final colligative property, we need to present a new concept. A semipermeable
membrane is a thin membrane that will pass certain small molecules but not others. A thin sheet of cellophane,
for example, acts as a semipermeable membrane.

Consider the system in Figure 11.3 “Osmosis”a. A semipermeable membrane separates two solutions having the
different concentrations marked. Curiously, this situation is not stable; there is a tendency for water molecules to
move from the dilute side (on the left) to the concentrated side (on the right) until the concentrations are equalized,
as in Figure 11.3 “Osmosis”b. This tendency is called osmosis. In osmosis, the solute remains in its original side of
the system; only solvent molecules move through the semipermeable membrane. In the end, the two sides of the
system will have different volumes. Because a column of liquid exerts a pressure, there is a pressure difference Π
on the two sides of the system that is proportional to the height of the taller column. This pressure difference is
called the osmotic pressure, which is a colligative property.

Figure 11.3 Osmosis

(a) Two solutions of differing concentrations are placed on either side of a semipermeable membrane. (b) When
osmosis occurs, solvent molecules selectively pass through the membrane from the dilute solution to the
concentrated solution, diluting it until the two concentrations are the same. The pressure exerted by the different
height of the solution on the right is called the osmotic pressure, Π .

Osmotic pressure is important in biological systems because cell walls are semipermeable membranes. In
particular, when a person is receiving intravenous (IV) fluids, the osmotic pressure of the fluid needs to be
approximately the same as blood serum; otherwise bad things can happen. Figure 11.4 “Osmotic Pressure
and Red Blood Cells” shows three red blood cells: Figure 11.4 “Osmotic Pressure and Red Blood Cells”a
shows a healthy red blood cell. Figure 11.4 “Osmotic Pressure and Red Blood Cells”b shows a red blood cell
that has been exposed to a lower concentration than normal blood serum (a so-called hypotonic solution);
the cell has plumped up as solvent moves into the cell to dilute the solutes inside. Figure 11.4 “Osmotic
Pressure and Red Blood Cells”c shows a red blood cell exposed to a higher concentration than normal
blood serum (hypertonic); water leaves the red blood cell, so it collapses onto itself. Only when the
solutions inside and outside the cell are the same (isotonic) will the red blood cell be able to do its job.
558 • INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY

Figure 11.4 Osmotic Pressure and Red Blood Cells

(a) This is what a normal red blood cell looks like. (b) When a red blood cell is exposed to a hypotonic solution,
solvent goes through the cell membrane and dilutes the inside of the cell. (c) When a red blood cell is exposed to
a hypertonic solution, solvent goes from the cell to the surrounding solution, diluting the hypertonic solution and
collapsing the cell. Neither of these last two cases is desirable, so IV solutions must be isotonic with blood serum
to not cause deleterious effects.

Osmotic pressure is also the reason you should not drink seawater if you’re stranded in a lifeboat on an ocean;
seawater has a higher osmotic pressure than most of the fluids in your body. You can drink the water, but ingesting
it will pull water out of your cells as osmosis works to dilute the seawater. Ironically, your cells will die of
thirst, and you will also die. (It is OK to drink the water if you are stranded on a body of freshwater, at least
from an osmotic pressure perspective.) Osmotic pressure is also thought to be important—in addition to capillary
action—in getting water to the tops of tall trees.

Key Takeaways

• Colligative properties depend only on the number of dissolved particles (that is, the
concentration), not their identity.
• For ionic solutes, the calculation of colligative properties must include the fact that the
solutes separate into multiple particles when they dissolve.
• The equations for calculating colligative properties of solutions of ionic solvents include
the van’t Hoff factor, i.
• The boiling points of solutions are always higher, and the freezing points of solutions are
always lower, than those of the pure solvent.
• Osmotic pressure is caused by concentration differences between solutions separated
by a semipermeable membrane and is an important biological issue.
580 • INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY

Key Takeaways

Exercises

1. Explain why we need to consider a van’t Hoff factor for ionic solutes but not for
molecular solutes.

2. NaCl is often used in winter to melt ice on roads and sidewalks, but calcium chloride
(CaCl2) is also used. Which would be better (on a mole-by-mole basis), and why?

Answers
1.
Ionic solutes separate into more than one particle when they dissolve, whereas molecular
solutes do not.
Some Definitions

Learning Objectives

1. Learn some terminology involving solutions.

2. Recognize which terminology is qualitative and which terminology is quantitative.
3. Explain why certain substances dissolve in other substances.

The major component of a solution is called the solvent. The minor component of a solution is called the solute.
By major and minor we mean whichever component has the greater presence by mass or by moles. Sometimes this
becomes confusing, especially with substances with very different molar masses. However, here we will confine
the discussion to solutions for which the major component and the minor component are obvious.

Solutions exist for every possible phase of the solute and the solvent. Salt water, for example, is a solution of solid
NaCl in liquid water; soda water is a solution of gaseous CO2 in liquid water, while air is a solution of a gaseous
solute (O2) in a gaseous solvent (N2). In all cases, however, the overall phase of the solution is the same phase as
the solvent.

Example 1

A solution is made by dissolving 1.00 g of sucrose (C12H22O11) in 100.0 g of liquid water.

Identify the solvent and solute in the resulting solution.
Solution
Either by mass or by moles, the obvious minor component is sucrose, so it is the solute.
Water—the majority component—is the solvent. The fact that the resulting solution is the same
phase as water also suggests that water is the solvent.
Test Yourself

582
 SOME DEFINITIONS • 583

A solution is made by dissolving 3.33 g of HCl(g) in 40.0 g of liquid methyl alcohol (CH3OH).
Identify the solvent and solute in the resulting solution.
Answer
solute: HCl(g); solvent: CH3OH

One important concept of solutions is in defining how much solute is dissolved in a given amount of solvent. This
concept is called concentration. Various words are used to describe the relative amounts of solute. Dilute describes
a solution that has very little solute, while concentrated. describes a solution that has a lot of solute. One problem
is that these terms are qualitative; they describe more or less but not exactly how much.

In most cases, only a certain maximum amount of solute can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent. This
maximum amount is called the solubility of the solute. It is usually expressed in terms of the amount of solute that
can dissolve in 100 g of the solvent at a given temperature. Table 11.2 “Solubilities of Some Ionic Compounds”
lists the solubilities of some simple ionic compounds. These solubilities vary widely: NaCl can dissolve up to 31.6
g per 100 g of H2O, while AgCl can dissolve only 0.00019 g per 100 g of H2O.

Table 11.2 Solubilities of Some Ionic Compounds

Solute Solubility (g per 100 g of H2O at 25°C)

AgCl 0.00019

CaCO3 0.0006

KBr 70.7

NaCl 36.1

NaNO3 94.6

When the maximum amount of solute has been dissolved in a given amount of solvent, we say that the solution
is saturated with solute. When less than the maximum amount of solute is dissolved in a given amount of solute,
the solution is unsaturated. These terms are also qualitative terms because each solute has its own solubility. A
solution of 0.00019 g of AgCl per 100 g of H2O may be saturated, but with so little solute dissolved, it is also
rather dilute. A solution of 36.1 g of NaCl in 100 g of H2O is also saturated but rather concentrated. Ideally, we
need more precise ways of specifying the amount of solute in a solution. We will introduce such ways in Section
11.2 “Quantitative Units of Concentration”.

In some circumstances, it is possible to dissolve more than the maximum amount of a solute in a solution. Usually,
this happens by heating the solvent, dissolving more solute than would normally dissolve at regular temperatures,
and letting the solution cool down slowly and carefully. Such solutions are called supersaturated solutions and
are not stable; given an opportunity (such as dropping a crystal of solute in the solution), the excess solute will
precipitate from the solution.

It should be obvious that some solutes dissolve in certain solvents but not others. NaCl, for example, dissolves in
584 • INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY

water but not in vegetable oil. Beeswax dissolves in liquid hexane but not water. What is it that makes a solute
soluble in some solvents but not others?

The answer is intermolecular interactions. The intermolecular interactions include London dispersion forces,
dipole-dipole interactions, and hydrogen bonding (as described in Chapter 10 “Solids and Liquids”). From
experimental studies, it has been determined that if molecules of a solute experience the same intermolecular
forces that the solvent does, the solute will likely dissolve in that solvent. So, NaCl—a very polar substance
because it is composed of ions—dissolves in water, which is very polar, but not in oil, which is generally nonpolar.
Nonpolar wax dissolves in nonpolar hexane but not in polar water. This concept leads to the general rule that “like
dissolves like” for predicting whether a solute is soluble in a given solvent. However, this is a general rule, not an
absolute statement, so it must be applied with care.

Example 2

Would I2 be more soluble in CCl4 or H2O? Explain your answer.

Solution
I2 is nonpolar. Of the two solvents, CCl4 is nonpolar and H2O is polar, so I2 would be expected
to be more soluble in CCl4.
Test Yourself
Would C3H7OH be more soluble in CCl4 or H2O? Explain your answer.
Answer
H2O because both experience hydrogen bonding

Key Takeaways

• Solutions are composed of a solvent (major component) and a solute (minor

component).
• Concentration is the expression of the amount of solute in a given amount of solvent
and can be described by several qualitative terms.
• Solubility is a specific amount of solute that can dissolve in a given amount of
solvent.
• “Like dissolves like” is a useful rule for deciding if a solute will be soluble in a
solvent.
 SOME DEFINITIONS • 585

Exercises

1. Define solute and solvent.

2. Define saturated, unsaturated, and supersaturated.

3. A solution is prepared by combining 2.09 g of CO2 and 35.5 g of H2O. Identify the
solute and solvent.

4. A solution is prepared by combining 10.3 g of Hg(ℓ) and 45.0 g of Ag(s). Identify the
solute and solvent.

5. Use Table 11.2 “Solubilities of Some Ionic Compounds” to decide if a solution

containing 45.0 g of NaCl per 100 g of H2O is unsaturated, saturated, or
supersaturated.

6. Use Table 11.2 “Solubilities of Some Ionic Compounds” to decide if a solution

containing 0.000092 g of AgCl per 100 g of H2O is unsaturated, saturated, or
supersaturated.

7. Would the solution in Exercise 5 be described as dilute or concentrated? Explain your

answer.

8. Would the solution in Exercise 6 be described as dilute or concentrated? Explain your

answer.

9. Identify a solute from Table 11.2 “Solubilities of Some Ionic Compounds” whose
saturated solution can be described as dilute.

10. Identify a solute from Table 11.2 “Solubilities of Some Ionic Compounds” whose
saturated solution can be described as concentrated.

11. Which solvent is Br2 more likely soluble in—CH3OH or C6H6?

12. Which solvent is NaOH more likely soluble in—CH3OH or C6H6?

13. Compounds with the formula CnH2n + 1OH are soluble in H2O when n is small but not
when n is large. Suggest an explanation for this phenomenon.

14. Glucose has the following structure:

586 • INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY

What parts of the molecule indicate that this substance is soluble in water?
Answers
1.
The solvent is the majority component of a solution, whereas the solute is the minority
component of a solution.
3.
solute: CO2; solvent: H2O
5.
supersaturated
7.
concentrated because there is a lot of solute
9.
AgCl or CaCO311.
C6H613.
The nonpolar end dominates intermolecular forces when n is large.
Dilutions and Concentrations

Learning Objective

1. Learn how to dilute and concentrate solutions.

Often, a worker will need to change the concentration of a solution by changing the amount of solvent. Dilution is
the addition of solvent, which decreases the concentration of the solute in the solution. Concentration is the
removal of solvent, which increases the concentration of the solute in the solution. (Do not confuse the two uses
of the word concentration here!)

In both dilution and concentration, the amount of solute stays the same. This gives us a way to calculate what the
new solution volume must be for the desired concentration of solute. From the definition of molarity,

molarity = moles of solute / liters of solution

we can solve for the number of moles of solute:

moles of solute = (molarity)(liters of solution)

A simpler way of writing this is to use M to represent molarity and V to represent volume. So the equation
becomes

moles of solute = MV

Because this quantity does not change before and after the change in concentration, the product MV must be the
same before and after the concentration change. Using numbers to represent the initial and final conditions, we
have

M1V1 = M2V2

as the dilution equation. The volumes must be expressed in the same units. Note that this equation gives only the
initial and final conditions, not the amount of the change. The amount of change is determined by subtraction.

587
588 • INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY

Example 9

If 25.0 mL of a 2.19 M solution are diluted to 72.8 mL, what is the final concentration?
Solution
It does not matter which set of conditions is labelled 1 or 2, as long as the conditions are paired
together properly. Using the dilution equation, we have
(2.19 M)(25.0 mL) = M2(72.8 mL)
Solving for the second concentration (noting that the milliliter units cancel),
M2 = 0.752 M
The concentration of the solution has decreased. In going from 25.0 mL to 72.8 mL, 72.8 −
25.0 = 47.8 mL of solvent must be added.
Test Yourself
A 0.885 M solution of KBr whose initial volume is 76.5 mL has more water added until its
concentration is 0.500 M. What is the new volume of the solution?
Answer
135.4 mL

Concentrating solutions involves removing solvent. Usually this is done by evapourating or boiling, assuming that
the heat of boiling does not affect the solute. The dilution equation is used in these circumstances as well.

Chemistry Is Everywhere: Preparing IV Solutions

In a hospital emergency room, a physician orders an intravenous (IV) delivery of 100 mL of 0.5% KCl for a
patient suffering from hypokalemia (low potassium levels). Does an aide run to a supply cabinet and take out an
IV bag containing this concentration of KCl?

Not likely. It is more probable that the aide must make the proper solution from an IV bag of sterile solution and a
more concentrated, sterile solution, called a stock solution, of KCl. The aide is expected to use a syringe to draw
up some stock solution and inject it into the waiting IV bag and dilute it to the proper concentration. Thus the aide
must perform a dilution calculation.
 DILUTIONS AND CONCENTRATIONS • 589

Medical personnel commonly must perform dilutions for IV solutions. Source: “Infuuszakjes” by Harmid is in the public
domain.

If the stock solution is 10.0% KCl and the final volume and concentration need to be 100 mL and 0.50%,
respectively, then it is an easy calculation to determine how much stock solution to use:

(10%)V1 = (0.50%)(100 mL)

V1 = 5 mL

Of course, the addition of the stock solution affects the total volume of the diluted solution, but the final
concentration is likely close enough even for medical purposes.

Medical and pharmaceutical personnel are constantly dealing with dosages that require concentration
measurements and dilutions. It is an important responsibility: calculating the wrong dose can be useless, harmful,
or even fatal!
590 • INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY

Key Takeaways

• Calculate the new concentration or volume for a dilution or concentration of a

solution.

Exercises

1. What is the difference between dilution and concentration?

2. What quantity remains constant when you dilute a solution?

3. A 1.88 M solution of NaCl has an initial volume of 34.5 mL. What is the final
concentration of the solution if it is diluted to 134 mL?

4. A 0.664 M solution of NaCl has an initial volume of 2.55 L. What is the final
concentration of the solution if it is diluted to 3.88 L?

5. If 1.00 mL of a 2.25 M H2SO4 solution needs to be diluted to 1.00 M, what will be its
final volume?

6. If 12.00 L of a 6.00 M HNO3 solution needs to be diluted to 0.750 M, what will be its
final volume?

7. If 665 mL of a 0.875 M KBr solution are boiled gently to concentrate the solute to
1.45 M, what will be its final volume?

8. If 1.00 L of an LiOH solution is boiled down to 164 mL and its initial concentration
is 0.00555 M, what is its final concentration?

9. How much water must be added to 75.0 mL of 0.332 M FeCl3(aq) to reduce its
concentration to 0.250 M?

10. How much water must be added to 1.55 L of 1.65 M Sc(NO3)3(aq) to reduce its
concentration to 1.00 M?
Answers
1.
Dilution is a decrease in a solution’s concentration, whereas concentration is an increase in a
solution’s concentration.
 DILUTIONS AND CONCENTRATIONS • 591

3.
0.484 M
5.
2.25 mL
7.
401 mL
9.
24.6 mL
End-of-Chapter Material

Additional Exercises

1. One brand of ethyl alcohol (Everclear) is 95% ethyl alcohol, with the remaining 5%
being water. What is the solvent and what is the solute of this solution?

2. Give an example of each type of solution from your own experience.

a) A solution composed of a gas solute in a liquid solvent.
b) A solution composed of a solid solute in a liquid solvent.
c) A solution composed of a liquid solute in a liquid solvent.
d) A solution composed of a solid solute in a solid solvent. (Hint: usually such solutions are
made as liquids and then solidified.)

3. Differentiate between the terms saturated and concentrated.

4. Differentiate between the terms unsaturated and dilute.

5. What mass of FeCl2 is present in 445 mL of 0.0812 M FeCl2 solution?

6. What mass of SO2 is present in 26.8 L of 1.22 M SO2 solution?

7. What volume of 0.225 M Ca(OH)2 solution is needed to deliver 100.0 g of Ca(OH)2?

592
 END-OF-CHAPTER MATERIAL • 593

8. What volume of 12.0 M HCl solution is needed to obtain exactly 1.000 kg of HCl?

9. The World Health Organization recommends that the maximum fluoride ion concentration in
drinking water is 1.0 ppm. Assuming water has the maximum concentration, if an average person
drinks 1,920 mL of water per day, how many milligrams of fluoride ion are being ingested?

10. For sanitary reasons, water in pools should be chlorinated to a maximum level of 3.0 ppm. In
a typical 5,000 gal pool that contains 21,200 kg of water, what mass of chlorine must be added to
obtain this concentration?

11. Given its notoriety, you might think that uranium is very rare, but it is present at about 2–4
ppm of the earth’s crust, which is more abundant than silver or mercury. If the earth’s crust is
estimated to have a mass of 8.50 × 1020 kg, what range of mass is thought to be uranium in the
crust?

12. Chromium is thought to be an ultratrace element, with about 8.9 ng present in a human body.
If the average body mass is 75.0 kg, what is the concentration of chromium in the body in pptr?

13. What mass of 3.00% H2O2 solution is needed to produce 35.7 g of O2(g) at 295 K at 1.05 atm
pressure?
2 H2O2(aq) → 2 H2O(ℓ) + O2(g)

14. What volume of pool water is needed to generate 1.000 L of Cl2(g) at standard temperature
and pressure if the pool contains 4.0 ppm HOCl and the water is slightly acidic? The chemical
reaction is as follows:
HOCl(aq) + HCl(aq) → H2O(ℓ) + Cl2(g)
Assume the pool water has a density of 1.00 g/mL.

15. A 0.500 m solution of MgCl2 has a freezing point of −2.60°C. What is the true van’t Hoff
factor of this ionic compound? Why is it less than the ideal value?
594 • INTRODUCTORY CHEMISTRY

16. The osmotic pressure of a 0.050 M LiCl solution at 25.0°C is 2.26 atm. What is the true van’t
Hoff factor of this ionic compound? Why is it less than the ideal value?

17. Order these solutions in order of increasing boiling point, assuming an ideal van’t Hoff factor
for each: 0.10 m C6H12O6, 0.06 m NaCl, 0.4 m Au(NO3)3, and 0.4 m Al2(SO4)3.

18. Order these solutions in order of decreasing osmotic pressure, assuming an ideal van’t Hoff
factor: 0.1 M HCl, 0.1 M CaCl2, 0.05 M MgBr2, and 0.07 M Ga(C2H3O2)3

Answers

1.
solvent: ethyl alcohol; solute: water
3.
Saturated means all the possible solute that can dissolve is dissolved, whereas concentrated
implies that a lot of solute is dissolved.
5.
4.58 g
7.
6.00 L
9.
1.92 mg
11.
1.7 × 1015 to 3.4 × 1015 kg
13.
2,530 g
15.
2.80; it is less than 3 because not all ions behave as independent particles.
17.
 END-OF-CHAPTER MATERIAL • 595

0.10 m C6H12O6 < 0.06 m NaCl < 0.4 m Au(NO3)3 < 0.4 m Al2(SO4)3