Glossary

Convexity A function f(x) is concave up (down) on [a, b] ~ lR

if f(x) lies under (over) the line connecting (a 1 , f (a1 )) and (b 1 , f(b 1 ))
for all

a :"::: a1 < x < b1 :"::: b.

A function g(x) is concave up (down) on the Euclidean plane if it
is concave up (down) on each line in the plane, where we identify the
line naturally with R
Concave up and down functions are also called convex and con-
cave, respectively.
If f is concave up on an interval [a, b] and >.1, >.2, ... , An are
nonnegative numbers with sum equal to 1, then

for any x 1 , x 2 , . •. , Xn in the interval [a, b] . If the function is concave

down, the inequality is reversed. This is Jensen's Inequality.
Lagrange's Interpolation Formula Let xo, x 1 , . . . , Xn be distinct
real numbers, and let yo, Yl, ... , Yn be arbitrary real numbers. Then
there exists a unique polynomial P(x) of degree at most n such that
P(xi ) = Yi, i = 0, 1, ... , n. This polynomial is given by

P(x)= Ln
i= O
(x- xo) · · · (x- Xi-l)(x- Xi+!)·· · (x- Xn)
Yi ~---7--~----~--~-7~7-~~
(xi- xo ) · ··(xi - Xi-l)(xi- Xi+!)··· (xi - Xn) ·
Maclaurin Series Given a function f(x), the power series
00 J(k) (0) k
L - k !- x
k=O
213
 214 Counting Strategies

is the Maclaurin Series of f(x), where J Ckl (x ) denotes t he kth

derivative of f (x).
Pigeonhole Principle If n objects are distributed among k < n
boxes, some box contains at least two objects.
Power Mean Inequality Let a1o a2, ... , an be any positive num-
bers for which ai + a 2 + · · · + an = 1. For positive numbers
XI, x2, ... , Xn we define

where tis a non-zero real number. Then

for s ::; t.
Root Mean Square-Arithmetic Mean Inequality For p osit ive
numbers XI , x2, ... , Xn ,

J
XI + X~ + · · · +X~ >
~--~~------~
n - n
XI + X 2 + · · · + Xk .
The inequality is a special case of the Power Mean Inequality.
Triangle Inequality In a non-degenerated triangle, the sum of t he
lengths of any two sides of the t riangle is bigger t han t he length of
t he t hird side.

I
Vande rmonde Matrix A Vande rmonde Matrix M is a matrix
of t he form

l
1 1 1
X2 Xn
M = x, x2
-~~
X~ n
n -I n -I
xl x2 x~ - I

Its determinant is

II
l :S:i<j :S: n
(Xj - X;) ,
Glossary 215

which is nonzero if and only if x 1 , x 2 , •.• , Xn are distinct. The Van-

dermonde matrix is closely related to the Lagrange's Interpolation
Formula. Indeed, it arises in the problem of finding a polynomial
p(x) = an-1Xn-l + an-2Xn- 2 + · · · + a1X + ao
such that p(xi) = Yi for all i with 1 ::::; i ::::; n. Because

an-1xn-1
1
+ an-2xn-2
1
+ · · · + a1x1 + ao = Yb

it follows that

[-~ - j
Yn
= MT . [ ;~. j
an - 1

= [ . ~.1 . :~
Xn X~
where MT is the transpose of M. (Note that a matrix and its
transpose have the same determinant.)
 Index

addition principle 2

base p representation 59
Becheanu's formula 137
Bernoulli-Euler Formula 128
bijection, one-to-one correspon- 15
dence
binomial coefficient, binomial 45, 47
numbers
Bonferonni's inequalities 130

Catalan numbers 82
Catalan path 111
circular permutation 19
combinations 25
congruency of polynomials mod- 59
ulo p
convexity 213
concave down 213
concave up 213

Deutsch's covering problem 189

derangement 128
direct product 144

Euler (totient) function 124

217
218 Counting Strategies

Fibonacci number 53
Fibonacci sequence 53
fixed point 128
Fubini's principle 144
function 15

generating functions 47
of the first type 165
of the second type 173

image 14
Inclusion-Exclusion Principle, 12, 120
Boole-Sylvester formula

Jensen's Inequality 213

Kummer's Theorem 60

Lagrange's Interpolation Formula 213

Lucas's Theorem 59

Maclaurin Series 169, 172, 213

main diagonal 205
map, mapping 15
injective, one-to-one 15
surjective, onto 15
multiplication principle 10

partition 86
height 86
increasing 86
length 86
parts 86
Pascal's triangle 46
permutation 15
Pigeonhole Principle 124, 214
Power Mean inequality 214
prime decomposition 11
probability 10
Probleme des menages 134
Index 219

recursive relation, recursion 91

Root Mean Square-Arithmetic 58, 160, 214
Mean inequality

Szego & P6lya's formula 126

Sperner's Theorem 149

Triangle inequality 5, 214

Vandermonde identity 55
Vandermonde matrix 100, 214
Young's diagram 87
 Further Reading

1. Andreescu, T.; Feng, Z., USA and International Mathematical

Olympiads 2002 , Mathematical Association of America, 2003.
2. Andreescu, T.; Feng, Z., USA and International Mathematical
Olympiads 2001 , Mathematical Association of America, 2002.
3. Andreescu, T.; Feng, Z. , USA and International Mathematical
Olympiads 2000 , Mathematical Association of America, 2001.
4. Andreescu, T.; Feng, Z.; Lee, G.; Loh, P., Mathematical Olympiads:
Problems and Solutions from around the World, 2001-2002,
Mathematical Association of America, 2004.
5. Andreescu, T.; Feng, Z.; Lee, G., Mathematical Olympiads:
Problems and Solutions from around the World, 2000-2001,
Mathematical Association of America, 2003.
6. Andreescu, T.; Feng, Z. , Mathematical Olympiads: Problems
and Solutions from around the World, 1999- 2000 , Mathematical
Association of America, 2002.
7. Andreescu, T.; Feng, Z., Mathematical Olympiads: Problems
and Solutions from around the World, 1998- 1999, Mathematical
Association of America, 2000.
8. Andreescu, T.; Kedlaya, K. , Mathematical Contests 1997-1998:
Olympiad Problems from around the World, with Solutions,
American Mathematics Competitions, 1999.
9. Andreescu, T.; Kedlaya, K., Mathematical Contests 1996-1997:
Olympiad Problems from around the World, with Solutions ,
American Mathematics Competitions, 1998.
10. Andreescu, T.; Kedlaya, K.; Zeitz, P., Mathematical Contests
221
222 Counting Strategies

1995-1996: Olympiad Problems from around the World, with

Solutions, American Mathematics Competitions, 1997.
11. Andreescu, T.; Feng, Z., 101 Problems in Algebra from the
Training of the USA IMO Team, Australian Mathematics Trust,
2001.
12. Andreescu, T.; Feng, Z., 102 Combinatorial Problems from the
Training of the USA IMO Team, Birkhauser, 2002.
13. Andreescu, T.; Enescu, B., Mathematical Olympiad Treasures,
Birkhauser, 2003.
14. Andreescu, T.; Gelca, R., Mathematical Olympiad Challenges,
Birkhauser, 2000.
15. Andreescu, T.; Andrica, D., 360 Problems for Mathematical
Contests, GIL, 2002.
16. Andreescu, T .; Andrica, D., An Introduction to Diophantine
Equations, GIL, 2002.
17. Barbeau, E., Polynomials, Springer-Verlag, 1989.
18. Beckenbach, E. F.; Bellman, R., An Introduction to Inequalities,
New Mathematical Library, Vol. 3, Mathematical Association of
America, 1961.
19. Bollobas, B., Graph Theory, An Introductory Course, Springer-
Verlag, 1979.
20. Chinn, W. G.; Steenrod, N. E., First Concepts of Topology, New
Mathematical Library, Vol. 27, Random House, 1966.
21. Cofman, J., What to Solve?, Oxford Science Publications, 1990.
22. Coxeter, H. S. M.; Greitzer, S. L., Geometry Revisited, New
Mathematical Library, Vol. 19, Mathematical Association of
America, 1967.
23. Coxeter, H . S. M., Non-Euclidean Geometry, The Mathematical
Association of American, 1998.
24. Doob, M., The Canadian Mathematical Olympiad 1969-1993,
University of Toronto Press, 1993.
25. Engel, A., Problem-Solving Strategies, Problem Books in Mathe-
matics, Springer, 1998.
26. Fomin, D.; Kirichenko, A., Leningrad Mathematical Olympiads
1987- 1991, MathPro Press, 1994.
 Further Reading 223

27. Fomin, D.; Genkin, S.; Itenberg, I., Mathematical Circles , Amer-
ican Mathematical Society, 1996.
28. Graham, R. L.; Knuth, D. E .; Patashnik, 0., Concrete Mathe-
matics, Addison-Wesley, 1989.
29. Gillman, R., A Friendly Mathematics Competition, The Mathe-
matical Association of American, 2003.
30. Greitzer, S. L., International Mathematical Olympiads, 1959-
1977, New Mathematical Library, Vol. 27, Mathematical As-
sociation of America, 1978.
31. Grossman, I.; Magnus, W., Groups and Their Graphs, New
Mathematical Library, Vol. 14, Mathematical Association of
America, 1964.
32. Holton, D., Let's Solve Some Math Problems , A Canadian Math-
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33. Ireland, K.; Rosen, M., A Classical Introduction to Modern
Number Theory, Springer-Verlag, 1982.
34. Kazarinoff, N. D., Geometric Inequalities , New Mathematical
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35. Kedlaya , K; Poonen, B .; Vakil, R., The William Lowell Putnam
Mathematical Competition 1985-2000, The Mathematical Asso-
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36. Klamkin, M., International Mathematical Olympiads, 1978- 1985,
New Mathematical Library, Vol. 31, Mathematical Association
of America, 1986.
37. Klamkin, M ., USA Mathematical Olympiads, 1972-1986, New
Mathematical Library, Vol. 33, Mathematical Association of
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38. Klee, V.; Wagon, S, Old and N ew Unsolved Problems in Plane
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39. Kiirschak, J., Hungarian Problem Book, volumes I f3 II , New
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40. Kuczma, M., 144 Problems of the Austrian- Polish Mathemat-
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1994.
224 Counting Strategies

41. Landau, E., Elementary Number Theory, Chelsea Publishing

Company, New York, 1966.
42. Larson, L. C., Problem-Solving Through Problems, Springer-
Verlag, 1983.
43. Lausch, H. The Asian Pacific Mathematics Olympiad 1989-1993,
Australian Mathematics Trust, 1994.
44. Leveque, W. J., Topics in Number Theory, Volume 1, Addison
Wesley, New York, 1956.
45. Liu, A., Chinese Mathematics Competitions and Olympiads 1981-
1993, Australian Mathematics Trust, 1998.
46. Liu, A., Hungarian Problem Book III, New Mathematical Li-
brary, Vol. 42, Mathematical Association of America, 2001.
47. Lozansky, E .; Rousseau, C. Winning Solutions, Springer, 1996.
48. Mordell, L. J., Diophantine Equations, Academic Press, London
and New York, 1969.
49. Ore, 0., Graphs and Their Use, Random House, 1963.
50. Ore, 0., Invitation to Number Theory, Random House, 1967.
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53. Sharygin, I. F., Problems in Solid Geometry, Mir, Moscow, 1986.
54. Shklarsky, D. 0; Chentzov, N. N; Yaglom, I. M., The USSR
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55. Slinko, A., USSR Mathematical Olympiads 1989- 1992, Aus-
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56. Sierpinski, W., Elementary Theory of Numbers, Hafner, New
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57. Soifer, A., Colorado Mathematical Olympiad: The first ten years,
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58. Szekely, G. J ., Contests in Higher Mathematics, Springer-Verlag,
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59. Stanley, R. P., Enumerative Combinatorics, Cambridge Univer-
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Further Reading 225

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64. Taylor, P. J., Tournament of Towns 1984-1989, Australian
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70. Wilf, H. S., Generatingfunctionology, Academic Press, 1994.
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 Afterword

This book is the product of many years of work and is based on

the authors' extensive experience in mathemat ics and mathematical
education. Both authors have extensive experience in the devel-
opment and composition of original mathematics problems and in
the applications of advanced methodologies in mathematical science
teaching and learning.
This book is aimed at three major types of audiences:
(a) Students ranging from high school juniors to college seniors. This
book will prove useful to those wanting to tie up many loose ends
in their study of combinatorics and to develop mathematically,
in general. Students with interest in mathematics competitions
should have this book in their personal libraries.
(b) Numerous teachers who are implementing problem solving across
the nation. This book is a perfect match for teachers wanting to
teach advanced problem-solving classes and to organize mathe-
matical clubs and circles.
(c) Amateur mathematicians longing for new mathematical gems and
brain teasers. This book presents sophisticated applications of
genuine mathematical ideas in real-life examples. It will help
them to recall the experience of reading the wonderful stories by
Martin Gardner in his monthly column in Scientific American.
By studying this book, readers will be well-equipped to further their
knowledge in more abstract combinatorics and its related fields in
mathematical and computer science. This book serves as a solid step-
ping stone for advanced mathematical reading, such as Combinatorial

227
228 Counting Strategies

Theory by M. Aigner, Concrete Mathematics - A Foundation for

Computer Science by R. L . Graham; D. E. Knuth; and 0. Patashnik,
and Enumerative Combinatorics by R. P. Stanley.