Chapter 1

UNIT 1] Fundamental Structures and Basic Logic

Sets, Venn diagram, Cartesian product, Power sets, Cardinality and countability, Propositional logic, Logical
connectives, Truth tables, Normal forms, Validity, Predicate logic, Limitations of predicate logic, Universal
and existential quantification, First order logic c, Principles of Mathematical Induction: The Well-Ordering
Principle, Recursive definition, The Division algorithm: Prime Numbers, The Greatest Common Divisor:
Euclidean Algorithm, The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.

Set is the fundamental discrete structure upon which all other discrete structures are built. The
notion of sets was introduced by German Mathematician George Cantor (1845 - 1918) for a
better understanding of finite sequences. Simply set in mathematics means exactly what it
means in ordinary language, namely, a collection of objects. A battalion of soldiers, a ream of
papers, the alphabet, all are examples of sets.

1.1 Definition of Sets

A set can be defined as a collection of things that are brought together because they obey a
certain rule. These ‘things‘ may be anything like: numbers, people, shapes, cities etc. A
fundamental concept of set theory is that of membership or belonging to a set. Some key points
to be keep in mind:
 A set should be well-defined means its objects should follow certain rule
 Elements of a set should be distinguishable. Repetition will not make any
difference.
 Order of elements in a set is immaterial i.e. we can take any sequence of
elements in a set.

1.1.1 Notation
We use uppercase letters: 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, . .. to denote a set and elements are denoted in lowercase letter: 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧,
𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟 . ..

Elements of the set can be listed or definition of the variables can be given using a variable. For
instance,

The list of elements in a set can be represented as,

𝑋 = {1,3,5,7,9}

In order to describe the elements of the set we can write it as,

𝑋 = {𝑥: 𝑥 = 2𝑛 − 1,1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 5, 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟}

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we can use an identifier (′𝑥′ for example) to denote a representative element , while a ‘:’ symbol
means ‘such that’ and then the rule that the identifier should obey:

{𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑥| < 5}

or

{𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, |𝑥| < 5 }

The latest way to write a set known as comprehension notation - can be expressed in standard form
as:

𝑥 | 𝑃(𝑥), where 𝑃(𝑥)is a statement states that the set comprised of all elements ′𝑥′ for which
𝑃 is true.

The symbol ∈ is used as follows:

● ∈ Stands for ‘is an element of. . . . For Example: 𝑠𝑛𝑎𝑘𝑒 ∈ 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠
● ∉ Stands for ‘is not an element of . . .
● For example: 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝐷𝑒𝑙ℎ𝑖 ∉ 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠

A set can be
i. Finite: for example, 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝐶𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑠
ii. Infinite: for example, {3, 9, 12, 15, 18, . . . }
(Note: the use of the ellipsis......indicates that sequence of numbers is endless).

Always, remember one thing that the order in which the elements in a set occur is immaterial.

1.2 Types of Sets

Universal set: The collection of all elements under consideration is said to be Universal set and it is
denoted by U. For example, the universal set may be {alphabetic characters} or {all living people}
etc.

Empty set: A set with no elements is called an empty or null set and generally denoted by 𝜙. For
example, Let a set 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} is given then 𝜙 ⊆ 𝐴. But 𝜙 ∉ 𝐴. Thus, the inclusion of an element is
the membership of an element in a set.

Other examples,

Example 1.1

● If 𝑈 = 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑎𝑔𝑒 then

𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 50 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 𝜙

● If 𝑈 = 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 then {𝑥 | 𝑥2 = 10} = 𝜙

1.3 Relations between Sets

There are many ways in which sets may be related to one another.

Equity
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 Two sets are said to be equal if they contain the same elements i.e. if every element of B is
also in A, & every element of A is also in B, then we say A = B.
e.g. if 𝐴 = {1,2,3} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = {1,3,2} 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 = 𝐵 .Two sets A & B are set to be equal, iff 𝐴 ⊆
𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 or symbolically,

𝐴 = 𝐵 ⇔ (𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴)
Example 1.2

{1,2,4} = {1,2,2,4};

{1,4,2} = {1,2,4};

{1,3,5, . . . } = {𝑥: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟}

Subsets

It can easily be imagine a set within a set. The contained set is called a subset of the containing set. If
the set A is a subset of B, we write:

𝐴⊆𝐵
Example 1.3

 The set of people living in Delhi is subset of the set of people living in India
 The set of organic compounds is the subset of chemical compounds.
 Set 𝐴 is called a proper subset of a set 𝑩if 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵. Symbolically it is written as
⊂ 𝐵 . It is also called proper inclusion. A proper inclusion is not reflexive but it is transitive
i.e. (𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵) and (𝐵 ⊂ 𝐶) ⇒ (𝐴 ⊂ 𝐶)

Note:

 Every set is a subset of the universal set, and the empty set is a subset of every set.
i.e. for every set 𝐴, the empty set does not have anything that isn’t in 𝐴 . So for all sets
𝐴 (𝜙 ⊆ 𝐴)
 If A is a subset of B i.e.(𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵) and B is a subset of A i.e.(𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴) then 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 should
comprises of exactly similar elements, and hence they are equal. In further terms: If (𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵)
and (𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴) then (𝐴 = 𝐵)

Disjoint

Disjoint sets can be defined as the sets with different elements with respect to each other. For

Instance:

If 𝐴 = 𝑆𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = {1, 3, 5, 11, 19} then 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 are disjoint sets.

1.4 Operations on Sets

Intersection

The intersection of any two sets 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵, written as 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, is the set consisting of all the elements
which belong to both 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 i.e.
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 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}

Example: 1.4 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = (𝐵 ∩ 𝐴)
(𝐴 ∩ 𝐴) = 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐴 ∩ 𝜙) = 𝜙
Note:
 Two sets 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 are called disjoint iff (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝜙, i.e. 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 have no element in
common.
 A collection of set is called disjoint collection if, for every pair of sets in the collection the
two sets are disjoint. The elements of a disjoint collection are said to be mutually disjoint.
e.g. If 𝐴 = {{1, 2}, {3}}, 𝐵 = {{1}, {2, 3}}, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = {{1, 2, 3}}now these sets are mutually
disjoint because (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝜙, (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = 𝜙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) = 𝜙. So the given sets are mutually
disjoint.

Union

The union of 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵, written as (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵), is the set of all elements which are members of the set A or
the set B or both it is written as

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}
i.e. 𝐴∪𝐵 =𝐵∪𝐴
𝐴∪𝜙 =𝐴
𝐴∪𝐴 =𝐴

Example 1.5 𝐴 = {0, 1, 2}

𝐵 = {0, −1, −2}
Then 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {0}

Complements

Let 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 be two sets. For any set A, the relative complement of 𝐵 with respect to 𝐴, written as 𝐴 −
𝐵 is the set consisting of all elements of 𝐴 which are not elements of 𝐵 i.e.
𝐴 − 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}
Relative complements of 𝐵 with respect to 𝐴 can be written as 𝐴 \ 𝐵

Let 𝑈 be the universal sets. For any set 𝐴, the relative complement of 𝐴 with respect to 𝑈, i.e.
𝑈 − 𝐴 is called the absolute compliment of 𝐴 . It is often called the compliment of 𝐴 and denoted
by 𝐴𝐶.

i.e. 𝑈 − 𝐴 = 𝐴𝐶 = {𝑋: 𝑋 ∈ 𝑈 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}

Note: we can represent 𝐴𝐶 as 𝐴′ also.

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1.5 Venn Diagrams
Introduction of the universal set permits the use of a pictorial device to study the connection between
the subsets of a universal set and their intersection, union, difference and other operations. The
diagrams used are called Venn Diagrams

1.5.1 Definition
Venn diagram is a schematic representation of a set by a set of points. The universal set U is
represented by a set of points in a rectangle and a subset say A of U is represented by the interior of
circle. The operation of union and intersection can be very simply represented through Venn
diagrams.

Thus “Venn diagrams are pictorial representations of sets and their inter-relations, and of them some
basic results in set theory become obvious through these diagrams”.

Any closed curve enclosing an area may be supposed to represent a set. Thus, let

the circles A and B represent the sets A and B respectively.

𝐴 𝐴
𝐵
𝐵

(Fig. 1.1 a) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = ∅ (Fig. 1.1 b) 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴

𝐴 U 𝐴 U

(Fig. 1.1 c) 𝐴 (Fig. 1.1 d) 𝐴𝑐

𝐴 𝐵

Fig. 1.1 e 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵

Thus from (Fig. 1.1 e), we see the portion common to two circles represents 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, while 𝐴 ∪
𝐵 is represented by the total area covered by the two circles together.

Suppose we represent the universal set 𝑈 by the rectangle in the (fig. 1.1 d). The component of 𝑆 with
respect to 𝑈 denoted by 𝑆′ 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑐 (fig. 1.2).

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 𝑆

(Fig. 1.2) 𝑆′ 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑐

Venn diagrams can also help in visualizing some types of problems given below

1.5.2 Complements
Suppose, if 𝑈 is a universal complement or simply complement of a set 𝐴, denoted by 𝐴𝑐 is the set of
elements which belong to 𝑈 but which do not belong to 𝐴:

𝐴𝑐 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈, 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}

The relative complement of a set 𝐵 with respect to a set 𝐴, simply, the difference of 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted
by 𝐴/𝐵 is the set of elements which belong to 𝐴 but which do not belong to 𝐵.

𝐴\𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}

𝐴 𝑐
𝐴
𝐴 𝐵

Cartesian product (fig. 1.3 b) 𝑨\𝑩 is shaded or 𝑨 −

𝑩 𝒐𝒓 𝑨~𝑩

1.6 Cartesian product

Let 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 be two sets. The Cartesian (or direct) product of non-empty sets 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 is defined as
the set 𝐴 × 𝐵 is the set of all ordered pairs such that the first member of the ordered pair is an element
of 𝐴 and the second member of 𝐵. The Cartesian product of 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 written as 𝐴 × 𝐵 and
represented as

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}

Example 1.6 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = {1,2,3}

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑎, 2), (𝑎, 3), (𝑏, 1), (𝑏, 2), (𝑏, 3)}
Note: if 𝐴 = ∅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 is any non-empty set then 𝐴 × 𝐵 = ∅ = 𝐵 × 𝐴

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Remark 1: In general 𝐴 × 𝐵 ≠ 𝐵 × 𝐴

Remark 2: If any one of the sets 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 is empty then 𝐴 × 𝐵 = ∅

Remark 3: If 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 have 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 elements, then 𝐴 × 𝐵 has 𝑚𝑛 elements

Remark 4: If 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are non-empty sets then

𝐴 × (𝐵 × 𝐶) ≠ (𝐴 × 𝐵) × 𝐶
1.7 Power Sets

On several occasions testing all the combinations of elements in a set for the particular property
involves numerous problems. In order to consider all such combinations in a set 𝑆, it needs to create a
set which has these combinations as subsets of 𝑆

Let 𝑆 be a set, and then the power set of 𝑆 i.e. set of all subsets of set 𝑆 can be represented as 𝑃(𝑆)

Example 1.7 The power set P({3, 5, 7}) is the set of all subsets of {3, 5, 7}.

Hence, P({3, 5, 7}) = {∅, {3}, {5}, {7}, {3, 5}, {3, 7}, {5, 7}, {3, 5, 7}}.

Note that in the set of subsets, empty set and the set itself are among its members. An empty

set has only one subset i.e itself. Thus,

P (∅) = {∅}.
The set {∅} has exactly two subsets, viz., ∅ and the set {∅} itself. Therefore,
P ({∅}) = {∅, {∅}}.

1.8 Counting Principles

Initially we are introducing two basic counting principles i.e. Product Rule and Sum Rule. Later on,
we will discuss the way they used to solve the counting problems

1.8.1 Product Rule

Assume that a process is broken down into two jobs and let there be 𝑛1 ways to conduct first job and
for each first job there are 𝑛2 ways to conduct second job therefore in all there are
𝑛1. 𝑛2 ways to get the entire process done.

Example 1.8:
A company with two employees namely Sanjeev and Pankaj, leases a floor in a building having 12
offices. So in exactly how many ways does the distinct office can be assigned to both of the
employees?

It can be solve as,

In the process to assign offices to two of the employees can be done by starting with Sanjeev to which
an office can be assigned in 12 ways (since the total no. of offices in building is 12)

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later on, Pankaj can be assigned an office in 11 ways (since an office is already allotted to Sanjeev).
Hence using product rule we can express this situation as,
12 x 11 = 132
Ways to assign offices to these two employees.

1.8.2 Sum Rule

Let us consider if a job that can be done either in one of n1 methods or one of n2 methods thereafter
none of the set of n1 methods are similar to the set with n2 methods thus, there are n1+n2 ways to
conduct that job.

Example 1.9
A student can select only a project from three given lists out of which each one consists of 23, 15 and
19 projects respectively. There is no repetition of any project among these three lists. Then how many
projects is there that can be selected by students?

Solution: The student can select a project either from the first list or the second list or the third list.
Though no project is repeated in any of the list, using sum rule there are 23 + 15 + 19 = 57 ways
to select a project.

Assume that if a job can be done in one of two methods and within that there is one which is common
to both. In such a scenario, the sum rule cannot be used to count the number of methods to conduct the
job. This can be done in two or more ways. We have to see whether to do this job in many ways that
will be counted repeatedly. So we have to subtract those methods which we have counted twice.

1.8.3 Subtraction Rule

If a job that can be done in 𝑛1 ways or 𝑛2 ways then the total number of ways in which that job can
be accomplished will be expressed as 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 and subtracting the number of ways that are
common in these two ways.

The rule of subtraction is also called as principle of inclusion–exclusion, particularly in case of

counting the elements in the union of two sets. Assume that S1 and S2 are the two sets. At that time,
there are |S1| ways to choice an element from S1 and |S2| ways to choice an element from S2. The
total number of ways to choose an element from S1 or from S2, will be the number of ways to choose
an element from the union of these two sets. It will be the sum of the number of ways to choose an
element from S1 and the number of ways to choose an element from S2, minus the number of ways to
choose an element that is in both S1 and S2. Mathematically it will be |S1 ∪ S2|ways to select an
element in either S1 or in S2, and |S1 ∩ S2| ways to choose an element common to both sets, this will
give a formula

|S1 ∪ S2| = |S1| + |S2| − |S1 ∩ S2|.

This is the expression for the total number of unique elements in the union of two sets.

Example 1.10
How many bytes either start with a 1 bit or terminated with the two bits 00?

Solution: We can create a string of bits of length eight that will either start with 1 or terminates with
two bits 00. We can create a string of bits having length eight that starts with a bit 1 in 27

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= 128 ways. This is due to the product rule, since the first bit can be chosen in only single way and
every other bits can be chosen in two ways. Similarly, we can create a string of bits with length eight
terminating with the two bits 00, in 26 = 64 ways. This is due to the product rule, since each of the first
six bits can be chosen in two ways and the last two bits can be chosen in only one way.

Some of the ways to create a string of bits with length eight starts at 1 are the same as the ways to
create a string of bits with length eight that terminates with the two bits 00. There are 25 = 32 ways to
create such a string. This uses the product rule, since the first bit can be chosen in only one way, every
sixth bits can be chosen in two ways, and the last two bits can be chosen in one way. Subsequently,
the number of strings of bits with length eight that starts at 1 or terminate at 00, which equals the
number of ways to create a string of bits of length eight that starts at 1 or that terminates with 00,
equals 128 + 64 − 32 = 160.

1.8.4 Division Rule

It is useful while solving listing problems.
“There are 𝑛/𝑑 methods to do a job if it can be done using a process that can be conducted in 𝑛 ways,
and for each way 𝑤, exactly 𝑑 out of the 𝑛 ways resemble to way 𝑤.”

The division rule can be reaffirmed in terms of sets: “If a finite set S is the union of 𝑛 pairwise disjoint
subsets each with 𝑑 elements, then 𝑛 = |𝑆|/𝑑 .”

We can demonstrate the division rule for counting with the following example.

Example 1.11
How many dissimilar ways to seat four people about a circular table, where two seating’s are assumed
the same when each person has the same left and the right neighbor?

Solution: Firstly, randomly select a seat around the table and tag it seat 1. Then tag the remaining
seats in arithmetical order, arranged clockwise manner around the table.
Consider the facts,
- There are four ways to opt the person for seat 1,
- Three ways to opt the person for seat 2,
- Two ways to opt the person for seat 3,
- One way to opt the person for seat 4.
Therefore, we can say that this can be done in factorial 4 ways, i.e. 4! = 24 ways to order the given
four people for these seats.
Though, each of the four choices for seat 1 leads to the same arrangement, as it can be distinguished
two arrangements only when one of the people has a different immediate left or immediate right
neighbor.
Now we have four ways to select the person for seat 1, by the division rule it will be

24/4 = 6

different seating arrangements of four people around the circular table.

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 Fig. 1.4

Tree Diagrams

The problems on counting can also be solved by using trees. A tree contains a root; a number of
branches originate from the root, and possible further branches originating the endpoints of other
branches. To use trees in counting, we use a branch to represent each possible choice. We represent
the possible outcomes by the leaves, which are the endpoints of branches not having other branches
starting at them.

Example 1.12
Assume that “I Love India” T-shirts available in five variants: S, M, L, XL, and XXL. Besides this
assume that each variant available in four different colors, yellow, orange, pink, and gray, except for
XL, which available in orange, pink, and gray, and XXL, which have pink and gray. How many
different t-shirts does a memento shop should stock to have at least one of each available variant and
color of the T-shirt?

Solution: The trees diagram in the given Figure 1-5 displays all the possible variants and color pairs.
It follows that the memento shop owner needs to stock 17 different T-shirts.

Fig. 1.5

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1.9 Cardinality

Sets are broadly used in counting problems, therefore for such use we need to study about their sizes.

Let us assume that S be a set contains n distinct elements where n is any non-negative integer then the
set S is said to be finite. The cardinality of set S can be represented by |S| which is in other term also
called as number of elements in S.

Examples 1.13

 Let X be the set of odd positive integers less than 20. Then |X| = 10.
 Let P be the set of prime positive integers less than 10. Then |P| = 5.
 Though the null set contain no elements, it follows that |∅| = 0.

We will also be interested in sets that are not finite. Infinite

set: A set is called as infinite if it is not finite set. Example

1.14 The set of all positive integers is infinite set. Extending

the notion of cardinality

Till now the notion of cardinality was in the scope of finite sets which is used to compare the two
finite sets on the basis of their sizes. Now we are extending this notion to infinite set where the
comparison can be done on the basis of the difference between their sizes with respect to each other.

These notions have vital applications to computer science. A set is said to be uncomputable in case of
infeasibility of a computer program to find all its values, even with unlimited time and memory. This
notion is used to explain why uncomputable sets exist.

Definition:

The sets A and B are said to have same cardinality only when their sizes are equal and have one to
one correspondence between distinct elements of the set. It can be expressed as |A| =
|B|.

In case of infinite sets, we need to talk of the cardinality on relatively among two sets instead of being
particular to a set.

In other words, If there is a one to one correspondence between A and B, the size of A is less than or
same as the size of B and we express it as |A| ≤ |B|. Here we can add that when
|A| ≤ |B| and A and B have different cardinality, we can conclude that the cardinality of A is less than
the cardinality of B and it will be |A| < |B|.

1.10 Countability

1.10.1 Countable Sets

Now, we will divide infinite sets into two different groups, those with the similar cardinality as the set
of natural numbers and those with a dissimilar cardinality.

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 Fig. 1.6

A set is said to be countably infinite iff, it has the similar cardinality as the set of positive integers
𝑍+. A set is called countable iff, it is finite or countably infinite.

Example 1.15 To show a set is countable:

Fig. 1.7

In order to proof that the set odd positive integers is finite, we need to have one to one
correspondence with the set of positive integers 𝑍+. It can be expressed as,

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 – 1

from 𝑍+ to the set of odd positive integers. We prove that 𝑓 is a one-to-one correspondence by
showing that it is both one-to-one and onto. To see that it is one-to-one, suppose that
𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑦).

Then 2𝑥 − 1 = 2𝑦 − 1, so 𝑥 = 𝑦.

To see that it is onto, suppose that 𝑛 is an odd positive integer. Then 𝑛 is 1 less than an even integer
2𝑘, where 𝑘 is a natural number. Hence 𝑛 = 2𝑘 − 1 = 𝑓 (𝑘).

An infinite set is countable if and only if it is possible to list the elements of the set in a sequence
(indexed by the positive integers). The reason for this is that a one-to-one correspondence 𝑓 from the
set of positive integers to a set S can be expressed in terms of a sequence
𝑎1, 𝑎2, . . . , 𝑎𝑥, . . . , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎1 = 𝑓 (1), 𝑎2 = 𝑓 (2), . . . , 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑥), . . . .

1.10.2 Uncountable Sets

A set that is not countable is called uncountable.

A significant proof method presented in 1879 by Georg Cantor and commonly known as the Cantor
diagonalization argument. It was supposed to prove that the set of real numbers is not countable.

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Let’s see that how the set of real numbers is uncountable, we assume in advance that the set of real
numbers is countable and reach at a stage of contradiction. Then, the subset of all real numbers that
are between 0 and 1 would also be countable (since any subset of a countable set is also countable).
Under this assumption, the real numbers between 0 and 1 can be listed in some order, say, r1, r2, r3, ...
We can decimal represent these real numbers like

𝑟1 = 0. 𝑑11𝑑12𝑑13𝑑14. … …

𝑟2 = 0. 𝑑21𝑑22𝑑23𝑑24. … …

𝑟3 = 0. 𝑑31𝑑32𝑑33𝑑34. … …

𝑟4 = 0. 𝑑41𝑑42𝑑43𝑑44. … …

...

where dij ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. (For example, if r1 = 0.23794102 . . . , we have d11 = 2, d12 = 3,
d13 = 7, and so on.) Then, form a new real number with decimal expansion

r = 0.d1d2d3d4 . . . , where the decimal digits are determined by the following rule:

𝑑𝑖 = {4 𝑖𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑖 ≠ 4
5 𝑖𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑖 ≠ 4

(As an example, suppose that r1 = 0.23794102 . . . , r2 = 0.44590138 . . . , r3 = 0.09118764 . .

. , r4 = 0.80553900 . . . , and so on. Then we have r = 0.d1d2d3d4 . . . = 0.4544 . . . , where d1
= 4 because d11 ≠ 4, d2 = 5 because d22 = 4, d3 = 4 because d33 ≠ 4, d4 = 4 because d44 ≠ 4, and so
on.)

Decimal expansion of each real number is unique by itself. Consequently, the real number 𝑟 is
not equal to any of its component because the decimal expansion of r differs from the decimal
expansion of their components to the right of the decimal point.

Though there is a real number r between 0 and 1 that is not in the list, the supposition that all
the real numbers between 0 and 1 could be listed should be false. Thus, all the real numbers between 0
and 1 cannot be listed, so the set of real numbers between 0 and 1 is uncountable. Any set having an
uncountable subset is uncountable. Therefore, the set of real numbers is uncountable.

Results about Cardinality

 If X and Y are countable sets, then their union is also countable.

 If X and Y are sets with |X| ≤ |Y| and |Y| ≤|X|, then |X| = |Y|. In other terms, there is a one-to-
one correspondence between X and Y.

1.11 Basic Set Identities and Proofs

Useful Definitions

For 𝐴, 𝐵 subsets of the universal set 𝑈

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 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ⟺ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵

𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ⟺ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵

𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 − 𝐵 ⟺ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵

𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝐶 ⟺ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴

𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⟺ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵

1.11.1 Basic set Identities

 Cumulative Law
o 𝐴∪𝐵 =𝐵∪𝐴
o 𝐴∩𝐵 =𝐵∩𝐴
 Associative Law
o (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)
o (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
 Distributive Laws
o 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
o 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
 Identity Laws
o ∅∪𝐴=𝐴∪∅=𝐴
o 𝐴∩∅=∅∩𝐴=∅
o 𝐴∩𝑈 =𝑈∩𝐴=𝐴
o 𝐴∪𝑈 =𝑈∪𝐴=𝑈
 Complement Law
o 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑈

o 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴𝐶 = ∅
o 𝑈𝐶 = ∅
o ∅𝐶 = 𝑈

 Double Complement Law

o (𝐴𝐶)𝐶 = 𝐴
 Idempotent Law
o 𝐴∪𝐴 =𝐴
o 𝐴∩𝐴 =𝐴
 De Morgan’s Law
o (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 ∩ 𝐵𝐶
o (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 ∪ 𝐵𝐶
 Alternative representation for set difference
o 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐶

1.11.2 Proofs

Distributive Law

For sets 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 prove that 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)

Proof: Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) ⟺ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)

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⟺ 𝑥∈𝐴 𝑜𝑟 (𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶)

⟺ (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶)

⟺ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)

⟺ 𝑥 ∈ {(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)}

Thus, we can say 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)

1.12 Pigeonhole Principle

The pigeonhole principle states that if n+1 pigeons fly into n pigeonholes, then at least one pigeonhole
must contain two or more pigeons. This principle is illustrated in Figure 1.8 for 5 pigeons and 4
pigeonholes. Illustration (a) shows the pigeons perched next to their holes, and
(b) shows the correspondence from pigeons to pigeonholes. The pigeonhole principle is sometimes
called the Dirichlet box principle because it was first stated formally by J. P. G. L. Dirichlet (1805–
1859).

Fig. 188

Illustration (b) suggests the following mathematical way to phrase the principle.

Generalized Pigeonhole Principle

A generalization of the pigeonhole principle states that if n pigeons fly into m pigeonholes and, for
some positive integer k, k < n/m, then at least one pigeonhole contains k + 1 or more pigeons. This is
illustrated in Figure 1.9 for m = 4, n = 9, and k = 2. Since 2 < 9/4 = 2.25, at least one pigeonhole
contains three (2 + 1) or more pigeons. (In this example, pigeonhole 3 contains three pigeons.)

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 Fig. 1.9

Propositional Logic

Reasoning revolves around reasoning. We can call it as set of rules while working with logical
reasoning. The history shows great signs over the timeframe that reasoning is being a constant factor
in derivation of knowledge and its representation. This is all the critical work of George Boole, a
famous British mathematician which was handy taken by Gotlob Frege. Modern philosopher and
Mathematician Bertand Russell with Alfred Whitehead had come out with the new definite set of
logics which are common in use now.

Logic is based on truth and false of statements. However, there are many other factors which
determine whether the statement is true of false. In spite of using individual statements, symbols had
been used to represent arbitrary statements so that the results can be used.

The types of logic are

a. Propositional logic ( logic of sentences)

b. Predicate logic ( logic of objects)
c. Fuzzy logics
d. Uncertainty logics etc.

We are bit focused on Propositional logic and Predicate logics.

4.1 Propositional Logic

It is basically logic of sentences or in other words it is the logic of statements. It is the way through
which one studies the joining or modifying entire propositions, statements or sentences.

One can also come up with more complicated propositions, statements or sentences as well as logical
relationship or any property among them by deriving these basic statements. In this Propositional
logic the basic statements can be called as indivisible units. Or in other words it cannot be further
divided into statements. Hence propositional logic does not study these partial statements and hence
doesn’t come out with any logical properties and relations on them i.e. subject and predicate of a
statement.

Among many propositional logics the truth functional propositional logic is perfect. It is based on
logical operators and connectives which give rises to complex statements. Interestingly the

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truth value of these complex statements depend upon the truth value of simple statements and hence
once can derive that the statement is true or false and not both.

This clearly shows that the sentences in this category are either true or false and also known as
propositional sentences.

4.2 Propositions

As defined earlier a proposition is a sentence which is either true or false, but not both. We can also
call like this if the proposition is true, then its truth value is true.

Example 4.1 Let us consider the following propositions along with their truth values:

1. Sky is blue True

2. Sun is yellow True

Here the truth values of both of the propositions are true.

Let us consider some propositions whose truth values are false.

3. Bus can Fly False

4. “4 + 4 = 9” False

Let us see some other examples where the sentences are neither true nor false.

5. “Open the gate”

6. “Is the tea hot?”

7. What is the temperature outside?

From these three sentences, we can come out with any result whether they are true of false, hence we
can’t call them propositions. . The 5th sentence is an order; the 6 th sentence is a question, tea may be
hot or cold. Similarly the 7th sentence asks about the temperature. Thus, no definite set of information
(true/false) can we derive from these sentences, so we can say they are not propositional sentences.

4.2.1 Elements of propositions

Simple true of false statements are called as basic propositions. When these simple statements are
joined or combined using the connectives, they form complex sentences. We can say that propositions
and connectives are two fundamental elements of propositional logic.

Although there are many connectives, but are confining herewith five connectives, basic in nature are:

 NOT
 AND
 OR
 IF_THEN (or IMPLY)

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  IF_AND_ONLY_IF

They are also denoted by the symbols: ¬, ⋀, ⋁, ⟶, ⟷ respectively.

4.1.2 Propositional Variable

The name which is supposed to represent a proposition is commonly known as propositional variable.
We can understand the same with some examples.
1.
P1: The earth is a planet (True)
2.
P2 : Fish walks on road (False)
3.
P3 : 2+ 2 = 4 (True)

4.3 Basic Logic

The logic starts with a variable. In simple words we can define variable as a letter we use for an
unknown object of any type.

Let us consider the equation 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 10. Here 𝑎 and 𝑏 are variables which denotes
some values whose sum is 10.

Lets us take another example. We write a statement that

“Let B is superset of X”. This shows that B is a variable (where it is an unknown set) whereas
we can’t call X as variable (it is a name given to set of all odd numbers).

But in case of example where 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 15 and 2𝑎 + 3𝑏 = 20 , both 𝑎 and 𝑏 are

variables even though the values are inter dependent with each other.

It would be quite normal to say something like this: “Let 𝑥 and 𝑦 be two real numbers. Suppose that
they satisfy the equations 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 8 and 𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 12. Determine the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦” It is then
reasonable to call them variables, because initially no information is given about them. Further we
have some relationships between 𝑥 and 𝑦 and from these relationships it is possible to deduce the
exact values of 𝑥 and 𝑦.

4.3.1 Logical Connectives

The words and phrases (or symbols) used to form compound propositions are called connectives.
There are five basic connectives called, Negation, Conjunction, Disjunction, Implication or
conditional and Equivalence or Biconditional.

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 Table 4.1 Connectives, symbols and symbolic form

Symbol Connective Nature of statement Symbolic

used word form
~, ¬ Not Negation ~𝑝
⋀ And Conjunction 𝑝⋀𝑞
∨ Or Disjunction 𝑝∨𝑞
⇒, ⟶ If……then Implication (or Conditional) 𝑝⟶𝑞
⟺, ⟷ If and only if Equivalence (or Bi-conditional) 𝑝⟷𝑞
≡ Equivalence Equivalence of predicate 𝑝≡𝑞

Negation

If 𝑝 is any proposition, the negation of 𝑝, denoted by ~𝑝 and read as not 𝑝, is a proposition which is
false when 𝑝 is true and true when 𝑝 is false. Consider the statement

𝑝: 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Then the negation of 𝑝 is the statement

~𝑝: 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒.

Strictly speaking, negation is not a connective, since it does not join two statements and ~𝑝 is not
really a compound statement. However, negation is a unary operation for the collection of statements,
and ~𝑝 is a statement if 𝑝 is considered a statement.

Example 4.2 The following propositions are equivalent:

𝑝 : All people are intelligent.

𝑞 : Every person is intelligent.

𝑟 : Each person is intelligent.

𝑠 : Any person is intelligent.

Example 4.3 The negation of the proposition

𝑝 : All students are intelligent can

be expressed in the following ways:

~𝑝 : Some students are not intelligent.

~𝑝 : There exists a student who is not intelligent.

~𝑝 : At least one student is not intelligent.

Example 4.4 The negation of the proposition

𝑞 : No student is intelligent .

is

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 ~𝑞 : Some students are intelligent.

Note that “No student is intelligent” is not the negation of 𝑝; “All students are intelligent” is not the
negation of 𝑞.

Conjunction

If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are two statements, then conjunction of 𝑝 and 𝑞 is the compound statement denoted by 𝑝⋀𝑞
and read as “𝑝 and 𝑞”. The compound statement 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 is true when both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are true, otherwise it
is false.

Example 4.5

Form the conjunction of 𝑝 and 𝑞 for each of the following.

a) 𝑝: Ram is healthy 𝑞: He has blue eyes

b) 𝑝: It is cold 𝑞: It is raining
c) 𝑝: 5𝑥 + 6 = 26 𝑞: 𝑥 > 3

Solution:

a) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞: Ram is healthy and he has blue eyes

b) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 : It is cold and raining.
c) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∶ 5𝑥 + 6 = 26 and 𝑥 > 3

Remarks

The symbol ∧ has specific meaning which is corresponding to the connective ‘and’ appearing in the
English language, although ‘and’ may also be used with some other meanings. In order to see the
difference, consider the following three statements:

(i) Nilam is a girl and Arjun is a boy.

(ii) Shekhar switched on the computer and started to work
(iii) Kanchan and Sheela are friends.

In statement (i) the connective ‘and’ is used in the same sense as the symbol ∧. In (ii) the word ‘and’
is used in the sense of ‘and then’ because the action described in “Shekhar started to work” after the
action described in “shekhar switched on the computer”. Finally, in (iii) the world ‘and’ is not at all a
connective.

In logic we may combine any two sentences to form a conjunction, there is no requirement that the
two sentences be related in content or subject matter. Any combinations, however absurd, are
permitted, of course, we are usually not interested in sentences like ‘’Tanvir loves to play cricket”,
and 4 is divisible by 2’.

Disjunction

If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are two statements, the disjunction of 𝑝 and 𝑞 is the compound statement denoted by 𝑝⋁𝑞
and read as “𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑞”. The statement 𝑝⋁𝑞 is true if at least one of 𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑞 is true (The advertiser who
writes ‘The candidate must know English or Hindi, certainly would not reject a candidate if he knows
both the languages). It is false when both 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 are false.

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The English word “or” can be used in two different senses – as an inclusive (“and/or”) or exclusive
(“either/or”). For example consider the following statements.

1. 𝑝: He will go to Delhi or to Calcutta

2. 𝑞: There is something wrong with bulb or with the circuit.

In the compound statement (1), the disjunction of the statements 𝑝 has been used in exclusive sense (𝑝
or 𝑞 but not both); that is to say: one or the other possibility exists but not both. Clearly, a person can
not do both.

In compound statement (2), the connective or is being used in an inclusive sense (𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑞

𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ). In this case at least one of the two possibilities occurred, however both could have
occurred. We shall always use ‘or’ in the inclusive sense unless it is stated.

Example 4.6 Assign a truth value to each of the following statements.

(i) 5 < 5 ⋁ 5 < 6

(ii) 5 × 4 = 21 ∨ 9 + 7 = 17
(iii) 6 + 4 = 10 ∨ 0 > 2

Solution:

(i) True, since one of its components 5 < 6 is true

(ii) False, since both of its components are false.
(iii) True, since one of its components 6 + 4 = 10 is true.

Example 4.7 If 𝑝: It is cold and 𝑞: It is raining.

Write simple verbal sentence which describes each of the following statements

a) ~𝑝 b) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 c) 𝑝⋁𝑞 d) 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞

Solution:

a) ~𝑝: It is not cold

b) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞: It is cold and raining
c) 𝑝⋁𝑞: It is cold or raining
d) 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞: It is cold or it is not raining.

Implication (If . . . Then)

If 𝑝 and 𝑞 are two propositions, then ‘IF 𝑝 THEN 𝑞’ is a proposition (denoted by 𝑝 → 𝑞). In
𝑝 → 𝑞, 𝑝 is called hypothesis or premise and 𝑞 is called conclusion or consequence.

Example 4.8:
Let 𝑝 denote “It is cold” and let 𝑞 denote “It rains”. Write the following statements in symbolic form
a. It rains only if it is cold.
b. A necessary condition for it to be cold is that it rain.
c. A sufficient condition for it to be cold is that it rain.

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Solution:
a. 𝑞 → 𝑝
b. 𝑝 → 𝑞
c. 𝑞 → 𝑝

Bi-conditional (If and only if)

Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 are propositions. The proposition 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 is called bi-conditional and it is read as “𝑝 if
and only if 𝑞” (or) “𝑝 iff 𝑞”.
The truth value of 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 is true if both p and q are true or false; 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 is false if 𝑝 and 𝑞
have different truth values.

Example 4.9
Determine the truth value of each of the following statements:
a. Mumbai is in India if and only if 3 + 3 = 6.
b. Mumbai is in India if and only if 3 + 3 = 7.
c. Mumbai is in Australia if and only if 3 + 3 = 6.
d. Mumbai is in Australia if and only if 3 + 3 = 7.
Solution:
(a) and (d) are true since the sub-statements are both true in (a) and both false in (d). On the
other hand, (c) and (b) are false since the sub-statements have different truth values.

Equivalence (Logical Equivalence ‘≡’)

Two propositions p and q are said to be logically equivalent, or simply equivalent or equal, denoted by

𝑝≡𝑞

If they have identical truth values.

4.3.2 Truth Tables

The truth value of a proposition is either true (denoted by T) or false (denoted by F). A truth table is a
table that shows the truth value of a compound proposition for all possible cases.

For example, consider the conjunction of any two propositions 𝑝 and 𝑞 . The compound statement 𝑝 ∧
𝑞 is true when both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are true, otherwise false. There are four possible cases.

1. 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is true.

2. 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false.
3. 𝑝 is false and 𝑞 is true.
4. 𝑝 is false and 𝑞 is false.

There four cases are listed in the first two columns and the truth values of ∧ 𝑞 , 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 and
~𝑝 are shown in the table below:

Table 4.2 Truth tables of (a) 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, (b) 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 and (c) ~𝑝

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 𝑝
𝑝 𝑞 (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) 𝑝 𝑞 (𝑝⋁𝑞) ~𝑝
T T T T T T T F
T F F T F T F T
F T F F T T
F F F F F F

(b) (c)
(a)

The truth value of a compound depends only on the truth values of the statements being combined and
on the types of connectives being used. Truth tables are especially valuable in the determination of the
truth of connectives being used. Truth tables are especially valuable in the determination of the truth
values of propositions constructed from simpler propositions. Note that the first columns of the table
are for the variables 𝑝, 𝑞, … … … and the number of rows depends on the number of variables. For 2
variables, 4 rows are necessary; for 3 variables, 8 rows are necessary; in general, for 𝑛 variables, 2𝑛
rows are required. The truth value at each step is determined from the previous stages by the
definition of connectives. The truth value of the proposition appears in the last column.

Some Important Laws

1. Idempotent Law
a. 𝑝 ∨ 𝑝 ≡ 𝑝
b. 𝑝 ∧ 𝑝 ≡ 𝑝
2. Associative Law
a. (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟 ≡ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)
b. (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑟 ≡ 𝑝 ∧ (𝑟 ∧ 𝑟)
3. Commutative Law
a. 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ≡ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑝
b. 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ≡ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝
4. De-Morgan’s Law
a. ∼ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡∼ 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞
b. ∼ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ≡∼ 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞
5. Distributive Law
a. 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑟)
b. 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟)
6. ∼∼ 𝑝 ≡ 𝑝
7. 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑝 ≡ 1, 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑝 ≡ 0
8. 𝑝 ∨ 1 ≡ 1, 𝑝 ∧ 1 ≡ 𝑝

4.4 Tautologies and Contradictions

A compound proposition that is always true for all possible truth values of its variables or in other
words, that contains only T in the last column of its truth table is called a tautology. A compound
proposition that is always false for all possible values of its variables or in other words, that contains
only F in the last column of its truth table is called a contradiction. Finally a proposition that is neither
a tautology nor a contradiction is called a contingency.

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Example 4.10 Propositions like

a) The professor is either a woman or a man.

b) People either like watching TVs or they don’t. are

always true and are called tautologies.

Example 4.11 Propositions like

a) 𝑥 is prime and 𝑥 is an even integer greater than 8

b) All men are good and all men are bad are

always false and are called contradictions.

Example 4.12 Prove that the following propositions are tautology

a) 𝑝 ⋁ ~𝑝 b) ~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑞 c) 𝑝 → (𝑝 ⋁ 𝑞)

Solution:

(a) The truth table of the given proposition is shown below. Since the truth value is TRUE for all
possible values of the propositional variables which can be seen in the last column the table,
the given proposition is tautology

Table 4.3 Truth table of 𝑝 ⋁ ~𝑝

𝑝 ~𝑝 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝
T F T
F T T

(b) We construct the truth table for the expression in question. It can be seen that for any possible
assignment of 𝑝 and 𝑞, the expression ~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑞 is true, which establishes that it is a
tautology

Table 4.4 Truth table of ~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑞.

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞 ~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑞
T T T F T
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F T T

(c) We construct the truth table of the given expression. It can be seen from the last column of the
truth table that the expression is true for all possible assignments of 𝑝 and 𝑞. Hence the
proposition is tautology.

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 Table 4.5 Truth table of 𝑝 → (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)

4.5 Normal Forms

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𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞 𝑝 → (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)
T T T T T
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F F T

Let’s talk about normal forms. So far we have learned about the propositions, tautologies,
contradictions and putting them in truth table. Surprisingly it is not always possible to construct the
truth table when there are too many variables.

So the better method is to transform the expressions p and q to some form of expressions
i.e. 𝑝′ and 𝑞′ in such a way that they can denotes something like 𝑝 ≡ 𝑞.

The standard forms are popularly known as normal forms or in some places it can also be called as
canonical forms.

Types of normal forms:

1. Disjunctive normal forms

2. Conjunctive normal forms.

For simplifying the things, we often use the words product for the logical connective
conjunction and sum for logical connective disjunction.

We can take some other common terms like Elementary Product or Elementary Sum.

4.5.1 Elementary Product

It can be defined as a product of variable and their negation in a formula. For example, let us take two
atomic variables p and q then 𝑝, ~𝑝, ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, and ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ ~𝑞 are the examples of elementary product.

We are already familiar that any variable 𝑝, 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑝 is a contradiction. Hence, if 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑝 appears in the
elementary product, then the product is definitely false.

This clearly shows that the statement a necessary condition for an elementary product to be identically
false is that it should contains at least one pair of factors in which one is the negation of the other.

4.5.2 Elementary Sum

An elementary sum can be defined as the sum of variable and its negation. We can take example of 𝑝
and 𝑞 be any two variables. Then 𝑝, ~𝑝, ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, and ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ ~𝑞 can be called as some examples of
elementary sum.

For an example we know for variable 𝑝, 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝 is tautology. Hence, if 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝 appears in the

elementary sum, then the sum is identically true.

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Hence, we can derive from this that for a statement the necessary condition for an elementary sum to
be identically true is that it must contain at least one pair of factor in which one is the negation of the
other.

4.5.3 Disjunctive Normal Form

We can define an expressive to be Disjunctive normal form or popularly known as DNF, when it is to
be the sum of elementary products.

For example, 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) and 𝑝 ∨ (~𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) are in disjunctive normal form while 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) is not in
disjunctive normal form.

Procedure to obtain a disjunctive normal form of a given logical expression

In order to attain a DNF through algebraic expressions, it can be worked in three steps.

a. We should remove all → and ↔ by an equivalent expression containing the

connectives ∨ ∧, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ~ only
b. Elimination of ~ before sums and products by using De Mogans law or by the double
negation
c. Implying the distributive law until we obtained a sum of elementary product Let’s

work out the above with a suitable example.

Example 4.13 Obtain the DNF of the following:

(a) 𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞) (b) 𝑝 ∧ (~𝑝 ⇒ (𝑞 ∨ (𝑞 ⇒ ~𝑟)))

Solution:

(a) 𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞) ≡ 𝑝 ∧ (~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)
≡ (𝑝 ∧ ~𝑝) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)

(b) 𝑝 ∧ (~𝑝 ⇒ (𝑞 ∨ (𝑞 ⇒ ~𝑟))) ≡ 𝑝 ∨ (~𝑝 ⇒ (𝑞 ∨ (~𝑞 ∨ ~𝑟)))

≡ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∨ (~𝑞 ∨ ~𝑟)))
≡ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ ~𝑞 ∨ ~𝑟
≡ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ ~𝑞 ∨ ~𝑟

4.5.4 Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF)

A logical expression if it consists of a product of elementary sum is called as conjunctive normal form
(CNF). Let us understand the same with a suitable example.

Example 4.14 Find the conjunctive normal form of the followings:

(a) 𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞) (b) [𝑞 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟)] ∧ ~[(𝑝 ∨ 𝑟) ∧ 𝑞]

Solution:

(a) 𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞) ≡ 𝑝 ∧ (~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) it is the CNF of the statement

(b) [𝑞 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟)] ∧ ~[(𝑝 ∨ 𝑟) ∧ 𝑞] ≡ [𝑞 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟)] ∧ [~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑟) ∨ ~𝑞]

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 ≡ [𝑞 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟)] ∧ [(~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑟) ∨ ~𝑞]

≡ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑝) ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∧ (~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞) ∧ (~𝑟 ∨ ~𝑞)

After understanding DNF and CNF we are going to learn about PDNF i.e. Principal disjunctive
Normal form.

4.5.5 Principal Disjunctive Normal Form (PDNF)

Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be two statement variables. If we create all possible formulae that consist of conjunction
of 𝑝 or ~𝑝 with 𝑞 or ~𝑞 excluding the forms where a variable and its negation both appear and any
form equivalent to previously obtained form, we are going to get the following forms:

𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞, and ~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞

We can call these forms as minterms for the two variables 𝑝 and 𝑞.

Interestingly we do find that all minterms are different. If there are 𝑛 variables in a statement formula,
then there will be 2𝑛 minterms.

Let’s find the minterms of the three variables 𝑝, 𝑞 and 𝑟, they are

𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ ~𝑟, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟, 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞 ∧ 𝑟, ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ ~𝑟, ~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟, 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞 ∧ ~𝑟, ~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞 ∧ 𝑟,and ~𝑝 ∧

~𝑞 ∧ ~𝑟.

An equivalent formula consisting of disjunctions of min-terms alone for a given formula is commonly
called as principal disjunctive normal form (PDNF). Let’s do it with an example:

Example 4.15 Write the PDNF of 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)

Solution:

𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑇) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝 ≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑇))

≡ (𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ ~𝑞)) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝 ≡ 𝑇)

≡ ((𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞)) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤)

≡ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞)

Example 4.16 Find the PDNF of the following statements:

1. 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 → 𝑞)
2. 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
3. 𝑝→𝑞

Solution: Let’s try to find out the PDNF through truth table:

Finding of Principal Disjunctive Normal Form using Truth Table

Firstly, for every truth value 𝑇 of the given formula in the truth table, write the minterm corresponding
to the truth values of the variables. We all know that the minterm consists of the variable itself if its
truth value is true and negation of the variable if its truth value is false.

The disjunction of these minterms is the PDNF of the given formula. The PDNF of 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
can be find as below:

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 Table 4.6 Truth table of 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)and corresponding minterms

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
T T T T 𝑝∧𝑞
T F F T 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞
F T F F
F F F F

The truth table, clearly shows that only two truth values are true for the given formula. Hence, the
PDNF is (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞).

4.5.6 Principal Conjunctive Normal Form (PCNF)

Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be two statement variables. If we try to create all possible formulae that consist of
disjunctions of 𝑝 or ~𝑝 with 𝑞 or ~𝑞 excluding the forms where a variable and its negation both
appear in any form equivalent to previously obtained form, we will have the following forms:

𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞, and ~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞

We can call these forms as maxterms for the two variables 𝑝 and 𝑞. In PDNF we do have minterms
but in PCNF we will have maxterms.

We can understand with an example for three variables 𝑝, 𝑞 and 𝑟, the maxterms are: 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨
~𝑟, 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟, 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞 ∨ 𝑟, ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ ~𝑟, ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟, 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞 ∨ ~𝑟, ~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞 ∨ 𝑟,and ~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞 ∨
~𝑟.

For a given formula, an equivalent formula consisting of conjunction of max-terms alone is popularly
called as Principal conjunctive normal form (PCNF). We can understand it better with the help of
following example:

Example 4.17 Write the PCNF of 𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞).

Solution:

𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡ (𝑝 ∨ 𝐹) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝 ∨ 𝐹 ≡ 𝑝)

≡ (𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ ~𝑞)) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑞 ∨ ~𝑞 ≡ 𝐹)

≡ ((𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞)) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤)

≡ ((𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞) (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤)

≡ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞) (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝 ∧ 𝑝 ≡ 𝑝)

We will try to find the Principal Conjunctive Normal Form Using Truth Table The
PCNF of a given formula using the truth table can be find out as follows.

For any given formula in the truth table,for every truth value 𝐹 we write the max-term corresponding
to the truth values. As maxterm consists of the variable itself it its truth value false and the negation of
the variable if its truth value is true.

The conjunction of these maxterms will be the PCNF of the given formula.

PCNF of 𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) can be obtained as given in the table below:

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 Table 4.7 Truth table of 𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) and corresponding maxterms

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞 𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
T T T T
T F T T
F T T F 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞
F F F F 𝑝∨𝑞
Hence, the PCNF is (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞).

In last we can say that PDNF and PCNF techniques are very useful in understanding the logics
effectively.

Inference
An inference can be defined as a process or a method of making logical conclusions on the basis of
premises known or expected to be true. The derived conclusion is considered to be natural.

The propositions that are assumed to be true are called hypotheses or premises. The proposition
derived by the using the rules of inference is called conclusion. The process of deriving conclusions
based on the assumption of premises is called a valid argument.

It can be explained as the illogical, but rational stuff via perceiving facts patterns, context for
understanding. In other words, inference does not used to derive conclusions but unlocks the new
avenues for inquiry. Inferences can be categorized in two types as:

1. Inductive Inference
2. Deductive inference.

Let us look at the example of inductive inference:

1. All Cricketers are fit.

2. Sachin is a Cricketer.
3. Therefore, Sachin is fit.

Here we can check truthfulness of the premises and conclusion, besides logic & inference are
interrelated: does the truth of the assumption follow the premises?

To determine form of the inference is significant because on the basis of it, validity of an inference
can be determined. However, the word “valid” itself depicts the form of inference rather than the
truthiness of premises or the conclusion. It is possible that an inference can said to be valid even if
some portion is false and may get invalid in spite of some portion of it is true. Thus, a valid form
along with true premises will always have a true conclusion.

For instance,

1. All fruits come from trees.

2. Apple is a type of fruit.
3. Therefore, Apple comes from a tree.

The truthiness of conclusion is closely related to premises, too. Now we

bring an invalid form of inference.

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 1. All M are F
2. B is a F
3. Thus, B is a M

Now let’s see how it is invalid,

1. All mangoes are fruit. (Correct)

2. All Bananas are fruit. (Correct)
3. Therefore, Bananas are mangoes. (Wrong)

A false conclusion may also come out of a valid argument with false premises :

1. All Stars are Bright.

2. LED is Bright.
3. Thus, LED is a Star.

If in case a false conclusion is made through making a valid argument from a given premises still then
an inference remains valid and follows the form of a correct inference.

A true conclusion from premises can be derived by using a valid argument.

1. All tall people are actors (although wrong)

2. Amitabh Bachhan is tall (right, valid)
3. Thus, Amitabh Bachhan is an actor (Right) Let

us look at the example of deductive inference:

Usually we read such news in newspaper that “A cricket team from a village in Uttarakhand surprises
by winning game by game. The team even overthrows the Mumbai team”

Inference: The Village in Uttarakhand is not a village anymore.

Inference is made on the ground of some known facts: The village was remote and
historically had never distinguished itself; the resources need for cricket was short due to the lack of
cricket clubs and a coach for proper training. Large cities might field good teams due to the greater
availability of high quality players and resources; and teams that can practice longer under the
guidance of coach can reasonably be expected to be better.

5.1 Rule of Inference

A rule of inference can be state as a form of logic where a function takes premises and assesses their
syntax to return a conclusion. For instance, the rule of inference said to be modus ponens considers
two premises, one in the form “If 𝑝 then 𝑞”, and another in the form “𝑝”, that returns the conclusion
“𝑞”. The rule is valid as far as semantics of classical logic are concerned, in the sense that conclusion
will be true provided premises are true.

Usually, a rule of inference retains truth is a kind of semantic property. It retains a common place in
many-valued logic. But a rule of inference is strictly syntactic with no requirement to retain any
semantic property. Typically, only recurring rules are significant; those provides a means to verify
whether the given formulation is a conclusion of a given set of formulation according to the rule.
Well known rules of inference in propositional logic comprise modus ponens, modus tollens, and
contraposition. Rules of inferences are used by first order predicate logic while treating logical

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quantifiers.

Standard form of rules of inference

In formal logic and other concerned domains, rules of inference are generally given in the subsequent
standard form:

Premise 1  Premise 2  Premise 𝑛  Conclusion

It means that on every occasion during some logical induction the given premises may achieved, the
particular conclusion can be considered as well.

The actual language of expression to explain both of the premises & conclusions is based on the
perspective of the logical induction. For example, one may use logical formula as

𝐴→𝐵

In prepositional logic, it is said to be modus ponens rule. Rules of inference are usually expressed
as a model using syntactical variables. In the rule mentioned above, the syntactical variables 𝐴 and 𝐵
can assume any element of the universe to produce a countless set of inference rules.

Derivations can be expressed as proof method made up of a set of rules linked to one another to form
a proof. Any derivation ends with only one conclusion that is the statement said to be derived. If in
case, the premises are gone unfulfilled then the derivation is said to be a proof of theoretical statement
“if the premises exists, then the conclusion also exist”.

5.2 Modus ponens

Under propositional logic, modus ponens is a rule of inference that can be expressed as as "𝐴 implies
𝐵; 𝐴 is declared as true, so therefore 𝐵 should be true.”

Modus Ponens are among the most frequently used notions in logic and should not be interpreted as a
law in logic but it’s a tool for the derivation of proofs that comprises the rule for definition and
substitution as well. Though it is allowed to ignore a conditional statement from the logical derivation
or an argument thus it is occasionally called as rule for detachment.

The conviction in the inference is the acceptance that if the previous statements are true, then the final
conclusion will also true. In other words,

If 𝐴 implies 𝐵 and 𝐴 is true, then 𝐵 is true.

Example 5.1 Let us consider the following argument “If

it is mango, It must be a fruit”

“It is mango.”

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Thus, “It must be a fruit”

Formally, Modus ponens can be specified as:

𝐴 → 𝐵, 𝐴

∴𝐵

It means that whenever there is an implication as 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝐴 comes in a line of proof then in place
of 𝐴, 𝐵 can be placed in the later line. 𝐵 will be their only hint that is taken further in more complex
derivation.

It has a close relationship with another logical form of argument, modus tollens. Both of them have
similar but invalid forms that will be discussed later.

5.2.1 Formal Notation

Logical notaion may be used to depict modus ponens rule

𝐴 → 𝐵, 𝐴⊢𝐵

Where, ⊢ is a logical sign means that 𝐵 is a syntactic result of 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝐴 in few logical methods.

((𝐴 → 𝐵)⋀𝐴) → 𝐵

where 𝐴, and 𝐵 are propositions stated in some formal system.

5.3 Modus tollens

Under propositional logic, modus tollens is inference rule and valid argument form. It is an
implementation of the common fact that in case of a statement which is true, then its contrapositive is
also true.

Modus tollens is also well known as law of contraposition, confirms the inference from 𝐴
implies 𝐵 and the contradictory of 𝐵, to the contradictory of 𝐴. Formally,

modus tollens rule can be expressed as

𝐴 → 𝐵, ¬𝐵
∴ ¬𝐴

where 𝐴 → 𝐵 stands for the statement “ 𝐴 implies 𝐵 ” (and ¬𝐴 → ¬𝐵 is called the “contrapositive”).
¬𝐵 stands for “it is not the occasion that 𝐵” (or in brief “not 𝐵”). Then, whenever “𝐴 → 𝐵” and “¬𝐵”
each appear by themselves as a line of a proof, then “¬𝐴” can validly be positioned on a later line.

Modus tollens has close relationship with modus ponens. There are two alike, but invalid, forms of
argument: asserting the consequent and contradicting the predecessor.

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5.3.1 Formal notation

In logical notations, modus tollens can be represented as:

𝐴 → 𝐵, ¬𝐵 ⊢ ¬𝐴

Where, ⊢ is a logical sign in the sense that ¬𝐴 is a syntactic result of 𝐴 → 𝐵 and ¬𝐵 in some
logical system

((𝐴 → 𝐵)⋀¬𝐵) → ¬𝐴

where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are propositions expressed in some formal system

Example 5.2

“If the smoke sensor detected fire, the fire alarm will ring”

“The fire alarm won’t ring”

Thus, “no smoke was detected by the smoke sensor”

Assuming that the premises are equally true (the fire alarm will ring if it detects smoke, and does
indeed won’t ring), it follows that no smoke has been detected. This is a valid argument since it is not
possible for the inference to be false if the premises are true. (It is feasible that there may have been
the smoke that smoke sensor did not detected, but that does not nullify the argument; the first premise
is “if the smoke sensor detects smoke.” It means the more important thing is that whether the sensor
detects the smoke irrespective of whether smoke is present there or not.

5.3.2 Relation to modus ponens

In propositional logic, material implication is a valid rule of replacement that allows for a
conditional statement to be replaced by a disjunction if and only if the antecedent is negated. The rule
states that 𝑝 implies 𝑞 is logically equivalent to ~𝑝 or 𝑞 and can replace each other in logical proofs.

Each use of modus tollens can be adapted to a use of modus ponens and one use of substitution to the
premise which is a material implication. For example:

If 𝐴, then 𝐵, (premise – material implication) If

not 𝐵, then not 𝐴. (Derived by Substitution) Not

𝐵. (premise)

Thus, not 𝐴 (derived by modus ponens)

Likewise, each use of modus ponens can be converted to use of modus tollens and substitution.

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5.4 Validity

Logically, an argument is said to be valid if it is in such a form so that almost it become impossible
for an inference to be false having premises true. It is not always essential that a valid argument needs
to be true but if the assertion is true then it would assure that the conclusion based on that assertion
will be true. It means that an argument schema is valid iff every argument of that logical structure is
valid.

5.4.1 Validity of an argument

Though the logical consequence of the premises is the inference derived from it. So an argument’s
validity is based on the validity of the premises. Hence the truth value of an argument is the criteria on
the basis of which it will be called as valid while on the other hand the negation of this condition is a
contradiction.

Example 5.3 Let us consider the following argument:

All birds have wings. parrot

is a bird.

Then, parrot has wings.

Here truth values of the premises and conclusion are not responsible to make this argument valid but
conclusion needs a logical context and that gives these two premises. Otherwise the argument would
still remain valid where the truth value of premises and conclusion both are false.

The argument given in example 2.4 is of the same logical form as above in example 2.3. Difference is
that the truth value of premises and conclusion is false but the argument would be equally valid.

Example 5.4 Let us consider the following argument:

All vegetables are green.

carrot is a vegetable.

Therefore, Carrot is green.

It doesn’t matter how the universe is, but it is not always possible that these argument would
give true premises concurrently with false conclusion.

Example 5.5 Let us consider the following argument:

All human are immortal.

Sachin is a man. Therefore,

Sachin is mortal.

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Here, the conclusion is not drawn from the premises so it contradicts the derived logic and hence the
argument is invalid while in general the conclusion can be considered as true.

From a standard point of view, whether an argument is valid is a matter of the argument’s logical
form. Numerous techniques are engaged by logicians to represent an argument’s logical form. A
simple example, applied to two of the above illustrations, is the following:

Let the letters '𝐻', '𝑀', and '𝑆' stand, individually, for the set of men, the set of mortals, and Sachin.
Using these symbols, an argument may be summarized as:

All 𝐻 are 𝑀.

𝑆 is a 𝐻.

Thus, 𝑆 is a 𝑀.

Likewise, another argument becomes:

All 𝐻 are not 𝑀.

𝑆 is a 𝐻.

Thus, 𝑆 is a 𝑀.

An argument can formally called as valid if the conclusion is drawn on the basis of the premises then
no matter whether the premises are true or not. On the other hand, if in an argument a conclusion is
not drawn on the basis of the premises then no matter the premises could be true but the argument will
be called as invalid.

5.4.2 Validity of Statements

A statement can be called valid, i.e. logical truth, if it is true in all interpretations.

5.5 Predicate Logic

In mathematical logic, predicate logic is common term used to represent the formal logical systems
where it is comprises of the syntactical variables

There are two frequently used quantifiers are the

1. Existential ∃ (“there exists”) quantifiers

2. Universal ∀ (“for all”) quantifiers.

The variables may possibly be any elements in the universe under consideration, or possibly relations
or functions over that universe of discourse. For instance, an existential quantifier over a function
symbol would be inferred as modifier “there is a function”.

The foundations of predicate logic were given unconventionally by Gottlob Frege and Charles
Sanders Peirce.

Let us consider the following sentences:

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 1. Mohit is a student.
2. Shridhar is a student.
3. Seema is a student.

If we write the propositions for these three sentences, we will require three propositions. In the same
way if we have a list of hundred students, then it is not suitable to write hundred propositions because
the part ‘is a student’ of the sentence is repeated in all these sentences. Hence, it is better to assign a
variable (say 𝑥) in place of the name of the student and keep the remaining part as it is, and define a
set 𝑋 of students from where 𝑥 can take its values.

The sentence can be written as ‘𝑥 is a student’ in which the part ‘is a student’ is called predicate, and
the set 𝑋 is called the universe of discourse for 𝑥. The complete sentence is called predicate on 𝑥. A
predicate on 𝑥 is denoted by the symbols 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 and so on, with 𝑥 in braces, that is, 𝑃(𝑥), 𝑄(𝑥),
𝑅(𝑥), and so on, respectively.

For example,

𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑄(𝑥): 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙

A predicate can be defined without defining its universe of disclosure. In this case, the variable can
take any value from the universal set. A predicate can also be defined over more than one variable.
For example, consider the predicate on two variables.

𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑦

If we replace 𝑥 by 6 and 𝑦 by 3, then it becomes a proposition ‘6 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 3’ whose truth

value is 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒.

5.6 Quantification

Let us first assume the following sentence:

Rajesh is brilliant and Mohit is brilliant and Akansha is brilliant.

If we form a set 𝐴 of three students, then the sentence can be transcribed as follows: All the

students of the set 𝐴 are brilliant.

For writing a representational form of the sentence, we need a predicate on a variable 𝑥 like
𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡, and the domain of 𝑥 (called universe of discourse) defined as the set 𝐴, and a
symbol for the phrase ‘for all’. The symbol is called quantifier. Thus, quantifier is a symbol that
quantifies the variables. At the time when we use quantifier before a predicate, the predicate becomes
a proposition.

In logic, an idea that states the quantity of subjects in the domain of discourse assigned with a symbol
and satisfies an open formula is called quantification.

Two fundamental kinds of quantification in predicate logic are:

1. Universal quantification

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 2. Existential quantification

5.6.1 Universal Quantification

It is used when a statement is true for all values given in the universe of discourse. It is denoted by the
symbol ∀. The universal quantification of 𝑃(𝑥) is the statement

𝑃(𝑥) for all values 𝑥 in the universe of discourse and is denoted by ∀𝑥𝑃(𝑥). We read ∀𝑥𝑃(𝑥)
as ‘for all 𝑥𝑃(𝑥)’ or ‘for every 𝑥𝑃(𝑥)’.

Note that ∀𝑥𝑃(𝑥) is true when 𝑃(𝑥) is true for every 𝑥 and is false when there is any 𝑥 for which
𝑃(𝑥) is not true.

Example 5.6 Let 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 and universe of discourse for 𝑥 is the set {1,2,3,4}. Find
the truth value of ∀𝑥𝑃(𝑥).

Solution: As every number in the set is not an even number, the statement ∀𝑥𝑃(𝑥) is false.

Example 5.7 Let 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 ≠ 5 and universe of discourse for 𝑥 is the set {1,2,3,4}. Find the truth
value of ∀𝑥𝑃(𝑥).

Solution: As for every number 𝑥 in the set 𝑥 ≠ 5, the statement ∀𝑥𝑃(𝑥) is true.

5.6.2 Existential Quantification

The existential quantifier is used on the occasion of a statement is true for some values given in the
universe of discourse. It is represented by the symbol ∃. The existential quantification of 𝑃(𝑥) is the
statement

There exists some 𝑥 in the universe of discourse such that 𝑃(𝑥) and it is symbolized by the symbol
∃𝑥𝑃(𝑥).

Note that ∃𝑥𝑃(𝑥) is true when 𝑃(𝑥) is true for at least one value of 𝑥 in the universe of discourse and
is false when 𝑃(𝑥) is false for every 𝑥 in the universe of discourse.

Example 5.8 Let 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 and universe of discourse for 𝑥 is the set {1,2,3,4}. Find
the truth value of ∃𝑥𝑃(𝑥).

Solution: As some numbers in the set are even numbers, the statement ∃𝑥𝑃(𝑥) is true.

Example 5.9 Let 𝑃(𝑥): 𝑥 > 5 and universe of discourse for 𝑥 is the set {1,2,3,4}. Find the truth
value of ∃𝑥𝑃(𝑥).

Solution: As none of the number in the set is greater than 5, the statement ∃𝑥𝑃(𝑥) is false.

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Problems for Exercise

1. Rephrase the statements given below using set notations

a. The element 𝑥 is not a member of 𝐴
b. The element 𝑏 is a member of 𝐵.
c. 𝑌 is a subset of 𝑍.
d. 𝑋 is not a subset of 𝑍.
e. 𝑆 contain all the elements of 𝑈
f. 𝐻 and 𝐺 contain the same elements.

2. Write down the elements of the subsequent sets; assume 𝐼 = {1, 2, 3, . . . }.

a. 𝐵 = {𝑏: 𝑏 ∈ 𝐼, 4 < 𝑥 < 15}
b. 𝐸 = {𝑦: 𝑦 ∈ 𝐼, 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑, 𝑦 < 20}
c. 𝐴 = {𝑛: 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼, 5 + 𝑛 = 6}

3. Which of these sets are equal : {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}, {𝑧, 𝑥, 𝑦}, {𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑥}, {𝑥, 𝑧, 𝑦}, {𝑦, 𝑥, 𝑧}.

4. Distinguish between 𝑋 ⊆ 𝑌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋 ⊂ 𝑌

5. Draw a Venn diagram of sets 𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍 such that

a. 𝑋 and 𝑌 have elements in common
b. 𝑌 and 𝑍 have elements in common
c. 𝑋 and 𝑍 are disjoint

6. State the De Morgan’s Laws.

7. Prove the Distributive Law: 𝑋 ∪ (𝑌 ∩ 𝑍) = (𝑋 ∪ 𝑌) ∩ (𝑋 ∪ 𝑍).

8. State the finite sets among the following:

a. 𝑆 = {𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟}
b. 𝑇 = {𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦}
c. 𝑃 = {𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 1}
d. 𝐷 = {𝑑𝑜𝑔𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑎}

9. Find the power set 𝑃(𝑋) of 𝑋 = {6, 7, 8, 9}

10. Determine the size of the power set mentioned below:

a. {𝑦: 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘}
b. {𝑦: 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑑 “𝐼𝑁𝐷𝐼𝐴”}
c. {𝑦: 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 6}

11. Let p be “He is tall” and let q be “He is handsome”. Write each of the following
statements in symbolic form using p and q (Assume that “He is short” means “He is
not tall”, i.e., ∼ 𝑝).
a. He is tall and handsome.
b. It is false that he is short or handsome.
c. He is tall but not handsome.

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 d. He is neither tall nor handsome.
12. Determine the truth value of each of the following statements:
a. 1+1=5 or 2+2=4
b. 2+5=9 or 1+7=8
13. Find the truth table of the proposition ∼ (𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞).
14. Find the truth tables of the following:
a. 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)
b. (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟)
15. Prove the associative law : (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑟 ≡ 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟)
16. Find a principle disjunctive normal form ∼ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ↔ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
17. Obtain a principal disjunctive normal form(~𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞) → (∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑟).
18. Obtain a principle conjunctive normal form of (𝑞 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)) ∧∼ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑟) ∧ 𝑞)
19. Obtain a PDNF for 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞
20. Obtain PDNF of 𝑝 ∨ (∼ 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟).

21. State the rule of the inference used in the following arguments
a. If it rains, then the schools are closed; it rains. Therefore, the schools are
closed.
b. If it rains, then the schools are closed; the schools are not closed. Therefore it
does not rain.
22. Using modus ponens or modus tollens, make an argument for each one in the
following.
a. If this student is honest, she will not try to cheat when she takes a test.
This student tried to cheat on a test.
Therefore, by modus
b. If it is raining today, I will take my
umbrella. It is raining today.
Therefore, by modus
c. (𝑎 ∨ 𝑏) → 𝑐
𝑏
Therefore, by modus
d. I always bring my lunch on
Friday. I will buy my lunch
today.
Therefore, by modus
23. Supply the missing statement or reason in the following
a. 𝑝 → ~𝑞; 𝑝 ∴
b. ~𝑝 → 𝑞; ~𝑝 ∴
c. (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) → ~(𝑞 ∧ 𝑟); ∼𝑝∨𝑞 ∴
( ) (
d. ∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 → 𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑟 ; ) ∼𝑝∧𝑞 ∴
e. (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) → ~(𝑞 ∧ 𝑟); 𝑞∧𝑟 ∴
f. (∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → (𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑟); ∼ (𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑟) ∴
24. Check whether the argument is valid or not
a. If I plant a tree, then I will get dirt under my nails. I didn’t get dirt under my
nails. Therefore, I didn’t plant a tree.
b. If I don’t change my oil regularly, my engine will die. My engine died. Thus, I
didn’t change my oil regularly

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 c. If I don’t tie my shoes, then I trip. I didn’t tie my shoes. Hence, I tripped.
d. All racers live dangerously. Arnav is a racer. Therefore, Arnav lives
dangerously
25. Translate the following into symbolic form:
a. Everybody loves him
b. Somebody cried out for help and called the police.
c. Nobody can ignore him.
26. State whether the following are true or false, where 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 range over the integers.
a. ∀𝑥, ∋ 𝑦. (2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0)
b. ∀𝑥, 𝑥 < 10 ⇒ ∀𝑦, (𝑦 < 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 < 9)
c. ∋ 𝑦. ∋ 𝑧. 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 100
27. Formalize the following (over the real numbers):
a. Negative numbers don’t have square roots
b. Every positive number has exactly two square roots

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