Nanomaterials can be defined as materials possessing, at minimum, one external

dimension measuring 1-100nm.

Nano-sized particles exist in nature and can be created from a variety of products,
such as carbon or minerals like silver, but nanomaterials by definition must have at
least one dimension that is less than approximately 100 nanometers.
Most nanoscale materials are too small to be seen with the naked eye and even with
conventional lab microscopes.
Properties of Nanomaterials:
1. The nano size increases the surface area and has a marked effect on the electrical,
electronic, optical and catalytic properties.
2. They also introduce many new properties in materials such as bucky tubes (carbon
nanotubes) are very stiff and have high tensile strength, and CdSe shows fluorescent
emission over a broad range.
3. The properties of materials such as melting point and conductivity show a marked
change. Melting point depresses by about 50% in nanoscale and the metals change
from conductors to semiconductors and also to insulators.
For example, bulk gold is golden in color, it is lustrous, ductile, good conductor of
heat and electricity, is chemically inert and does not react with most reagents and is
unaffected by air. It has a high melting point of 1080°C.
Nanogold on the other hand is never golden; it has a variety of colors depending upon
the shape and size of the nanoparticles. It is not a metal but a semiconductor that
melts at a relatively low temperature (-940 °C). Moreover, nanogold acts as a good
catalyst.
Similarly, the electronic, optical, electrical and catalytic properties of nano silver are
very different from those of bulk silver..
Some applications of nanoparticles/nano technology:

1. Nanotechnology can be used to design pharmaceuticals that can target specific

organs or cells in the body such as cancer cells, and enhance the effectiveness
of therapy.
2. Nanomaterials can also be added to cement, cloth and other materials to make
them stronger and yet lighter.
 3. Their size makes them extremely useful in electronics, and they can also be
used in environmental remediation or clean-up to bind with and neutralize
toxins.

Types of Nanoparticles:

1. Carbon Nanomaterials: The NMs which contain carbon are called carbon
nanomaterials, and these carbon nanomaterials can be synthetized in different shapes
such as (1) hollow tubes or (2) spheres. In addition, carbon nanofibers, graphene,
fullerenes, carbon black, carbon nanotubes, and carbon onions are also classified as
carbon nanomaterials.
2. Metal and Metal Oxide Nanomaterials: The metal and metal oxide can also be
used to produce NMs which are called as metal and metal oxide nanomaterials or
inorganic nanomaterials. Some of these NMs are gold (Au), silver (Ag) nanomaterials
and metal oxides-based nanomaterials are titanium dioxide (TiO2) and zinc oxide
(ZnO) nanomaterials.
3. Nanocomposites: The combination of one type of nanomaterials with another type
of nanomaterials is called as nanocomposites. The nanomaterials either combine with
other types of nanowires, nanofibers, or can be combined with larger size materials.
These nanocomposites (Figure 1) may be any combinations of metal-based, carbon-
based, or organic- based nanowires, nanofibers, with any form of ceramic, metal,
polymer bulk materials.

Figure 1

Synthesis of Nanoparticles:
To grow nanoparticles, two kinds of approaches are used:
1. Bottom-up approach
2. Top-down approach
These approaches are explained on the basis of following schematic diagram. In
general, bottom-up approach is meant by synthesis of nanoparticles by means of
chemical reactions among the atoms/ions/molecules (Figure 2a). Whereas top-down
involves the mechanical methods to crush/breaking of bulk into several parts to form
nanoparticles (Figure 2b).

Figure 2

Surface Characterisation Techniques

 Nanoparticles have vast medical, environmental and engineering applications.
 The properties of nanoparticles are dependent on size and structure hence it is
important to understand the structure of nanoparticles as it enables us to correlate
the physicochemical properties of nanomaterials with their chemical, ecological
or biological responses.
 Characterisation of nanomaterials helps in understanding the physical and
chemical properties of nanomaterials.
 It also helps in determining the structure at atomic and microscopic levels. Bulk
properties like shape, size, phase, electronic structure and crystallinity and surface
properties like arrangement of surface atoms, surface area, surface composition
and surface electronic structure are determined by the various characterisation
techniques.
 To study the structure of nanomaterials they are observed using electrons,
photons, scanning probes, ions, atoms, etc.
The commonly used techniques are Brunauer-Emmet-Teller (BET) surface area
analysis, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), etc.

Brunauer-Emmet-Teller (BET) analysis

This method helps in determining the surface area, pore size and pore size distribution
of nanomaterials.
This is done by gas sorption method. Prior to determination the adsorbed foreign
particles are removed from the surface of the adsorbent by heating and degassing by
vacuum force.
Sometimes instead of subjecting the adsorbent to vacuum force it is cleaned by
flushing the adsorbent with an inert gas at elevated temperature.
After cleaning the sample is brought to a constant and very low temperature usually in
a dewar flask containing liquid nitrogen (77.4 K). Controlled doses of adsorbate gases
are admitted into the evacuated sample chamber. They are first adsorbed and then
desorbed. Adsorption and desorption isotherms are obtained by subjecting the gas to a
wide range of pressures. The amount of gas adsorbed or desorbed is estimated by
noting the pressure variations due to adsorption or desorption of the adsorbate gas
molecules on the adsorbent. By knowing the area occupied by one adsorbate molecule
the total surface area can be determined using the adsorption model.
Similarly the pore size and the pore size distribution of porous materials can be found
from the adsorption/desorption isotherm using an assessment model.

TEM transmission electron microscopy

This technique is used for the structural in formations of solid material both by
imaging and by electron diffraction.
In TEM, a thin specimen is irradiated with an electron beam of uniform current
density; the electron density is in the range of 60-150 (usually 100 keV).
For high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) or high voltage electron microscope HVEM the
electron density of 200 keV-1 MeV is used.
The electrons emitted from the electron gun by thermo ionic emission from tungsten
cathodes or LaB6 rods enter the sample and are scattered as they pass through it.
They are then focused by the objective lens and amplified by the magnifying projector
to produce the desired image.