READING PASSAGE 3

Whale culture
A Most social scientists stubbornly resist the idea that animals have culture. Even such
advanced cetacean mammals as whales and dolphins clearly don’t have art. literature, or
architecture. But patient observation over many years has begun to reveal behaviors that
can only have been learnt from other whales. And that, say whale biologists, constitutes
culture.
B So far, humpback and killer whales provide the best evidence of culture in cetaceans, and
the song of the male humpback is among the most striking examples. Humpback
populations in different oceans sing different songs, but within the same ocean they all stick
to the same one. However, during the breeding season the sounds change, as it appears
that females are drawn to novel songs. One male might add an extra set of groans; another
might drop a series of grunts. Soon all the other males have altered their own rendition to
incorporate the changes until they are once again singing the same song. Since this occurs
among thousands of whales spread across a vast part of the planet, the change cannot be in
response to any factor in the animals’ environment. The latest version of the song can be
learnt only from other whales – almost certainly by imitation.
C Culture plays an even bigger part in the life of killer whales. Nowhere is this more obvious
than along the north-west coast of America, where killer whales are split into two distinct
populations – ‘residents’ and ‘transients’. They live in the same stretch of water, but they
don’t mingle. In effect, they belong to two quite separate cultures. Residents live in stable
groups, or ‘pods’, made up of two or three mothers and their offspring – perhaps 20 whales
in all. Calves stay with their mothers throughout adulthood, and in many years of observation
no one has ever seen a whale switch pods. Transients travel in smaller, more changeable
groups of between three and six.
D One of the most obvious distinctions between the transient and resident societies IS the way
they impart information. Killer whales detect prey with a range of echo locating clicks, but
converse with a vocabulary of squeaks, whistles and whines. Transients have only a few
such calls, and all transient societies share the same ones. Residents have a much more
extensive repertoire, and each family group has its own unique and distinctive set of calls.
Despite regular interaction between them, each resident pod sticks firmly to its own dialect.
Research shows these dialects are maintained for at least 40 years.
E To qualify as part of killer whale culture, dialects must be learnt from other members of the
pod. Animals with different dialects share the same waters, so the variations can’t be a
product of the physical environment. “And we can throw out the notion that the dialects are
inherited,” says Lance Barrett-Lennard of the University of the British Columbia. He has
spent the past seven years analyzing DNA from 270 whales. His paternity tests reveal that
female killer whales invariably attract mates from outside their own pod – males with a very
different dialects. If dialects were programmed by genetics, call patterns from both father and
mother would be passed on the cafl. “A calf uses the calls of its maternal pod very precisely.
There’s no input from the father,’ says Barrett-Lennard.
F The question still remains – is this culture? It is, according to Frans de Waal of Emory
University in Atlanta, who argues that culture is just another biological adaptation that has
evolved in many creatures. One benefit of viewing culture in this way is that you can start to
understand how and why it might have arisen in these creatures. Whales have several
 biological attributes that give them an advantage in social learning. Apart from their
advanced mental abilities, they are adept at recognising sounds: ideal for communication in
the marine environment. Many species spend years rearing their offspring, and live in small,
stable, multi-generational societies, a social system that provides ample opportunity for
teaching and learning.
G But why have cetaceans evolved the ability to learn from other group members? Experts in
whale biology believe that ecological factors and the need to adapt to sudden changes in the
environment played a large part in the emergence of culture. Although the ocean is a
relatively stable habitat in many ways, it is highly changeable in one crucial respect – the
availability of food. One moment there might be a plentiful supply of fish, the next they’ve
disappeared. When that happens, the past experience of the senior members of the group –
and the ability to share this knowledge – is a huge asset. The dialects of killer whales allow
members of the groups to identify each other, enabling them to share information about food
hot spots. Among resident killer whales, it also allows females to avoid inbreeding by picking
out a mate with a strange dialect from outside their pods, says Barrett-Lennard.
H The importance of share information seems to have led to biological changes in at least
some species of whale. Female killer whales, like humans, are very unusual in that they live
up to a quarter of a century after they had their last offspring. This only makes sense if they
have something useful to give their descendants. And what whale matriarchs offer is the
most important thing of all – cultural knowledge, vital for the group’s survival, passed directly
from one generation to the next.

Questions 1-5
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the Reading Passage?
In boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet, write:
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information.
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information.
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this.

1 Resident killer whales appear to remain with their maternal group for life
2 Resident killer whales have a more restricted range of calls than transients.
3 There is a vocabulary of sounds which is common to all transient killer whales
4 Resident killer whales share the dialects of other resident communities living in the same
waters.
5 The dialects of transient killer whales remain constant over time
Questions 6-8
Complete the summary below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 6-8 on your answer sheet.
It has been observed that resident killer whales invariably live in fixed family groups, known as 6
………………… Each of these has its own unique set of calls, despite close contact with other
family groups. As the same areas of ocean contain many different groups with widely varying
dialects, it is clear that these differences could not have emerged as a result of the whales’ 7
………………….
According to tests conducted by Lance Barrett-Lennard, a calf communicates exclusively with the
dialect of the group to which its 8 ………………… belongs. Barrett-Lennard also rejects the idea
that the call patterns are inherited.

Questions 9-11
Choose THREE letters. A-F
Write the correct letters in boxes 9-11 on your answer sheet.
Which THREE of the following features of whales are mentioned in the passage’?
A. intelligence
B. physical strength
C. sensitivity to sound.
D. prolonged life span
E. lengthy period of fertility
F. adaptability to a variety of foods

Questions 12-14
Reading Passage 3 has eight paragraphs, A-H
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter A-H in boxes 38-40 on your answer sheet.
12 an example of the kind of information passed by whales to each other.
13 a reference to variations in communication styles between different cultures within one
species.
14 ways in which the skills of whales are favorable for the development of culture.
READING PASSAGE 1
What is the secret of a long life?
A. This year, the number of retired pensioners in the UK exceeded the number of under 18
years old for the first time in history. That’s remarkable in its own right, but the real
‘population explosion’ has been among the oldest of the old — the centenarians. In fact, this
imbalance is the fastest growing demographic in much of the developed world. In the UK,
the number of centenarians has increased by 60 per cent since the early 20th century. And
their ranks are set swell even further, thanks to the ageing baby-boomer generation: by
2030 there will be about a million worldwide.
B. These trends raise social, ethical and economic dilemmas. Are medical advances artificially
prolonging life, with hide regard for the quality of that life? If growing numbers of elderly
people become dependent on state or familial support, society faces skyrocketing costs and
commitments. Yet researchers who study the oldest old have made a surprising discovery
that presents a less pessimistic view of the future than many anticipate.
C. It is becoming clear that people who break through the 90-plus barrier represent a physical
elite. Far from gaining a longer burden of disability, their extra years tend to be healthy
ones. And supercentenarians, people aged 110 or over, are even better examples of ageing
well. The average supercentenarian had freely gone about their daily life up until the age of
105 or so, some five to ten years longer even than centenarians.
D. One of the most comprehensive studies comes from Denmark. In 1998 Kare Christensen, at
the University of Southern Denmark, contacted every single one of 3600 people born in
1905 who was still alive. Assessing their health over the subsequent decade, he found that
the proportion of people who managed to remain independent throughout was constantly
around one-third of the total. Each individual risked becoming more infirm, but the
unhealthiest ones passed away at earlier ages, leaving the strongest behind. In 2005, only
166 of the people in Christensen’s sample were still alive, but one-third of those were still
entirely self-sufficient.
E. Christensen’s optimistic findings are echoed in studies all over the world. In the MC, Carol
Brayne at the University of Cambridge studied 958 people aged over 90, and found that
only one-quarter of them were living in accommodation specifically catering for the needs of
older people. Research in China reveals that centenarians and nonagenarians spend fewer
days ill and in bed than younger elderly groups. Of course, people can live independently
without being entirely healthy, and it is true that most centenarians suffer from some kind of
ailment. These range from osteoarthritis to simple loneliness.
F. Not all the oldest old survive by delaying illness or disability, though. Many soldier through it.
Jessica Even of Ohio State University examined the medical histories of over 400
centenarians. She found that those who achieve extreme longevity tend to fall into three
categories. About 40 per cent were ‘delayers’, who avoided chronic diseases until after the
age of 80. Another 40 per cent were ‘survivors’, who suffered from chronic diseases before
the age of 80 but lived longer to tell the tale. The final 20 per cent were ‘escapers’, who
reached their century with no sign of the most common chronic diseases. Intriguingly, one-
third of male centenarians were in this category, compared with only 15 per cent of women.
In fact, the two sexes fare very differently when it comes to longevity. There are far more
female centenarians, but the reasons for this are unclear. Certainly, women tend to lead
healthier lifestyles and experience fewer serious accidents. They also go to their doctor
 more. Men are more prone to risky behaviour and chronic illness, so it must be genetics
which allows some men to reach extreme old age. Evidence of this comes from longevity
hotspots.
G. The Japanese island of Okinawa is the front runner. At 58 centenarians per 100,000 people,
it has the world’s highest proportion in this age group, with Sardinia and Iceland not too far
behind. All three are relatively isolated island communities, which leads to less genetic
variation amongst inhabitants. In these places, the result has been a predisposition towards
a longer life. Of course, members of such communities usually share a particular
environment, too, but this alone cannot explain longevity. Gerontologists have emphasised
the importance of regular exercise, so anyone aiming to reach a century should not
underestimate this. They have also found that the influence on lifespan of social factors
such as wealth fades as we age. By comparing 10,000 pairs of Scandinavian twins,
Christensen found that genes are key, but that they only start exerting a strong influence on
our lifespan after the age of 60. Before then, those who are both identical and non-identical
have largely independent chances of reaching a given age.
H. Longevity genes have also been found in abundance in other organisms, including over 70
in particular worms. Unfortunately, it’s a different story in humans. While many genes have
been suggested to affect lifespan, very few have been consistently verified in multiple
populations.
Note:
’Centenarian”: someone who is 100 years or older.
” Baby – boomer“: someone born just after the Second World War, a time which saw a rapid
increase in birth rate.
“Nonagenarian”: someone who is between 90 and 99 years old.
“Gerontologist”: a medical professional who specialises in aging and the problems of aged
Persons.
Questions 1-7
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the Reading Passage?
In boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet, write:
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

1 The greatest growth in the centenarian population across the world is in the UK.
2 Fewer families today are looking after their elderly members.
3 People who live beyond 90 years old are likely to be in good health.
4 Centenarians tend to be in better physical health than supercentenarians.
5 None of the oldest survivors in Christensen’s study could take care of themselves.
6 Research findings from Cambridge and China conflicted with Christensen’s findings in
Denmark.
7 Centenarians may suffer from stronger feelings of isolation than people a generation
younger.

Questions 8-13
Answer the questions below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet.
8 What name has Jessica Evert given to the category of centenarians who become 100
without suffering serious disease?
9 What factor is most likely to contribute to longevity in men?
10 Which place has the largest proportion of centenarians in the world?
11 According to gerontologists, what should people avoid neglecting if they wish to reach old
age?
12 What social influence on longevity decreases as people get older?
13 In which species, apart from humans, have longevity genes been reliably identified?