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1. Network: A network is a collection of interconnected computers, servers, and other

devices that can communicate with each other and share resources. Networks allow
for the exchange of data, sharing of hardware (like printers) and software resources,
and enable collaborative work. Networks can range from small home networks to
large enterprise networks and the global Internet. They use various technologies and
protocols to facilitate communication, including Ethernet, Wi-Fi, TCP/IP, and more.

2. Network Topology: Network topology refers to the arrangement of various elements

(links, nodes, etc.) in a computer network. It defines the way different nodes are
placed and interconnected with each other. Topologies can be physical (actual layout
of wires) or logical (the way data flows).
Types of network topologies:
a) Bus Topology: All devices are connected to a single cable, called the bus or backbone. Easy
to install but vulnerable to failures.
b) Star Topology: All devices are connected to a central hub or switch. Easy to manage but
dependent on the central device.
c) Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a closed loop. Each device is connected to two
other devices. Data travels in one direction.
d) Mesh Topology: Every device is connected to every other device. Highly reliable but
complex and expensive.
e) Tree Topology: A hierarchy of nodes, branching out from a root node. Good for large
networks but can be slow.
f) Hybrid Topology: A combination of two or more topologies. Flexible but can be complex.

3. Bandwidth, Node, and Link:

Bandwidth: The maximum rate of data transfer across a given path in a network. It's typically
measured in bits per second (bps). Higher bandwidth allows for faster data transmission. For
example, a 100 Mbps connection can transfer data faster than a 10 Mbps connection.
Node: Any device in a network that can send, receive, or relay data. This includes computers,
servers, routers, switches, printers, smartphones, and IoT devices. Each node has a unique
address (like an IP address) for identification within the network.
Link: A communication channel that connects two nodes. It can be wired (like Ethernet
cables, fiber optic cables) or wireless (like Wi-Fi, cellular networks). The characteristics of a
link (such as bandwidth, latency, and reliability) affect the overall network performance.

4. TCP Model: The TCP/IP model, also known as the Internet Protocol Suite, is a
conceptual model and set of communications protocols used in the Internet and
similar computer networks. It consists of four layers:
a) Application Layer: This is the topmost layer, dealing with high-level protocols (HTTP, FTP,
SMTP, etc.), representation, encoding, and dialog control.
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b) Transport Layer: Provides end-to-end communication services for applications. It includes

TCP (reliable, connection-oriented) and UDP (unreliable, connectionless) protocols.
c) Internet Layer: Handles the movement of packets around the network. The main protocol
here is IP (Internet Protocol), which routes packets to their destinations.
d) Network Interface Layer: Also called the Link Layer, it includes the protocols and interfaces
for operating with the network media. This layer corresponds to the combination of Data
Link Layer and Physical Layer in the OSI model.
This model is simpler than the OSI model but maps closely to the actual structure of internet
protocols.

5. OSI Model Layers: The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual
framework that describes how data communication occurs between devices in a
network. It consists of seven layers:
a) Physical Layer: Deals with the physical connection between devices. It defines
specifications for cables, cards, and physical aspects.
b) Data Link Layer: Provides node-to-node data transfer. It detects and possibly corrects
errors from the physical layer.
c) Network Layer: Manages the addressing and routing of data packets between different
networks.
d) Transport Layer: Ensures complete data transfer. It provides acknowledgment of
successful data transmission and re-transmits data if an error is found.
e) Session Layer: Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between applications.
f) Presentation Layer: Transforms data into the form that the application accepts. This layer
is responsible for data compression, encryption, and description.
g) Application Layer: This is the layer closest to the end user. It provides network services
directly to applications.
Each layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it.

6. Significance of Data Link Layer: The Data Link Layer is crucial in network
communication for several reasons:
a) Error detection and correction: It detects and corrects errors that may occur in the
Physical Layer, ensuring data integrity.
b) Flow control: It manages the rate of data transmission between sender and receiver to
prevent overwhelming slower receivers.
c) Media Access Control (MAC): It controls how devices in a network gain access to a
medium and permission to transmit data.
d) Addressing: It provides physical addressing (MAC addresses) for devices on the network.
e) Framing: It encapsulates data from the Network Layer into frames, adding header and
trailer information.
f) Reliable delivery: Some Data Link Layer protocols provide reliable delivery mechanisms for
data transfer between adjacent network nodes.
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7. Gateway and Router: Gateway: A gateway is a network node that serves as an

entrance to another network. It acts as a "gate" between two networks using
different protocols. Gateways can operate at any network layer.
Router: A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer
networks. It operates at the Network Layer of the OSI model.
Key differences:
• Gateways can translate between different network protocols, while routers typically
work within the same protocol.
• Gateways can operate at any layer of the OSI model, while routers primarily operate
at the Network Layer.
• Gateways are more complex as they need to understand multiple protocols, while
routers are simpler and faster.
8. Ping Command: The ping command is a network diagnostic tool used to test the
reachability of a host on an Internet Protocol (IP) network and measure the round-
trip time for messages sent from the originating host to a destination computer.
When you use the ping command:
1. It sends ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) Echo Request packets to the
target.
2. The target, if reachable and configured to respond, sends back ICMP Echo Reply
packets.
3. The ping command measures the time between sending the request and receiving
the reply.
The ping command helps in:
• Verifying network connectivity
• Measuring network latency
• Diagnosing network issues

9. DNS, DNS Forwarder, NIC:

DNS (Domain Name System): DNS is a hierarchical and decentralized naming system for
computers, services, or other resources connected to the Internet or a private network. It
translates human-readable domain names (like www.example.com) into IP addresses (like
192.0.2.1) that computers use to identify each other on the network.
DNS Forwarder: A DNS forwarder is a DNS server configured to pass DNS queries for
domains it cannot resolve to another DNS server. This is often used to:
• Improve DNS query efficiency
• Implement a layered DNS architecture
• Control and monitor DNS traffic

NIC (Network Interface Card): A NIC is a hardware component that connects a computer to a
network. It:
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• Prepares data for transmission over the network

• Sends and receives data
• Controls data flow between the computer and the network
• Has a unique MAC address for identification on the network

10. MAC Address: A Media Access Control (MAC) address is a unique identifier assigned
to a Network Interface Controller (NIC) for use as a network address in
communications within a network segment. It's often referred to as the physical
address.
Key points about MAC addresses:
• 48 bits long, usually represented as six groups of two hexadecimal digits
• Assigned by the manufacturer of the network interface
• Used in the Data Link Layer of the OSI model
• Essential for Ethernet and Wi-Fi networks
• Cannot be changed by software (though it can be spoofed)

11. IP Address, Private IP Address, Public IP Address, APIPA:

IP Address: An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical label assigned to each device
connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. It
serves two main functions: host or network interface identification and location addressing.
Private IP Address: Private IP addresses are used within local networks and are not routable
on the public Internet. They are defined in RFC 1918 and include:
• 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
• 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
• 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
Public IP Address: A public IP address is a globally unique IP address that can be accessed
directly over the Internet. These are assigned by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and are
used for devices that need to be directly reachable from the Internet.
APIPA (Automatic Private IP Addressing): APIPA is a feature in operating systems (primarily
Windows) that automatically assigns an IP address to a computer when a DHCP server is not
available. It assigns an address in the range 169.254.0.0 to 169.254.255.255.

12. Difference between IPv4 and IPv6:

IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4):
• 32-bit address length
• Supports about 4.3 billion unique addresses
• Uses dot-decimal notation (e.g., 192.168.1.1)
• Has been the dominant protocol for decades
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6):
• 128-bit address length
• Supports approximately 340 undecillion unique addresses
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• Uses hexadecimal notation with colons (e.g.,

2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334)
• Designed to replace IPv4 due to address exhaustion
Key differences:
• Address space: IPv6 provides a much larger address space
• Security: IPv6 includes built-in security features (IPsec)
• Quality of Service (QoS): Better support in IPv6
• Configuration: IPv6 supports stateless address autoconfiguration
• Header structure: IPv6 has a simpler header structure, allowing for more efficient
routing

13. Subnet: A subnet, or subnetwork, is a logical subdivision of an IP network. Subnetting

allows a single large network to be divided into several smaller networks, each with
its own range of IP addresses.
Key points about subnets:
• Improve network performance by reducing traffic
• Enhance security by isolating network segments
• Allow for more efficient use of IP addresses
• Defined by applying a subnet mask to an IP address
• Enable better network management and organization

14. Firewalls: A firewall is a network security device that monitors and filters incoming
and outgoing network traffic based on an organization's previously established
security policies.
Types of firewalls:
1. Packet filtering firewalls
2. Stateful inspection firewalls
3. Application layer firewalls (proxy firewalls)
4. Next-generation firewalls (NGFW)
Functions of firewalls:
• Block unauthorized access
• Prevent malware from entering the network
• Stop data leakage
• Create logs for security analysis
• Provide a layer of privacy

15. Different Types of Delays:

Propagation Delay: The time taken for a signal to travel from the sender to the receiver. It
depends on the distance and the speed of the signal in the medium.
Transmission Delay: The time required to push all the packet's bits into the link. It depends
on the packet's length and link's transmission rate.
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Processing Delay: The time required for a router to process the packet header and
determine where to direct the packet.
Queuing Delay: The time a packet waits in the buffer before it can be transmitted. It occurs
when more packets are received than can be transmitted at a given time.
Total Delay = Propagation Delay + Transmission Delay + Processing Delay + Queuing Delay

16. 3-way handshaking: Three-way handshaking is a process used in TCP (Transmission

Control Protocol) to establish a connection between a client and a server. The steps
are: a) SYN: Client sends a SYN (synchronize) packet to the server. b) SYN-ACK: Server
responds with a SYN-ACK (synchronize-acknowledge) packet. c) ACK: Client sends an
ACK (acknowledge) packet to the server.
This process ensures both parties are ready to communicate and synchronizes sequence
numbers.

17. Server-side load balancer: A server-side load balancer is a device or software that
distributes incoming network traffic across multiple servers. It aims to:
• Optimize resource use
• Maximize throughput
• Minimize response time
• Avoid overload on any single server
Common algorithms include Round Robin, Least Connections, and IP Hash.

18. RSA Algorithm: RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman) is a public-key cryptosystem used for

secure data transmission. It involves:
• Key generation: Creating public and private keys
• Encryption: Using the public key to encrypt data
• Decryption: Using the private key to decrypt data
RSA security is based on the practical difficulty of factoring the product of two large prime
numbers.

19. HTTP and HTTPS protocols: HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):

• Used for transmitting data over the web
• Operates on port 80 by default
• Data is sent in plain text
HTTPS (HTTP Secure):
• Encrypted version of HTTP
• Uses SSL/TLS for security
• Operates on port 443 by default
• Provides authentication, integrity, and confidentiality
20. SMTP protocol: SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):
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• Used for sending email messages

• Operates on port 25 by default
• Defines how email servers and other mail transfer agents send mail
• Works in conjunction with POP3 or IMAP for receiving emails

21. TCP and UDP protocols - differences: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):
• Connection-oriented
• Reliable data transfer
• Flow control and congestion control
• Slower but ensures data integrity
UDP (User Datagram Protocol):
• Connectionless
• Unreliable data transfer
• No flow control or congestion control
• Faster but may lose packets

22. What happens when you enter "google.com": a) DNS resolution: Convert domain
name to IP address b) Browser initiates TCP connection with the server c)
HTTP/HTTPS request is sent d) Server processes request and sends response e)
Browser renders the webpage f) Additional resources (images, scripts) are requested
and loaded

23. Hub vs Switch: Hub:

• Layer 1 device
• Broadcasts data to all connected devices
• Half-duplex communication
• Less efficient, more collisions
Switch:
• Layer 2 device
• Sends data only to the intended recipient
• Full-duplex communication
• More efficient, fewer collisions

24. VPN - advantages and disadvantages: Advantages:

• Enhanced security and privacy
• Bypass geo-restrictions
• Remote access to network resources
• Mask IP address
Disadvantages:
• Potential speed reduction
• Some services may block VPN traffic
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• Setup and maintenance complexity

• Potential for logging by VPN provider

25. LAN (Local Area Network):

• Network of interconnected devices in a limited area
• Typically uses Ethernet or Wi-Fi
• Allows resource sharing (files, printers)
• Usually faster and more secure than wide area networks
• Common in homes, offices, and small organizations