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The Baroque Era:

Vivaldi (The four seasons)[Spring]:

- The third movement features a rustic dance tune played by a solo violin while a bass
pedal point suggests the drone of bagpipes.
- The first movement contains a musical depiction of a storm.
- It is based on an Italian sonnet.
- The orchestration in the second movement is reduced.
- The first and last movements employ ritornello form.
- Composed around 1725, this work demonstrates idiomatic writing for the solo violin.
- This composition employs basso continuo.
- A viola ostinato in the second movement suggests a barking dog.
- The second movement is in C sharp minor (the relative minor).
- Violins portray murmuring streams and caressing breezes with rapid undulating
figures.
- This virtuosic concerto is a vivid example of Vivaldi’s idiomatic writing for strings. It is
considered a programmatic work because poetic images are depicted graphically in
the music.

Bach (The Well-Tempered Clavier):

- This keyboard collection takes advantage of the equal temperament tuning system.
- Book One was published in 1722 with Book Two following twenty years later.
- Bach demonstrates his contrapuntal genius throughout the collection.
- This collection has been recorded by such famous pianists as Glenn Gould and
Angela Hewitt.
- The fugal exposition contains two countersubjects and a redundant entry of the tonal
answer. (Prelude and Fugue in B flat Major)
- The composition demonstrates craftsmanship bordering on wizardry.

Handel (Messiah):
- The choruses in this work frequently alternate between imitative and homorhythmic
texture.
- This work opens with a French overture.
- The three main parts each contain multiple movements.
- It is based on a libretto by Charles Jennens.
- Many of the recitatives, arias, and choruses demonstrate word painting.
- It received its premiere performance in 1742 in Dublin.
- "And peace on earth" is depicted by a downward octave leap in the bass.
- Word painting examples include "shout," exclaimed with a burst of sound in the upper
register.

The Classical era:

 - The most important musical structure to evolve in the Classical era was the sonata
form. This style emerged through the efforts of pre-classical composers including
Carl Phillipp Emanuel Bach, Johann Christian Bach, and members of the Mannheim
School. Sonata form was further developed by the composers of the Viennese
School: Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven.

Haydn (Emperor Quartet/String Quartet in C major):

- Each variation presents the melody in its unaltered form, preserving the noble
character.
- Haydn is considered to be the pioneer of the Classical string quartet.
- The string quartet is like a musical conversation between friends: intimate and
refined.
- In the second movement, in each variation, the melody is presented in its unaltered
form by each instrument, preserving its noble character.
- The national anthems of both Austria (1797–1918) and Germany (beginning in 1922).

Mozart (Eine Kleine Nachtmusik):

- Subtitled Romanza, the second movement of this work is an elegant rondo (ABACA)
in C major.
- This work is often performed by double string quartet with double bass.
- The first movement employs sonata form.
- A sonata cycle is evident in its four-movement construction.
- The final movement opens with a rocket theme.
- The third movement is a minuet and trio in G major.
- This composition is a serenade for strings.
- The internal structure of the Menuet section is rounded binary.
- It was intended to serve as light entertainment for an aristocratic audience.
- Symmetrical phrases, essentially diatonic harmony, and clarity of texture are
characteristic features.

Beethoven (Symphony No.5 in C minor):

- The scherzo in this work begins with a rocket theme.
- The second movement of this work features two themes with variations in A flat
major.
- A sonata cycle is evident in its four-movement construction.
- The first movement employs sonata form.
- The final movement opens with a rocket theme.
- A blazing orchestral crescendo leads directly into the final movement.
- Fermatas arrest the forward drive of the first theme, generating tension and a
restless character.

The Romantic Era:

Schubert (Erlkönig):
- This work sets the words of a German poet and features a piano part equal in
importance to the soloist.
Chopin (Polonaise in A-flat Major):
- This solo piano work demonstrates Polish nationalism.
- In Section B, a more introspective lyrical style shows the influence of bel canto.

Berlioz (Symphonie Fantastique):

- The fifth movement quotes a theme from the Mass for the Dead (the Dies Irae
theme).
- This work is written for an expanded orchestra. Its novel orchestration features the
use of ophicleide, cloches, and col legno.
- The idée fixe unifies the five movements.
- It was inspired by the composer's infatuation with the actress Harriet Smithson.
- The "Dance of the Witches" is foreshadowed by the ominous chiming of bells.

Bizet (Carmen):
- This opera demonstrates exoticism.
- Cellos maintain a crisp ostinato rhythm characteristic of a habañera.
- The con fatuitá marking indicates a central character's swagger and vanity.
- The exotic life of the gypsy as depicted in Carmen reflects the political unrest of
nineteenth century France and the power struggles of race, social class, and gender.
Bizet's setting of the plot reflects his political opinions regarding the French
government's actions toward minorities.
- Bach's music is soft and gentle, often suffused with piercing tenderness.

The Modern Era:

Debussy (Prélude à l’après-midi d’un faune/ Prelude to the afternoon of a faune):

- This work was inspired by an evocative Symbolist poem by Stéphane Mallarmé.
- The fluid rhythm is achieved by minimizing metric accents, and it often obscures the
9/8 metre.
- This symphonic poem demonstrates the composer's Impressionist style.
- The closing measures are punctuated by antique cymbals.
- Harp glissandi add splashes of colour to the opening measures.

Stravinsky (The Rite of Spring):

- This ballet features changing meters, polyrhythm, and polytonality.
- This work demonstrates Russian nationalism through the use of the folk song.
- The work was premiered in Paris by Les Ballets Russes.
- A haunting bassoon solo in its highest register opens the work.

Bernstein (West Side Story):

- This work is a modern reinterpretation of Romeo and Juliet.
- This work includes Latin American dances such as the mambo and the cha-cha.
- The lyrics were written by Stephen Sondheim.
- Jerome Robbins designed the choreography for the original 1957 production.
- Spanish guitar and celesta provide undulating lines in parallel thirds, portraying
tropical breezes.
Louie (Changes):
- Accents on the notes C and B flat in the right-hand sixteenth notes create a bell-like
effect.
- Variety is created within the repeated figure through dynamic gradation and accented
notes, plated with the right-hand fifth finger.

Adams (Short ride in a fast machine):

- It demonstrates the composer’s minimalist style: tonal harmonies, a driving beat,
complex polyrhythms, and shimmering orchestration.
- It shows the feeling of exhilaration from a ride in a sports car or a rollercoaster.
- This piece evokes the excitement-cum-terror of a late-night thrill ride in a sports car.
- Genre: Fanfare for orchestra