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Document 20

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IN

TRODUCTION

Integrals may be generalized depending on the type of the function as well as


the domain over which the integration is performed. For example, a line
integral is defined for functions of two or more variables, and the interval of
integration is replaced by a curve connecting two points in space. In a surface
integral, the curve is replaced by a piece of a surface in three-dimensional
space.
INTEGRALS
In mathematics, an integral is the continuous analog of a sum, which is used
to calculate areas, volumes, and their generalizations. Integration, the process
of computing an integral, is one of the two fundamental operations of
calculus,[a] the other being differentiation. Integration was initially used to
solve problems in mathematics and physics, such as finding the area under a
curve, or determining displacement from velocity. Usage of integration
expanded to a wide variety of scientific fields thereafter.

A definite integral computes the signed area of the region in the plane that is
bounded by the graph of a given function between two points in the real line.
Conventionally, areas above the horizontal axis of the plane are positive while
areas below are negative. Integrals also refer to the concept of an
antiderivative, a function whose derivative is the given function; in this case,
they are also called indefinite integrals. The fundamental theorem of calculus
relates definite integration to differentiation.

WHO INVENTED
INTEGRATION
The major advance in integration came in the 17th century with the
independent discovery of the fundamental theorem of calculus by
Leibniz and Newton.[11] The theorem demonstrates a connection
between integration and differentiation. This connection, combined
with the comparative ease of differentiation, can be exploited to
calculate integrals. In particular, the fundamental theorem of calculus
allows one to solve a much broader class of problems. Equal in
importance is the comprehensive mathematical framework that both
Leibniz and Newton developed. Given the name infinitesimal
calculus, it allowed for precise analysis of functions with continuous
domains. This framework eventually became modern calculus, whose
notation for integrals is drawn directly from the work of Leibniz.

TYPES OF INTEGRALS
Although the Riemann and Lebesgue integrals are the most widely used definitions of the integral, a
number of others exist, including:

 The Darboux integral, which is defined by Darboux sums (restricted Riemann sums) yet is
equivalent to the Riemann integral. A function is Darboux-integrable if and only if it is Riemann-
integrable. Darboux integrals have the advantage of being easier to define than Riemann integrals.
 The Riemann–Stieltjes integral, an extension of the Riemann integral which integrates with respect
to a function as opposed to a variable.
 The Lebesgue–Stieltjes integral, further developed by Johann Radon, which generalizes both the
Riemann–Stieltjes and Lebesgue integrals.
 The Daniell integral, which subsumes the Lebesgue integral and Lebesgue–Stieltjes integral without
depending on measures.
 The Haar integral, used for integration on locally compact topological groups, introduced by Alfréd
Haar in 1933.
 The Henstock–Kurzweil integral, variously defined by Arnaud Denjoy, Oskar Perron, and (most
elegantly, as the gauge integral) Jaroslav Kurzweil, and developed by Ralph Henstock.
 The Itô integral and Stratonovich integral, which define integration with respect to semimartingales
such as Brownian motion.
 The Young integral, which is a kind of Riemann–Stieltjes integral with respect to certain functions
of unbounded variation.
 The rough path integral, which is defined for functions equipped with some additional "rough path"
structure and generalizes stochastic integration against both semimartingales and processes such as
the fractional Brownian motion.
 The Choquet integral, a subadditive or superadditive integral created by the French mathematician
Gustave Choquet in 1953.
 The Bochner integral, an extension of the Lebesgue integral to a more general class of functions,
namely, those with a domain that is a Banach space.

APPLICATION OF
INTEGRALS
Integrals are used extensively in many areas. For example, in probability
theory, integrals are used to determine the probability of some random
variable falling within a certain range.[48] Moreover, the integral under an
entire probability density function must equal 1, which provides a test of
whether a function with no negative values could be a density function or not.
[49]

Integrals can be used for computing the area of a two-dimensional region that
has a curved boundary, as well as computing the volume of a three-
dimensional object that has a curved boundary. The area of a two-dimensional
region can be calculated using the aforementioned definite integral. [50] The
volume of a three-dimensional object such as a disc or washer can be
computed by disc integration using the equation for the volume of a cylinder,

𝜋𝑟2ℎ , where 𝑟 is the radius. In the case of a simple disc created


by rotating a curve about the x-axis, the radius is given by f(x), and its height
is the differential dx. Using an integral with bounds a and b, the volume of the

disc is equal to:[51]𝜋∫𝑎𝑏𝑓2(𝑥)𝑑𝑥. Integrals are also used in physics, in


areas like kinematics to find quantities like displacement, time, and velocity.
For example, in rectilinear motion, the displacement of an object over the time

interval [𝑎,𝑏] is given by

𝑥(𝑏)−𝑥(𝑎)=∫𝑎𝑏𝑣(𝑡)𝑑𝑡,

where 𝑣(𝑡) is the velocity expressed as a function of time.[52] The work done by a force 𝐹(𝑥)

(given as a function of position) from an initial position 𝐴 to a final position 𝐵

is:[53]

𝑊𝐴→𝐵=∫𝐴𝐵𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.

Integrals are also used in thermodynamics, where thermodynamic integration


is used to calculate the difference in free energy between two given states.
IMPORTANT FORMULAS OF
INTEGRATION
INDEX
TOPIC
INTRODUCTION

INTEGRALS

WHO INVENTED INTEGRALS

TYPES OF INTEGRALS

APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS

FORMULAS OF INTEGRALS
MATHS
PROJECT

BY: R. DHINESH

GRADE: XII

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