Basic Mechanical Engineering

UNIT 2
Measurement
Measurement is a process, carried out by measurement instruments to determine the numeric value
of a physical quantity.
It is a procedure in which unknown quantity is compared to known standard.
Measurement required to control the machines and systems, so that they keep working within required
limits.

ERROR
Error is defined as a difference between the desired and actual performance or behavior of a system or
object. Thus the deviation of the true value from the desired value in instrumentation is called error.

ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
Measurement is the process of comparing an unknown quantity with an accepted standard quantity. It
involves connecting a measurement instrument into the system under consideration and observing the
resulting response on the instrument. The measurement thus obtained is a quantitative measure of the so-
called “true value” (since it is very difficult to define the true value, the term “expected value” is used). Any
measurement is affected by many variables, therefore the results rarely reflect the expected value. For
example, connecting a measuring instrument into the circuit under consideration always disturbs value.
Some factors that affect the measurements are related to the measuring instruments themselves. Other
factors that are related to the person using the instrument .The degree to which a measurement nears the
expected value is expressed in terms of the error of measurement.
Error may be defined as the absolute or as percentage of error.

TYPES OF ERROR
There are generally two types of error in measurement as static error and dynamic error. Static error of a
measuring instrument is the numerical difference between the true value of a quality and its value of
quantity and by measurement, i.e. repeated measurement of the same quantity gives different indication.
Dynamic error is the difference between the true value of a quantity changing with time and the value
indicated by the instrument.
Static errors are categorized as gross errors or human error, systematic error and random errors.

1.GROSS ERROR
These errors are mainly due to human mistakes in reading or in using instruments or error in recording
observations. Error may also occur due to incorrect adjustment of instruments and computational mistakes.

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These errors cannot be treated mathematically. The complete elimination of gross error is not possible, but
one can minimize them. Some errors are easily detected while others may be elusive.
One of the basic gross errors that occur frequently is the improper use of an instrument. The error can be
minimized by taking proper care in reading and recording the measurement parameter.
In general, indicating instruments change ambient conditions to some extent when connected into a
complete circuit. Due to minimizing this error one should be taken at least three separate reading instead of
being depended on one reading only.

2.SYSTEMATIC ERROR
Systematic errors are biases in measurement which lead to the situation where the mean of many separate
measurements differs significantly from the actual value of the measured attribute. These errors occur due to
shortcomings of the instrument, such as defective or worn parts, or ageing or effects of the environment on
the instrument. Therefore A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is known as
systematic error.
Some sources of systematic error are:
• Errors in the calibration of the measuring instruments.
• Incorrect measuring technique: For example, one might make an incorrect scale Reading because of
parallax error.
• Bias of the experimenter. The experimenter might consistently read an instrument incorrectly, or might let
knowledge of the expected value of a result influence the measurements.

There are basically three types of systematic errors:-

a. Instrumental errors.
b. Environmental errors.
c. Observational errors.

a. INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS
Instrumental error refers to the combined accuracy and precision of a measuring instrument, or the
difference between the actual value and the value indicated by the instrument.
These errors are inherent in measuring instruments, because of their mechanical structure. For example, in
the D’Arsonval movement, friction in the bearings of various moving components, irregular spring tensions,
stretching of the spring or reduction in tension due to improper handling or over loading of the instrument.
Instrumental errors can be avoided by:-
i. Selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement applications.
ii. Appling correction factors after determining the amount of instrumental error.
iii. Calibrating the instrument against a standard.

b. ENVIRONMENTAL ERRORS
An environmental error is an error in calculations that are being a part of observations due to environment.
Any experiment performing anywhere in the universe has its surroundings, from which we cannot eliminate
our system. The study of environmental effects has primary advantage of being able us to justify the fact
that environment has impact on experiments and feasible environment will not only rectify our result but
also amplify it.
The environmental errors have different causes, which are widening with the passage of time, as the
research works telling us, including; temperature, humidity, magnetic field, constantly vibrating earth
surface, wind and improper lightening.
In high precision laboratories, where a slightest bug can destroy the whole system, removal or at least
minimizing the environmental errors proved to be very fruitful.

c. OBSERVATIONAL ERRORS
Observational errors are error introduced by the observer. The most common error is the parallax error
introduced in reading a meter scale, and the error of estimation when obtaining a reading from a meter scale.
These errors are caused by the habit of individual observers. For example, an observer may always
introduce and error by consistently holding his head too far to the left while reading a needle and scale

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reading.
In general, systematic errors can also be subdivided into static and dynamic errors. Static errors are caused
by limitations of the measuring device or the physical laws governing its behavior. Dynamic errors are
caused by the instrument not responding fast enough to follow the changes in a measured variable.

3. RANDOM ERROR
Random errors are errors that remain after gross and systematic errors have been substantially reduced or at
least accounted for. Random errors are generally an accumulation of a large number of small effects and
may be of real concern only in measurements requiring a high degree of accuracy. Such errors can be
analyzed statically.
These errors are due to unknown causes, not determinable in the ordinary processor making measurements.
Such errors are normally small and follow the laws of probability. Random errors can thus be treated
mathematically.
For example, suppose a voltage is being monitored by a voltmeter which is read at 15 minutes intervals.
Although the instrument operates under ideal environmental conditions and accurately calibrated before
measurements, it still gives that vary slightly over the period of observation. This variation cannot be
corrected by any method of calibration or any other known method of control.

SOURCES OF RANDOM ERROR:

The sources of error, other than the inability of a piece of hardware to provide true measurements, are as
follows:
1. Insufficient knowledge of process parameters and design conditions
2. Poor design.
3. Change in process parameters, irregularities, upsets, etc.
4. Poor maintenance.
5. Errors caused by person operating the instrument or equipment.
6. Certain design limitations.

There are also other types of error:-

• limiting error
• Parallax error.
• Quantization error.

LIMITING ERRORS
Most manufacturers of measuring instruments specify accuracy within a certain % of a full scale reading.
For example, the manufacturer of a certain voltmeter may specify the instrument to be accurate within with
full scale deflection .This specification is called the limiting error. This means that a full scale deflection
reading is guaranteed to be within the limit of 2% of a perfectly accurate reading; however, with a reading
less full scale, the limiting error increases.

PARALLAX ERROR
Parallax is an apparent displacement or difference in the apparent position of an object viewed along two
different lines of sight, and is measured by the angle or semi-angle of inclination between those two lines.
Therefore A change in apparent position of an object, with respect to the reference marks(s) on an
instrument, caused by imperfect adjustment of the instrument or by a change in the position of the observer
or both called parallax error. It is also called instrumental parallax or error of parallax.
To avoid this error separated everywhere by the same distance. The term is used, in particular, in respect of
lines and surfaces.

QUANTIZATION ERROR
In analog to digital conversion, the difference between the actual analog value and quantized digital value is
called quantization error or quantization distortion. This error is either due to rounding or truncation. The
error signal is sometimes considered as an additional random signal called quantization noise because of its

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stochastic behavior.

MEASURING TOOL
A measuring tool or instrument is any device that may be used to obtain a dimensional or angular
measurement.
E.g. Vernier Calipers, Micrometers, Slip Gauge, Dial Gauges etc.
On a steel rule , an millimeter is usually used for measuring the dimension, thus the maximum
accuracy of a steel rule is 0.5mm. For more accurate measurement various instruments like vernier calipers
and micro meter are used.

VARNIER CALIPERS

It is a linear measuring instrument and it is used to measure the dimension to second place of
decimal. Vernier instrument use an additional scale, called the vernier scale, which can slide along the fixed
main scale.
The principle of vernier is that when two scales or division slightly different in size are used, the
difference between them can be utilized to use to accuracy of measurement.
A moveable (vernier) scale equally divided into 50 parts but its length is only 49mm; therefore one division
of this scale (vernier) is equivalent to 0.98mm. This means the difference between one graduation on the
main scale and one graduation on the vernier scale is 1.0 – 0.98 = 0.02mm.
The accuracy of vernier caliper may be depending on length of vernier scale. The length of vernier scale
increase accuracy also increases.
To obtain the reading, the number of division of the main scale is first read off. The vernier scale is
examined to determine which of its division coincide with a division on the main scale. This number is
multiply with least count and added to the main scale reading to give the main scale reading.
Total reading = Reading on main scale against zero mark on vernier scale + Least count × mark number on
vernier scale which coincides with a mark on main scale.
Smallest division on main scale
Least count / accuracy =
Total number of devision on vernier scale

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MICROMERER
MICROMETER is the length measuring instrument which can measure dimensions upto an accuracy of
0.01mm.
Micrometer is designed on the principle of ‘Screw and Nut’.
Micrometer consists of following part:-
Frame – The frame may be ‘U’ in shape.
Anvil – It is fixed on the left end of the frame.
Spindle – On the right side end of the frame, there is a screw having threads of 0.5mm pitch.
Sleeve – It has a reference line and main scale on it.
Thimble – It moves with the spindle on main scale. It has 50 equal divisions on its edge, each having a
value of 0.01mm.
Ratchet - The ratchet on the end of thimble is used to apply the pressure on the spindle.

WORKING PRINCIPLE - The working of micrometer depends upon the principle that the distance moved
by the nut (thimble) along the screw (sleeve) is proportional to the number of revolution made by the nut.
The distance moved by the nut along the screw can be accurately predicted.
The screw has pitch of 0.5mm and the thimble has 50 equal divisions. Since one revolution of thimble equal
to 0.5mm, therefore a movement of one thimble division equals,
0.5 / 50 =0.01mm This is least count of micrometer.

SURFACE PLATE
A surface plate is a solid, flat plate used as the main horizontal reference plane for inspection,
marking out (layout), and tooling setup.
The surface plate is often used as the baseline for all measurements to the workpiece, therefore one
primary surface is finished extremely flat with accuracy 0.00025 mm.
Surface plate also used as reference surface for mounting various measuring tool such as sine bar,
slip gauge, vernier height and so on.
It is generally square and rectangle in shape.

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SLIP GAUGE

Slip gauge or Gauge block are rectangular blocks made of alloy steel having a cross-section of about
30mm × 10mm. They are hardened and finished to a high degree of accuracy.
Gauge block provide dimensional standards of length.
The gauging surface are carefully manufacturing so that they are flat, parallel to each other. Because of high
manufacturing accuracy, the nominal dimension marked on the block is accepted as a true length.

GAUGE BLOCK M-112

Size (mm) Increment (mm) Number of piece
1.001 - 1.009 0.001 9
1.01 - 1.49 0.01 49
0.5 - 24.5 0.5 49
25.0 - 100 25 4
1.0005 1.0005 1

The slip gauges provide means for building any length standard by wringing two or more block together.
Wringing process is accomplished by pressing the faces and then imparting a small twisting moment while
maintain the contact pressure. The alignment of the ultra-smooth surfaces in this manner permits molecular
attraction to occur between the blocks, and forms a very strong bond between the blocks.
Slip gauge are used for checking the accuracy of measuring instruments like micrometers, vernier caliper,
dial gauge etc. It is used as reference standards

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DIAL GAUGE

A Dial gauge (Indicator) is a very versatile and sensitive instrument. It is used for checking
roundness, parallelism, squareness etc.
It also used for comparing two height, and taking accurate measurement of deformation.

The dial indicator has two pointer arms (main and small) which are working by rack and pinion
arrangement. (linear motion by rack converted into rotary motion by pinion). The rack is cut in a spindle
(plunger). Plunger transmit any upward movement to the pinion or gear train. The gear train transmit this
upward movement to rotary motion to the pointer (main arm), and also amplify the input single so that a
large displacement occur at a pointer.
The main dial is divided into 100 equal divisions; each division represent a spindle movement of 0.01mm.
Obviously than the pointer will turn one complete revolution for 1mm movement of plunger. The smaller
arm records the number of full turns made by the main dial.

SINE BAR
It is most accurate instrument for measuring
angles. It consists of a rectangular bar. Sine bars
are made from high carbon, high chromium,
corrosion resistant steel, hardened. A roller of
same diameter is fitted into the steps of the
roller. Sine bar is specified by the distance
between the centre of two rollers i.e. 100mm,
200mm.
Sine bar is used for measuring known angles,
checking of unknown angle, checking unknown
angle of heavy components.
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Resistance Thermometers (RTDs) – The metallic electrical resistance thermometer works on the principle
that the resistance of metals varies in a reproducible manner with temperature. The variation of resistance R
with temperature T(K) for most of the metals is given as,

R= R0[1 + aT + bT2]

where R= Resistance at absolute temperature T

R0 = Resistance at 0°C

a and b = Constants.

The range of temperature over which above equation is valid depends upon the temperature coefficient of
metal, chemical inertness and its crystal structure which should not undergo permanent changes within this
range.

Metallic resistance thermometers (or RTDs) are constructed in many forms, but the temperature sensitive
element is usually in the form of a coil of fine wire supported in a stress free manner. The wire is wrapped
around an insulating support constructed of glass, ceramic or mica. The mounted element is then provided
with a protective enclosure. The ends of the coils are welded to stiff copper leads that are taken out to be
connected in one of the arms of the Wheatstone bridge circuit. This arrangement is then covered in a
protective metal sheath to provide rigidity and mechanical strength.

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Working - The change of temperature, causes the change in resistance of the sensing element, which can be
detected by means of a Wheatstone bridge. The Wheatstone for bridge consists of resistive arms with a
source of e.m.f. (a battery) and a meter which acts as a detector. The detector is usually a current sensing
galvanometer. It may employ either the deflection mode of operation or the null mode. Fig. shows the
arrangement. The sensing element (B) is made of a material having high temperature coefficient and
resistance a, b and c are made of material whose resistance is practically constant under normal temperature
changes. When no current flows through galvanometer, the ratio of resistances according to the principle of
Wheatstone bridge,

a/b = B/c

In normal practice, sensing element is away from the galvanometer, therefore, its leads will have resistance
say p and q, thus the above relation will be

a/b = B + p + q / c

Now due to flow of current, the self-heating produced in RTDs alters the temperature of the element and
hence the resistance. In this condition, the above stated balances cannot be maintained and the galvanometer
will show deflection which can be calibrated to give a suitable temperature scale. This is known as
deflection Wheatstone bridge.

Deflection type of bridge is used for rapidly changing temperatures, and null type bridge is used for static or
slow varying temperatures.

MACHINE TOOLS
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A machine tool is a power driven machine for making articles of a given shape, size and accuracy by
removing metal from work pieces in the form of chip.
Machine tools are factory equipment for producing machine, instrument and tool of all kinds.
Machine tool has to perform the following function:-
• To hold and support the job.
• To hold and support the cutting tool.
• To move the cutting tool, job / both of them of the desired direction.
• To regulate the cutting speed and provide the feeding movement to one of these.

Cutting speed – It is define as the speed at which the metal is removed by the tool from the workpiece. It is
usually expressed in meters in per minute.
Feed – It is defined as the distance which the tool travels for each revolution of the work. It is usually
expressed in millimeters per revolution.
Depth of cut – It is defined as the depth of penetration of the tool into the workpiece during machining.

LATHE MACHINE
Lathe is one of the most important machine tool in any workshop. Its main objective is to remove
material from outside by rotating the work against a cutting tool and gives required shape, size and accuracy.
If the cutting tool moves parallel to the axis of rotation of the workpiece, cylindrical surface is produce,
while it move perpendicular to their axis, it produce a flat surface.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A LATHE
In a lathe, the work piece is held in a chuck or
between centres and rotated about its axis at a
uniform speed. The cutting tool held in the tool
post is fed into the workpiece for a desired depth
and in the desired direction. Since there exists in a
relative motion between the workpiece and the
cutting tool, and the desired shape in obtained.

PART OF A LATHE
The main parts of a lathe are:
1. Bed – The bed is the base or foundation of the lathe. It is heavy, rigid casting made in one piece. It hold
and supports all the other parts of the lathe. The top of the bed is planned to form guide ways for carriage
and tail stock.
2. Headstock – It is permanently fastened at the left hand end of the bed. It serves to support the spindle and
driving arrangements. All lathes receive their power through the head stock, which may be equipped with a
step-cone pulleys or a gear head drive. The headstock made hollow, in order to allow the long bar or work
holding devices to pass through.
3. Tailstock – It is situated at the right end of the bed. It is used for supporting or when a long component is
to be held in a chuck. It is also used for holding and feeding the tools such as drills, reaming, taps etc.
4. Carriage – The carriage controls and supports the cutting tool. The carriage has the following five major
parts:
Saddle – It is a H-shaped casting fitted
over the bed. It moves along the guide
way.
Cross-slide – It is mount on the saddle.
It supports the compound rest.
Compound rest – It used during taper
turning to set the tool for angular cuts.
Tool post – It is mount above the
compound rest. The tool is clamped on
the tool post.
Apron – It is attached to the saddle and
hangs in front of the bed. It has gears,
levers and clutches for moving the
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carriage with the lead screw for thread cutting.

5. Feed mechanism – It is employed for imparting various feeds (Longitudinal, cross and angular) to the
cutting tool. It consists of feed reverse lever, changing gears, feed gear box, lead screw, feed rod, apron
mechanism.

SPECIFICATION OF LATHE
• The height of the centers measured over the lathe bed.
• Swing or maximum diameter that can be rotated over the bed way.
• Maximum job length
• Bed length
• Diameter of hole through lathe spindle

TYPES OF LATHE
The fundamental principle of operation of all lathes is same and performs the same function, yet they
are classified according to the design, type of drive, arrangement of gear, and purpose. The following are
important type of lathes.
1. Bench lathe – It is very small lathe and is mounted on a bench or cabinet. It is used for small and
precision (accuracy) work. All the type of operation can be performed on this lathe that can be done on an
ordinary speed.
2. Speed lathe – It is one of the simplest types of lathes. It consists of a bed, a head stock, a tail stock and an
adjustable slide for supporting the tool. In this lathe spindle can rotated at a very high speed. They have no
gear box, carriage and the lead screw. With the result, the tool is fed and actuated by hand. The speed lathe
is used mainly for wood working, centering, polishing etc.
3. Engine or Centre lathe – It is general purpose lathe and is widely used in workshops. It differs from the
speed lathe that it has additional mechanism for controlling the spindle speed and for supporting and
controlling the feed to the fixed cutting tool. The cutting tool may be fed both in cross and longitudinal
direction with the help of carriage.
Receiving power it again classified as belt driven lathe, motor driven lathe and geared head lathe.
4. Tool Room lathe – It is nothing but the same engine lathe but equipped with some extra attachment to
make it suitable for a relatively more accurate and precision type of work carried out in a tool room. It
carries a much wider range of speed and feed.
5. Capstan and Turret lathe – The capstan and turret lathes are the modification of engine lathes and is
particularly used for mass production of identical part in the minimum time. These lathes are semi-automatic
and are fitted with multi tool holding devices, called capstan and turret heads. For this machine performing
several different type of operation on a workpiece without resetting of work or tool.
6. Automatic lathes – For improving and maintaining the quality as well as quantity of production, they are
design that all the working and job handling movements of the complete manufacturing process for a job are
done automatically. These lathes are used for mass production of identical parts.
7. Special purpose lathes – Perform certain specified operation in more efficient and effective as compare
to the common lathe Special purpose lathe are used.

LATHE OPERATION
Facing – Facing is an operation of machining the end of a workpiece to produce a flat surface with the axis.
The operation involves feeding the tool perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.
Plain turning – It is an operation of removing excess material from the surface of the cylindrical workpiece.
In this operation, the work is held either in the chuck or between centre and the longitudinal feed is given to
the tool either by hand or tool.
Step Turning – It is an operation of producing various step of different diameter in the workpiece.it is
carried out in the similar as plain operation.
Taper turning – A taper may be define as a uniform increase or decrease in diameter of a work measure
along its length.

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Taper turning means to produce a conical surface by gradual reduction in diameter from a cylindrical
workpiece.
Drilling – It is an operation of producing a cylindrical hole in a workpiece by the rotating cutting edge of a
cutter as the drill. For this operation, the work is held in a suitable device, and the drill is held in the sleeve
of the tail stock. The drill is fed by rotating the hand-wheel of the tailstock.
Reaming – It is an operation of finishing the previously drilled hole. In this operation, as reamer is held in
the tail stock and fed into the hole in the similar way as for drilling.
Boring – It is an operation of enlarging of a hole already made in a workpiece. In this operation, a boring
tool mounted on a rigid bar is held in the tool post.
Grooving or Under Cutting – It is an operation of reducing the diameter of a workpiece over a very narrow
surface.
Threading – It is an operation of cutting helical grooves on the external cylindrical surface of the
workpiece. In this operation, the work is held in a chuck the threading tool is fed longitudinally to the
revolving work. The longitudinally feed is equal to the pitch to the thread to be cut.
Knurling – it is an operation of embossing a diamond shaped pattern on the surface of a workpiece. The
purpose of knurling is to provide an effective gripping surface on a workpiece to prevent it from slipping
when operation by hand.
Forming – it is an operation of turning a convex, concave or any irregular shape.

DRILLING MACHINE
Drilling is the operation of producing circular hole in
the work-piece by using a rotating cutter called DRILL. The
machine used for drilling is called drilling machine.
The drill are fixed in rotating spindle and can be feed
toward the workpiece which may be fixed to the table .The
drilling operation can also be accomplished in lathe, in which
the drill is held in tailstock and the work is held by the chuck.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DRILLING MACHINE
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A metal cutting operation that produced cylindrical hole with an end cutting tool is called as Drilling.
The end cutting tool used for drilling hole in the workpiece is called as twist drill. In order to cut off chips
two motions are given.
Linear motion – The motion is called as feed and it control the thickness of the chip. The feed generally
measured in mm/rev.
Rotary motion – The motion is called as main motion or cutting motion. It is generally measured in m/min.
SPECIFICATION OF A DRILLING MACHINE
• Size of the drilling machine table.
• Largest bit the machine can hold.
• Maximum size of the hole that can be drilled.
• Maximum size of the workpiece that can be held.
• Power of motor, spindle speed or feed.

TYPES OF DRILLING MACHINE

1. Portable drilling machine – It is very small, compact, and self contained unit carrying a small electric
motor inside it. It drill in such components that cannot be transport to the shop.
2. Sensitive / bench drilling machine – This type of drill m/c is used for very light work. It is used to drill
hole from 1.5 mm to 15 mm diameter.
3. Radial drilling machine – It is used when a drill operation is to be perform on heavy workpiece. Also
used where the workpiece cannot be adjusted to locate the point of drilling.
4. Upright drilling machine - It is mount on the floor and is used to drill hole upto 25 mm. It is used for
heavier work and consist wider range of spindle speed and back gearing arrangement.
5. Gang drilling machine –It is used where a series of operation have to be perform. For this spindle are
arranged in row. This machine is very useful when the nature of work is such that a number of operation like
drilling, reaming, tapping etc., are performed in succession on it.
6. Multi spindle drilling machine – These machine are mostly used in production work and are so designed
that several hole of different sizes can be drilled simultaneously. For this increased rate of production with
sufficient accuracy.

OPERATIONS
Operations that can be performed in a drilling machine are:-
DRILLING – It is an operation of producing a circular hole in a workpiece.
Boring – It is an operation of enlarging a hole that can be already been drilled.
Reaming – It is an operation of slightly enlarging a machined hole to proper size with smooth finish.
Tapping – It is an operation of producing internal threads in a hole by means of a tool called tap.
Counter boring – It is an operation of enlarging the mouth of a drilled hole to set bolt head.
Counter sinking – It is an operation for making conical seat for a flat head screw.

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Welding

Based on the method of heat generation and application, welding process can be divided into seven main
categories :
1. Gas welding :
(a) Oxy-acetylene gas welding
(b) Air-acetylene gas welding
(c) Oxy-hydrogen gas welding.
2. Arc welding :
(a) Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
(b) Inert gas shielded metal arc welding (TIG/MIG)
(c) Atomic hydrogen welding
(d) Submerged arc welding
(e) Plasma arc welding
(f) Electro slag welding.
3. Resistance welding :
(a) Spot welding
(b) Seam welding
(c) Projection welding
(d) Percussion welding
(e) Flash butt welding.
4. Solid-state welding :
(a) Friction welding
(b) Explosive welding
(c) Roll welding

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(d) Ultrasonic welding

(e) Forge welding
(f) Diffusion welding
(g) Hot pressure welding.
5. Radiant energy welding :
(a) Electron beam welding
(b) Laser beam welding.
6. Exothermic welding :
(a) Thermite welding
(b) Cad welding.
7. Related welding process :
(a) Soldering
(b) Brazing.

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 FOUNDRY

Introduction:

Foundry is a process of shaping the metal components in their molten stage. It is the also
called as metal casting the shape and size of the metal casting is obtained depends on the shape
and size of the cavity produced in sand mould by using wooden/ metalpattern.

Practical application

1. Casting is the cheapest and most direct way of producing the shape of thecomponent
2. Casting is best suited to work where components required is in lowquantity.
3. Complicated shapes having internal openings and complex section variation can be
produced quickly and cheaply by casting since liquid metal can flow into any form/ shape.
Example: 1. Outer casing of all automobileengines.

2. Electric motorhousing

3. Bench vice, Irrigation pumpsetc.

4. Heavy equipment such as machine beds of lathe, milling machine, shaping, drilling plaining
machine etc. can becast/easily

5. Casting is best suited for composite components

Example.1: steel screw threads in zinc diecasting

All conductors into slot in iron armature for electric motor.

Steps in foundry process

The Foundry process involves three steps.

(a) Making the requiredpattern

(b) Moulding process to produce the cavity in sand usingpattern.
(c) Pouring the molten metal into the cavity to getcasting.

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Classification of foundries;

 Steel foundry
 C.Ifoundry
 Light alloyfoundry
 Brass foundry
 Shell mouldingfoundry
 Die casting foundry (using permanent metal or dies for high volume of low and pressure
die)

Pattern:

A pattern is normally a wooden/ metal model or thermosetting plastic which is facsimile of

the cast product to be made, there are many types of pattern and are either one piece, two piece
or three piece, split pattern, loose piece pattern, Gated and match plate pattern etc.

Pattern size: Actual casting size +shrinkage allowance +shake allowance +finish allowance

1. Shrinkage allowance: The liquid metal shrinks during solidification and it contraction to its
room temperature, so that the pattern must be made larger then the casting to provide for total
contraction.

2. Finishing allowance: The casting is to be machined at some points then the casting should
be provided with excess metal formachining.

Types of foundry sand

1. Natural sand: Sand containing the silica grains and clay bond as found. It varies in grain
size and clay content. Collected from naturalrecourses.
2. Synthetic sand: It is an artificial sand obtained by mixing relatively clay free sand, binder
(water and bentonite). It is better moulding sand as its properties can be easilycontrolled.
3. Facing sand: It is the fine grade sand used against the face of the pattern and finally
governs the surface finish of thecasting.
4. Parting sand: It is fine dry sand + brick dust used to preserve the joint face
between the cope and thedrag.

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NaturalGreensand= sand+ clay+ moisture

(10to15%) (7 to9%)

SyntheticGreensand= sand+ clay+ moisture

(5to7%) (4 to8%)

5. Green sand: moulding is the most common mouldingprocess

6. Dry sand mould: Dry sand mould refer to a mould which isartificiallydried beforethe
molten metal is poured intoit.
Dry sand moulds are costly, stronger, used for complicated castings, i.e. avoid casting
defects, casting gets smoother surface.

Moulding methods:

 Bench moulding: In this method the moulding is carried out on convenient bench and
moulds are relativelysmall.
 Floor moulding: In this method the moulding is carried out in medium and large moulds
are carried out on thefloor.
 Plate moulding: For large quantity production and for very heavy casting two plates may
be used withpattern.
 Pit moulding: In this method the moulding is carried out in the pits and generally very
large moulds aremade.
 Machine moulding: A machine is used to prepare moulds of small and medium. This
method is faster and gives uniformmoulding.

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 CORE AND CORE MAKING

CORES: Cores are sand blocks they are used to make hollow portion in a casting. It is placed in a
mould so that when molten metal is poured into the mould. This apart of mould will remain vacant
i.e. the molten metal will not fill this part of the mould. So, when the mould is broken and the castings
removed a hollow portion will result in the casting.

Core sand= Moulding sand+ binders (ABC core oil) or sodium silicate

Core making: Cores are made separately in a core box made of wood or metal.

Fig. 8.1 Core making

Core binders

1. Water soluble binders (2 to 4% byweight)

2. Oil binders (1-3% byweight)

3. Pitch and resin binders (1-35 byweight)

The sand is treated with binder to achieve cohesion

Core Baking

The core is baked (hardened) by heating at 150C depends on core size in oven.

This hardening of the core helps to handle and to place the core in the mould.

The core is supported in the mould by projection known as core prints.

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Fig. 8.2 Nomenclature of a Mould

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