BAFS 2240 LESSON 4- ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR AGRICULTURE

The link between modern agriculture modern energy

(a) Increasing productivity of agricultural production systems are the primary drivers of
global poverty reduction and energy plays a key role in achieving this objective.
(b) Energy input to modern agricultural production and processing systems is a key factor
in moving beyond subsistence farming towards food security, added value in rural areas
and expansion into new agricultural markets.
The agricultural production chain involves the following steps:
(1) Production, (2) Postharvest and storage, (3) Processing (4) Commercialisation
1). PRODUCTION
1.1. Land Preparation, Cultivation, Harvesting and Threshing
Based on the power source, the technological levels of mechanisation have been broadly
classified as hand-tool technology, draught animal technology and mechanical power
technology
(i) Operations involving human skill include activities such as planting, weeding, spraying
and harvesting using hand tools. Most horticultural commodities are harvested
manually, including those grown in highly industrialised nations.
(ii) Draught animal power can alleviate human drudgery and is considered to be an
affordable source of power for smallholders, also given its great potential for
diversification e.g. for transport and non-farm work. Efforts to expand the use of
draught animal power should include work on animal efficiency, which can be
improved through modernisation of equipment, better breeding and animal
husbandry, feeding and veterinary care.
(iii) Fuel powered two-wheel tractors are often used for agricultural production, with
different attachments for tillage, bed planting, row planting, harvesting and
threshing.
1.2 Irrigation
The energy demand for irrigation purposes is the energy required to lift water by pumping from
surface sources, such as ponds, streams, or canals; or from below-ground sources using open
wells or boreholes.
1.2.1 Choosing the Right Irrigation Technology
The choice of irrigation water distribution system which is most suitable will depend on factors
including such as: i) crop(s) cultivated, ii) climate, iii) location, iv) area of agricultural
production, v) quantity of water required over time, vi) system cost, vii) access to capital, viii)
local agricultural workers’ technical capacity, ix) local availability of equipment, x)
maintenance and repair services and availability of spare parts.
1.2.2 Choosing the Right Pump Technology
Pumps differ in: i) size and capacity, ii) the type of water source they are suitable for
(groundwater or surface water), iii) the area of irrigation possible, v) cost and technical
complexity.

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1.2.3. Choosing the Right Energy Source
1.2.3.1. Grid Electricity
 Where grid connection is available an electric pump can be powered directly.
 Use of grid electricity is determined by: i) the cost, ii) availability, iii) reliability, and
v) quality of local electricity supplies
1.2.3.2. Fuels for Combustion Engine
 Motorised pumps can be powered by fossil fuels (diesel, gasoline), either through
generators that create electricity, or by transmitting power to the pump
1.2.3.3. Solar Energy (PV)
Photovoltaic (PV) Pumping
PV pumps for irrigation can only be operated cost-efficiently under the following conditions:
i) In order to reduce the energy requirements of PVP irrigation systems, water-
conserving and energy-saving micro-irrigation techniques have to be applied.
ii) The plot size for PVP irrigation should be below 4 hectares.
iii) High rates of system utilisation are necessary to achieve economic viability of PVP
irrigation systems.
iv) PVP systems are limited to irrigate permanent crops and continuous crop rotation
in arid climates.
v) High value-added cash crops like fruits, vegetables and spices should be given
preference to recoup the high initial investment
1.2.3.4. Wind Energy
i) Wind can be used to power both mechanical and electric pumps.
ii) Mechanical wind pumps require the availability of local maintenance and repair
facilities to be able to respond quickly to mechanical failures.
iii) Adequate wind speeds must be present at the location of the wells.
iv) One advantage is that they can pump day or night as long as there is sufficient wind,
and can be used independently of electricity or fuel supplies.
v) A disadvantage is that they must be located directly above the well, a location that
may not be optimal in terms of local wind resources.
vi) Wind pumps are appropriate in windy areas without other sources of power, and
only for small irrigable areas
1.2.3.5. Hybrid Systems
(i) Small-scale hybrid power systems are used worldwide.
(ii) By combining different energy sources (solar-diesel, wind-diesel) hybrids can provide
widespread and highly reliable electrical supply.
(iii)These small hybrid systems are easy to install, and no special tools are required.

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2) POST-HARVEST AND STORAGE
2.1. Packing
The best precondition for storage is a proper harvest and post-harvest handling:
i) Sorting, grading, and packing produce into storage containers after harvest to
prevent losses is important, for easily perishable crops such as tuber crops,
vegetables and fruits.
ii) Reducing the number of times produce is handled between harvest and consumption
will reduce mechanical damage and subsequent losses.
iii) Packing houses for crops should be simple structures that provide shade and
comfortable working conditions for farm workers conducting manual post-harvest
operations.
iv) Manual handling is recommended for horticultural high-value produce.
2.2. Storage
i) Since production of agricultural commodity is seasonal while demand for crops like
vegetables and fruits continues year-round, a certain percentage of the farm produce
has to be stored before selling at the market
ii) Storage facilities secure agricultural commodities kept for rapid emergency aid and
buffer stocks to stabilise domestic prices.
iii) Besides storage at central hubs and transportation centres, more localised storage is
necessary.
2.2.1. Dry Storage
Good storage practice is the key to maintaining quality and value throughout the storage season.
These include:
i) A precondition is that crops are in good condition prior to storage, which means
well cleaned and carefully winnowed to remove live adult insects.
ii) Chaff, stones and dirt must be removed as they hold water and their removal will
allow grain to dry faster.
iii) The grain should be well dried to an appropriate level of moisture content because
damp grain will become mouldy and spoil.
iv) Solar dryers can be use, where sun drying help get rid of adult insects in the grain.
However, as sun drying will not kill all immature stages, such as larvae living inside
grains, it is necessary to treat the grain with insecticide, killing the immature stages
once they mature and emerge from the grain as adults.
v) A good store should keep the grain dry and cool and provide protection against
rodents and birds.
vi) Practising good store hygiene by keeping everything in the store clean helps
maintain the condition of the crop throughout the storage season.
vii) As pests can attack the store at any time, it is important to inspect the crop regularly

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2.2.2. Cold Storage
Cold storage can create high energy demand.
Advantages
i) For fresh fruits and vegetables, cooling is one of the most important steps in the
post-harvest handling chain to reduce respiration rates, extend shelf life and protect
quality.
ii) Cooling offers farmers the opportunity to increase income by extending the period
for selling and marketing the products when better prices can be achieved.
Three technologies are available for cooling smaller quantities of produce:
i) Passive/evaporative coolers: where temperatures between 10-25°C are needed, and
no energy input is required.
ii) Absorption refrigerators (Heat Driven Coolers (HDC), requiring temperatures
below 10°C; and heat as an energy source is used to drive the cooling system (e.g.
solar, kerosene-fuelled flame).
iii) Refrigerators which are electrically driven and depend on a reliable and continuous
supply of electricity which can be generated from different sources, such as:
(a) From the grid,
(b) Diesel powered generators,
(c) Solar energy converted by solar cells into electricity stored in batteries
Commercial Refrigerators
i) Commercial refrigerators were introduced in developing countries to cut down the
use of kerosene or gas-powered absorption refrigerators, which are the most
common alternatives but with the most negative impact on the environment.
ii) First introduced for medical refrigeration, they now constitute an alternative
method of storing small quantities of agricultural products for sale.
iii) The newest type of solar refrigerator is solar powered but requires neither solar
panels nor a battery as it functions on the principle of evaporation. (The evaporator
is located inside a refrigerator and as the refrigerant turns from a liquid into a gas
through evaporation, it cools the area around it, producing the proper environment
for storing food).
iv) The costs for solar refrigerators are approximately the same as for kerosene
refrigerators, but because they are more reliable and environmentally friendly, they
are the preferred option.
3). PROCESSING
3.1. Drying of Produce
Principles of drying agricultural produce:
i) To add value to fresh fruits and vegetables, they must be dried before packaging
and marketing.
ii) Processing fruits and vegetables on a small-scale level is less mechanised than other
agro-processing activities.
iii) It is important that the used equipment is constructed of stainless steel because
acids in fruits corrode mild steel.
iv) Peeling or slicing produce into uniformly sized pieces is required for successful
drying.
v) For drying commodities in larger quantities, heat assisted drying is used.

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3.1.1. Direct and Indirect Solar Drying
Direct Solar Drying
i) Laying produce out in the sun to dry naturally is common in sunny climates and is
an inexpensive drying method.
ii) However, traditional sun drying methods yield low quality as the produce is not
protected against rain and dust and other contaminations.
Indirect Solar Drying
i) Indirect solar drying requires a covered dryer that protects produce from direct sunlight
while capturing more heat from the sun.
ii) With natural air flow inside, an indirect dryer reduces heat and pest damage while
speeding up drying.
3.1.2. Heat-assisted Drying
i) In rainy weather regions, heat-assisted dryers create warm air flow inside the dryer
to speed up drying, with heat sources from electricity, wood, or other locally
available fuel.
ii) The majority of energy used in heated air dryers is used to heat the air.
iii) Electricity for moving air is only a small fraction of the air heating costs, which
depend on the initial and final moisture contents of the product.
iv) If energy conservation measures such as air recirculation are incorporated into the
dryers, fuel use can drop significantly
3.1.3. Solar Drying
Open-Drying
Open-air drying takes place when food is exposed to the sun and wind by placing it in trays,
on racks, or on the ground.
Advantages
(i) Almost no costs for fuel and appliances have to be spent by the farmer.
(ii) There are no cost maintenance costs
Disadvantages
(i) The dried products are of lower quality due to varying temperature levels and
contamination of the products with dust and insects.
(ii) Up to 70 % of agricultural products spoil during the traditional process of open-air
drying.
(iii) Open-drying is limited to certain times of the day when the sun is shining and is
mostly suitable for locations with low humidity.
Solar Dryers
There are different types of solar dryers, that include:
(i) Direct drying (solar box dryer)
(ii) Indirect drying (solar cabinet dryer)
(iii) Mixed mode drying (solar tunnel dryer) o
(iv) Hybrid drying (hybrid solar/biomass cabinet dryer).

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4)COMMERCIALISATION
4.1. Market Infrastructure and Transport
(i) Continued provision of safe and nutritious food at affordable prices require
increased food production, effective rural-to-urban market linkages and efficient
support services.
(ii) Storage facilities to minimise post-harvest losses can solve logistical, food safety
and marketing problems.
(iii) Agro-processing extends markets to meet increased food demands.
(iv) Investment in rural power supply facilities is a requirement for infrastructure
improvement for marketing.
(v) Rural infrastructure design must enable smallholders to access local markets easily
and reduce input costs such as transport and distribution.
(vi) Manual technologies for transportation consist of animal-powered carts or wagons.
(vii) Fossil fuel-powered engines for transport such as cars or pick-up trucks offer the
most frequently used mode of transportation.
4.2.Information and Telecommunication Technologies (ICT)
(i) Market information is crucial to enable farmers and traders to make informed decisions
about: a) what to grow, b) when to harvest, c) to which markets produce should be
sent and d) whether or not to store produce.
(ii) Modern ICT open up possibilities for market information services to improve
information delivery through SMS on cell phones and the rapid growth of FM
(Frequency Modulation) radio stations that offer more localised information services.
(iii) Mobile phones also reduce communication and information costs significantly by
reducing travel distances.
(iv) In the long run, the internet may become an effective way of delivering information to
farmers.
4.3.Training Facilities
(i) Training facilities for farmers and traders in the various chains increase understanding
of the social, technical, economic and environmental factors that affect the safety,
quality and value of agricultural production and marketing.
(ii) Providing buildings with power including renewable energies such as solar lighting will
help them to function as a model for modern energy services.
4.4.Selling
(i) Efficient marketing infrastructure such as assembly markets, retail markets and
wholesale markets is essential for cost-effective marketing.
(ii) Terminal wholesale markets are located in major metropolitan areas, where produce is
finally channelled to consumers through trade between wholesalers and retailers,
(iii)The characteristics of wholesale markets have changed in response to urban growth,
with the increasing role of supermarkets and increased consumer spending capacity.
(iv) Despite the growth of supermarkets, there remains considerable scope to improve
agricultural marketing in developing countries by constructing new retail markets.
(v) Rural assembly markets are located in production areas and serve as places where
farmers can meet with traders to sell their products. These markets may be weekly or
permanent, often taking place at night or in the early morning when lighting is needed.
If there is no connection to the public grid, use of solar lanterns can be an alternative.