Chapter 1 Linear and Angular Measurement

Introduction to Metrology
Metrology is the science of measurement. It encompasses both theoretical and practical
aspects, including the development, maintenance, and application of measurement standards and
techniques. Metrology ensures the accuracy, precision, and reliability of measurements across
various fields such as science, engineering, industry, and everyday life.

Instrumentation

Instrumentation refers to the devices and systems used to measure, monitor, and control physical
quantities.
Accuracy and Precision

 Accuracy: How close a measurement is to the true value.

Example:
If you have a scale that reads 100.5 grams when a standard weight of 100 grams is placed
on it, the scale is not accurate because the measured value (100.5 grams) is not close to
the true value (100 grams).

 Precision: The repeatability or consistency of measurements, i.e., how close the

measurements are to each other, regardless of whether they are close to the true value.

If you measure the length of a rod five times and get the values 10.01 cm, 10.00 cm,
10.02 cm, 10.01 cm, and 10.00 cm, your measurements are precise because they are very
close to each other. However, if the true length of the rod is 10.5 cm, the measurements
are not accurate.

Error in Measurement:

Error in measurement refers to the difference between the measured value and the true value of
the quantity being measured. Understanding and managing errors is essential for ensuring the
accuracy and reliability of measurements.

Linear measurement

Linear measurement refers to the measurement of length or distance between two points. It is one
of the most fundamental types of measurement and is commonly used in various fields such as
construction, manufacturing, engineering, and everyday activities. Linear measurement can be
performed using a variety of tools and techniques, depending on the required precision and the
context of the measurement.
Classification of Measuring Instruments

1. Basic Measuring Tools:

These tools are used for general-purpose measurements and are usually straightforward in design
and usage.
  Ruler: Typically made of wood, plastic, or metal, rulers are used for measuring small
distances. They usually have markings in both metric and imperial units.
 Measuring Tape: Flexible tapes made of cloth, plastic, or metal, often retractable, used
for measuring longer distances.
2. Precision Measuring Tools:

These instruments offer higher accuracy and are often used in engineering and manufacturing.

 Calipers:
o Vernier Calipers: Provide precise measurements of internal and external
dimensions and depths, with a typical accuracy of 0.02 mm.
o Digital Calipers: Offer electronic readouts for ease of reading and typically
provide similar accuracy to vernier calipers.
 Micrometers:
o Outside Micrometers: Measure the thickness or diameter of an object with high
precision, often to the nearest 0.001 mm.
o Inside Micrometers: Measure the internal dimensions of an object.
o Depth Micrometers: Measure the depth of holes or recesses.

3. Specialized Measuring Instruments:

These instruments are used for specific applications and often combine multiple measurement
capabilities.

 Combination Squares: Used in woodworking and metalworking to measure and mark

angles, depths, and lengths.
 Height Gauges: Used to measure the height of objects and mark items for precise cuts in
manufacturing.
 Gauge Blocks (Slip Gauges): Precision-ground blocks used for calibration and verifying
the accuracy of other measuring instruments.
Linear measuring Instruments

 Vernier caliper
 Working Principle:
 The vernier caliper works by aligning the vernier scale with the main scale. When the jaws of
the caliper are closed, the zero of the vernier scale aligns with the zero of the main scale.
 As the jaws are opened to measure an object, the vernier scale slides along the main scale. The
position where a vernier scale division aligns exactly with a main scale division gives the precise
measurement.
  Construction of vernier Caliper
 Fixed Jaw: The stationary part of the caliper that remains fixed while measuring.
 Main Scale: The scale engraved on the body of the caliper, typically marked in millimeters
and inches.
 Movable Jaw: The sliding part of the caliper that moves along the main scale to make the
measurement.
 Vernier Scale: The smaller scale attached to the movable jaw, allowing for fine measurement
readings.
 DepthRod: A rod that extends from the end of the caliper for measuring depths.
 ThumbScrew: Used to lock the movable jaw in place after taking a measurement.
 Fine Adjustment Screw: Allows for precise control of the movable jaw movement.
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑂𝑓 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑟 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
1𝑚𝑚
= 50
=0.02mm

Working of a Vernier Caliper

1. Preparation:
o Ensure the vernier caliper is clean and free from dust or debris.
o Close the jaws and check the zero reading. The zero on the main scale should
align with the zero on the vernier scale. If not, the caliper needs to be calibrated.
2. Taking Measurements:
o External Measurements: To measure the external dimensions of an object (e.g.,
diameter or thickness):
 Open the jaws and place the object between them.
 Close the jaws gently to ensure they are in contact with the object without
applying excessive force.
o Internal Measurements: To measure the internal dimensions (e.g., the diameter
of a hole):
  Use the smaller jaws on the top of the caliper.
 Open the jaws and insert them into the hole.
 Gently close the jaws until they contact the internal surface of the hole.
o Depth Measurements: To measure the depth of a hole or recess:
 Use the depth rod, which extends from the end of the caliper.
 Place the end of the caliper on the surface and extend the depth rod into
the hole until it touches the bottom.
3. Reading the Measurement:
o Main Scale Reading: Observe the main scale reading just before the zero of the
vernier scale. This is the main scale reading.
o Vernier Scale Reading: Look at the vernier scale and find the line that aligns
exactly with any line on the main scale. The number on the vernier scale that
aligns is the vernier scale reading.
o Calculate the Measurement: Add the main scale reading to the vernier scale
reading (considering the least count).

Example Calculation:

Assume you are measuring an object and the least count of the vernier caliper is 0.02 mm.

1. Main Scale Reading: Suppose the main scale reads 10 mm just before the zero of the
vernier scale.
2. Vernier Scale Reading: Suppose the 5th division on the vernier scale aligns exactly with
a division on the main scale.
3. Measurement Calculation:

Total Reading= Main Scale Reading+(Vernier Scale Division×Least Count.

Examples 1
Applications:

 Internal Measurements: Measuring the internal diameter of objects.

 External Measurements: Measuring the external diameter or length of objects.
 Depth Measurements: Measuring the depth of holes or recesses.
Advantages:

 High Precision: Allows for precise measurements typically to the nearest 0.02 mm or
0.001 inches.
 Versatility: Can measure internal, external dimensions, and depths.
 Ease of Use: Simple to operate and read measurements.

Errors in vernier caliper:

1. Errors due to play between the sliding jaw and fixed scale bar.
2. Error due to wear and wrapping of jaws.
3. Errors due to incorrect observation of scale readings
4. Errors due to excessive force on moving jaw.
5. Error is also introduced if the line of measurement does not coincide with the line of the
scale.

Precautions to be taken in use of vernier caliper:

1) No play should be there between sliding and fixed jaws. If play exists then the accuracy
of the vernier caliper will be lost.
2) The tips of measuring jaws should not be worn.
3) Use the stationary jaw on reference point and obtain measured point by sliding the
movable jaws.
4) The vernier caliper must always be properly balanced in hand and held lightly the sliding
jaw through adjusting screw. Do not push the moving jaw, under pressure, use adjusting
screw for fine adjustment.
 5) In case of measuring an outside diameter, be sure that caliper bar and the plane of Caliper
jaws are truly perpendicular to the work piece's longitudinal centre line.
 Vernier height gauge:

Construction of a Height Gauge

1. Base: The base of the height gauge provides stability and support. It is usually made of a
heavy material such as cast iron to prevent movement during measurements.
2. Column: A vertical column rises from the base and supports the measuring assembly. It
is often graduated in millimeters or inches for height adjustment.
3. Measuring Head: At the top of the column, there is a measuring head that houses the
key components for height measurement:
o Measuring Scriber: A finely pointed scriber or probe that makes contact with the
object being measured.
o Fine Adjustment Wheel: Allows for precise vertical movement of the measuring
scriber.
o Clamping screw: Holds the object securely against the base for accurate
measurement.
4. Beam: Extending horizontally from the column, the beam supports the measuring head
and allows it to move smoothly along the height of the column.
5. Digital Readout (Optional): Modern height gauges may have a digital display to provide
precise measurements digitally, enhancing accuracy and ease of use.
6. Base Plate: A flat surface on which objects are placed for measurement. It often includes
T-slots or clamping mechanisms to secure work pieces firmly.

Working of a Height Gauge

 1. Setting Up:
o Place the height gauge on a flat, stable surface.
o Adjust the column to ensure it is vertical using a level or built-in level indicator.
2. Measurement Process:
o Zero Setting: Lower the measuring head until the scriber touches the base plate
or a reference surface. Set the height gauge to zero to establish a reference point.
o Measuring Height: Raise or lower the measuring head using the fine adjustment
wheel or digital controls until the scriber makes contact with the top surface of the
object being measured.
o Reading the Measurement: Read the height measurement directly from the scale
on the column or from the digital display, depending on the type of height gauge.
3. Depth Measurement (optional):
o For depth measurements, the object being measured is placed on the base plate,
and the measuring head is adjusted to the desired depth using the fine adjustment
wheel.
o The depth is read directly from the scale on the column or digital display.

Applications of Height Gauges

 Quality Control: Ensuring precise dimensions of manufactured parts.

 Metrology: Measuring heights and depths in scientific and industrial research.
 Tool and Die Making: Checking dimensions of tools and dies during production.
 Engineering: Used in machining operations to set cutting depths and heights accurately.

Advantages of Height Gauges

 High Precision: Provides accurate measurements typically to within micrometers.

 Versatility: Can measure both heights and depths with the same instrument.
 Ease of Use: Offers straightforward operation and clear measurement readings.
 Digital Accuracy: Modern height gauges with digital readouts enhance accuracy and
efficiency in measurement.

Vernier depth gauge:

 A Vernier depth gauge is a specialized instrument used to measure depths accurately in
engineering, machining, and scientific applications. It consists of a main scale and a
sliding Vernier scale, similar to a Vernier caliper, but oriented vertically for depth
measurements.

 Purpose: A Vernier depth gauge is designed to measure depths of holes, slots, and other
recesses with high precision.

 Components: It comprises a main scale fixed on a rod, along which a Vernier scale slides. The
Vernier scale allows for fine adjustments to achieve precise depth measurements.

 Operation: To use, place the base of the gauge on a flat surface and lower the measuring rod
until the probe makes contact with the bottom of the recess being measured.

 Measurement: The depth is read by aligning the Vernier scale with the main scale. The
measurement is calculated by adding the main scale reading to the Vernier scale reading,
considering the gauge’s least count.

 Advantages: Provides accurate depth measurements, typically to within 0.02 mm or better,

depending on the gauge’s precision. It’s essential in machining operations, quality control, and
scientific research where precise depth measurements are critical.

 Applications: Used extensively in manufacturing, engineering, and laboratory settings for

ensuring parts conform to specified depths and dimensions.

Dial Vernier Caliper:

 Purpose: A dial Vernier caliper is designed to measure dimensions with higher accuracy and
easier readability compared to traditional Vernier calipers.

 Components: It features a main scale, Vernier scale, and a dial indicator mounted on the
caliper body. The dial indicator provides a direct numerical reading, eliminating the need for
manual interpolation.
 Operation: To use, open the jaws and place the object between them. As the jaws close, the
dial indicator needle moves, providing a precise measurement directly on the dial.

 Measurement: Readings are obtained by noting where the dial needle aligns with the indicator
markings. This provides accurate measurements typically to within 0.02 mm or better, depending
on the caliper's precision.

 Advantages: Offers quicker and easier measurement readings compared to traditional Vernier
calipers. Ideal for applications where rapid measurement and accuracy are crucial.

 Applications: Widely used in manufacturing, machining, and quality control processes where
precise dimensional measurements are required.

Micrometers:

Working Principle of Micrometer

The principle behind a micrometer involves the use of a calibrated screw mechanism:

 Screw Mechanism: A screw with a very finely threaded spindle rotates when the thimble
is turned. This rotational movement is directly proportional to the linear movement of the
spindle.
 Levers: The spindle movement is amplified and transmitted to the measurement spindle
through a system of levers, which magnifies the measurement and ensures accurate
readings.
 Anvil and Spindle: The object being measured is placed between a stationary anvil
(fixed point) and a moving spindle (connected to the screw mechanism). As the thimble
is rotated, the spindle moves towards or away from the anvil.
Construction of Micrometer

1. Frame: The main body of the micrometer holds all components together and provides
stability.
2. Anvil: The fixed end against which the object being measured is placed.
3. Spindle: The moving end that moves towards or away from the anvil based on the
rotation of the thimble.
4. Thimble: The rotating barrel or cylinder connected to the spindle. It is graduated with
markings that indicate the measurement in small increments (usually 0.01 mm or 0.001
inches).
5. Sleeve: The sleeve houses the thimble and provides a stable platform for rotating it
during measurement.
6. Screw Mechanism: Inside the micrometer, a precise screw mechanism translates
rotational movement of the thimble into linear movement of the spindle.
7. Ratchet Stop or Friction Thimble (optional): Some micrometers include a ratchet stop
or a friction thimble that applies consistent pressure, preventing over-tightening and
ensuring repeatable measurements.

Working of Micrometer and Least count

1. Zero Setting:
o Close the micrometer gently until the anvil and spindle make light contact. Use
the ratchet stop or friction thimble to apply a consistent pressure.
2. Measurement:
o Place the object between the anvil and spindle.
o Rotate the thimble using the barrel or sleeve. Each rotation moves the spindle a
precise distance (typically 0.5 mm or 0.025 inches) due to the screw mechanism.
o Read the measurement directly from the markings on the thimble and sleeve. The
sleeve markings represent full millimeters or inches, while the thimble markings
represent fractions of a millimeter or thousandths of an inch.
3. Reading the Measurement:
o The measurement is read by adding the main scale reading (from the sleeve) and
the fractional part (from the thimble).
th
o Example: If the sleeve reads 13.5 mm and the thimble aligns with the 35 division
mark, the measurement is 13.85 mm.
Advantages of Micrometer

 High Precision: Capable of measuring to within micrometers (0.001 mm or better).

 Versatility: Measures various dimensions including diameters, thicknesses, depths, and
more.
 Ease of Use: Provides direct and accurate readings, especially with a digital or friction
thimble.

Applications of Micrometer

 Machine Shops and Manufacturing: Checking dimensions of machined parts.

 Quality Control: Ensuring parts meet precise specifications.
 Engineering and Research: Taking precise measurements in research and development.

Types of micrometers

1. Outside micrometer
2. Inside micrometer
3. Vernier micrometer
4. Depth micrometer
5. Bench micrometer
6. Digital micrometer
7. Differential screw micrometer
8. Micrometer with dial gauge
9. Screw thread micrometer
  Vernier micrometers

• In order to increase accuracy, the vernier principle also be applied to outside micrometer

Main scale is graduated on the barrel with two sets of division marks. The set below the
reference line reads in mm and set above the line reads in 1/2 mm (0.5 mm).

Thimble scale is graduated on thimble with 50 equal divisions.

• Each small division of thimble represents 1/50 of minimum division of main

scale.
Main scale minimum division value is ½ mm (0.5mm). Hence each division of thimble is equal
to

0.5
= 0.01𝑚𝑚
50

Vernier scale is marked on barrel. There are “l0 divisions on barrel and this is equivalent to 9
divisions on the thimble.”

Hence division on Vernier scale is equal to 9/10 that of thimble.

But one division on thimble is equal to 0.01 mm. Therefore, one division on Vernier scale is
equal, to 0.001

Example of Vernier Micrometer

  Slip Gauge:

Slip gauges, also known as gauge blocks or Jo blocks, are precision measuring tools used in
metrology for calibrating and verifying the accuracy of other measuring instruments.
Purpose of Slip Gauges

Slip gauges are primarily used for:

1. Calibration: They serve as reference standards to calibrate and verify the accuracy of
measuring instruments such as micrometers, calipers, and height gauges.
2. Measurement: Slip gauges can also be stacked together to create precise dimensions for
measuring very small gaps or distances in engineering and manufacturing.

Construction of Slip Gauges

1. Material: Typically made from high-quality alloy steel, ceramic, or tungsten carbide for
durability and stability.
2. Dimensional Accuracy: Slip gauges are manufactured to extremely tight tolerances,
often within micrometers or even nanometers, ensuring high precision.
3. Surface Finish: The faces of slip gauges are lapped to a mirror-like finish to minimize
wear and ensure accurate measurements.
4. Standard Sizes: They come in standard sizes, often ranging from 1 mm to 100 mm in
increments of 1 mm, and in inch sizes as well.

Usage of Slip Gauges

1. Stacking: Slip gauges are stacked together to form precise lengths or heights that can be
used as references for calibration or measurement.
2. Measurement: They are used in conjunction with a comparator or measuring instrument
to check the accuracy of linear measurements.
3. Calibration: Slip gauges are fundamental in the calibration process of precision
instruments by providing known dimensions for comparison.
 4. Gauge Block Sets: Often sold in sets containing various sizes and combinations to cover
a wide range of measurement needs.

Advantages of Slip Gauges

 High Accuracy: Provide measurements with high precision, typically within

micrometers or better.
 Versatility: Can be used across various industries including manufacturing, automotive,
aerospace, and research laboratories.
 Durability: Made from materials that resist wear and maintain accuracy over time.

 Wringing of slip gauge

Wringing" in the context of slip gauges refers to a phenomenon where two perfectly flat
and clean surfaces of slip gauges adhere to each other by molecular attraction when
brought into contact. This adhesion occurs due to the force of molecular attraction
between the two clean, flat surfaces, creating a friction-like bond that holds them
together. Here's a detailed explanation of wringing of slip gauges:

Wringing of Slip Gauges

1. Conditions for Wringing:

o Clean Surfaces: Both surfaces of the slip gauges must be meticulously cleaned to
remove any contaminants such as oil, dust, or moisture. Even microscopic
particles can prevent wringing.
o Flatness: The surfaces must be perfectly flat and parallel to each other. Any
deviation in flatness can prevent proper wringing.
2. Process:
o Place one slip gauge on a clean, flat surface.
o Gently slide the second slip gauge onto the first, ensuring the surfaces make full
contact without tilting or sliding.
o If conditions are ideal (cleanliness and flatness), the slip gauges will adhere to
each other due to molecular attraction, forming a wring joint.
 Angular Measuring Instruments

• The angle is defined as the opening between two lines which meet at a point.
• Circle is divided into 360 parts; each part is called a degree (º).
• Each degree is divided in 60 minutes ( ') and each minute into 60 Seconds ( “)
• Unit of angle derived from theoretical considerations is the radian, defined as the angle
subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc length equal to radius of circle.

Classification of Angle Measuring Instruments:

 Line Standard Angular Measuring Devices
1) Protractors
2) Universal Bevel Protractors
 Face Standard Angular Measuring Devices
1) Side bar
2) Sine Center
 Measurement of Inclination
1) Spirit Level
2) Clinometers
 Angle Comparators
Autocollimators

 Vernier Bevel Protector:

A Vernier bevel protractor is a precision measuring instrument used to measure angles with high
accuracy, typically in machining, engineering, and metalworking applications.

Construction of Vernier Bevel Protractor

 1. Base: The main body of the protractor which holds the measuring components and
provides stability.
2. Blade: A flat, graduated blade that extends from the base and serves as the reference
surface against which angles are measured.
3. Vernier Scale: A secondary scale that slides along the main scale and allows for more
precise angle measurements. It typically has finer divisions than the main scale.
4. Clamp: A locking mechanism that secures the blade at the desired angle once the
measurement is taken.
5. Leveling Vial: Often includes a leveling vial to ensure the protractor is positioned
accurately on a flat surface.

Principle of Vernier Bevel Protractor

The Vernier bevel protractor works on the principle of combining a main scale with a Vernier
scale to measure angles:

 Main Scale: The main scale is graduated in degrees, typically in 1-degree increments,
and runs along the blade of the protractor.
 Vernier Scale: The Vernier scale slides parallel to the main scale and provides finer
divisions, usually in increments of 5 or 10 minutes (1/12th or 1/6th of a degree).
 Measurement: To measure an angle, place the base of the protractor against one side of
the angle and open the blade to span the angle. Read the main scale and then find the
Vernier scale division that aligns with a division on the main scale. The sum of the main
scale reading and the Vernier scale reading gives the precise angle measurement.

Usage of Vernier Bevel Protractor

1. Setting Angles: Used in setting and measuring angles in machine tool operations, such as
setting up milling machines or lathe tools.
2. Quality Control: Ensures accurate machining and assembly of components where
precise angles are critical.
3. Tool Inspection: Verifies the angles of cutting tools and parts during manufacturing
processes.

Advantages of Vernier Bevel Protractor

 High Precision: Allows for measurement of angles to within minutes or even seconds,
depending on the resolution of the Vernier scale.
 Versatility: Can measure both inside and outside angles, as well as be used for marking
angles for cutting and machining operations.
 Durability: Typically made from hardened steel or other durable materials to withstand
industrial environments.
Least count of Vernier bevel protector

𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

= 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
 1°
= 12
= 5’
Example:

 Optical Bevel Protector:

• A circle divided at 1.0 minutes intervals throughout the circle is fitted inside the body.
• Small microscope is fitted through which the circle graduations can be viewed.
• Adjustable blade is clamped to a rotating member which carries its microscope.
  Combination Set

In the context of metrology and instrumentation, a combination set typically refers to a collection
of precision tools and instruments used for measuring and calibrating equipment.
 Multi-purpose tools used for measuring angles, checking for squareness, and as a depth gauge.

 Consist of a ruler and one or more interchangeable heads.

 Sine Bar:
Components and Design:

1. Body:
o The main body of a sine bar is a hardened and ground steel bar.
o It has two cylindrical rollers or cylinders fixed at the ends of the bar.
2. Rollers:
o The distance between the centers of the two rollers is precisely known and is
typically a standard length, such as 100 mm or 200 mm.
o The rollers are often of the same diameter and made of hardened steel for
durability.

Principle of Operation:

The sine bar is used to set or measure an angle by raising one of the rollers on a stack of gauge
blocks. The angle θ is determined using the sine function:

Height of gauge blocks

sin 𝜃 = Distance between rollers

Applications of Sine Bar:

1. Machining and Manufacturing:

o Used to set up machine tools at precise angles for operations such as milling,
drilling, and grinding.
o Essential for machining parts with accurate angular features.
2. Inspection and Quality Control:
o Used to check the angles of machined parts to ensure they meet design
specifications.
o Provides a reliable method for verifying angular accuracy.
3. Calibration:
o Used to calibrate other angular measurement tools and devices.
o Ensures that measurement instruments maintain their accuracy over time.

Advantages of Using a Sine Bar:

 High Precision: Offers highly accurate angle measurements.

 Simplicity: Simple and straightforward to use.
 Versatility: Can be used for a wide range of angular measurements and setups.

Limitations:

 Length Restrictions: Typically used for measuring or setting small angles due to the
practical limits of gauge block height.
 Accuracy Depends on Surface Plate: Requires a very flat and stable surface plate for
accurate measurements.
 Cumulative Errors: Errors in gauge block height or sine bar length can affect the
accuracy of the angle measurement.
  Spirit Level:

Components of a Spirit Level:

1. Body:
o Typically made of aluminum, plastic, or wood.
o Designed to be rigid and stable to ensure accurate readings.
2. Vials:
o Tubes filled with a liquid (usually ethanol or a similar spirit) and a bubble of air.
o The vials are slightly curved so that the bubble naturally moves to the highest
point.
3. Reference Marks:
o Lines on the vial that indicate the center position when the bubble is level or
plumb.
o Often two or more lines to provide a visual cue for minor deviations from level or
plumb.

How to Use a Spirit Level:

1. Checking Level:
o Place the spirit level on the surface you want to check.
o Observe the bubble in the vial. If the bubble is centered between the reference
marks, the surface is level.
o Adjust the surface as needed until the bubble is centered.
2. Checking Plumb:
o Position the spirit level vertically against the object you want to check.
o Observe the bubble in the vertical vial. If the bubble is centered between the
reference marks, the object is plumb.
o Adjust the object as needed until the bubble is centered.

Applications of a Spirit Level:

1. Construction:
o Ensuring that structures are level and plumb during building.
o Used in laying bricks, setting up frames, and installing doors and windows.
2. Carpentry:
o Used for leveling shelves, cabinets, and countertops.
 o Ensuring that cuts and installations are true.
3. DIY Projects:
o Useful for hanging pictures, mirrors, and other home improvement tasks.
o Ensuring that mounted items are level and aesthetically pleasing.
4. Machinery Setup:
o Used in setting up and aligning machinery to ensure proper operation.
o Ensuring that equipment bases are level to avoid operational issues.

Advantages of Using a Spirit Level:

 Simplicity: Easy to use with no need for complex instructions.

 Portability: Lightweight and easy to carry, especially smaller models like the torpedo
level.
 Accuracy: Provides precise measurements when used correctly.
 Durability: Often built to withstand rough handling and environmental conditions.

Limitations:

 Length: Longer levels are more accurate over long distances but can be cumbersome to
use in tight spaces.
 Surface Requirement: Requires a reasonably smooth and flat surface for accurate
readings.
 Temperature Sensitivity: Extreme temperatures can affect the liquid inside the vial,
potentially impacting accuracy.

 Clinometer
Types of Clinometers:

 Bubble Clinometers: Utilize a spirit level bubble to determine angles.

 Digital Clinometers: Provide digital readouts for higher precision and ease of use.
 Pendulum Clinometers: Use a pendulum mechanism to measure tilt angles.
 Laser Clinometers: Use laser technology for high-precision angle measurements over
longer distances.

Applications:

 Machine Tool Calibration: Ensuring that machine tools are properly aligned and
calibrated for precision manufacturing.
 Structural Alignment: Checking and setting the angles of structural components in
construction and engineering projects.
 Geodetic Surveying: Measuring the angles of slopes in land surveys to determine
topography.
 Alignment of Optical Systems: Precision alignment of optical components in telescopes,
cameras, and other optical instruments.

 Measurement Accuracy:

 High-precision clinometers can measure angles to within seconds of arc, making them
essential tools in precision engineering and metrology.
 Digital clinometers often come with features such as data logging and connectivity to
computers for analysis and record-keeping.

 Advantages:

 High Accuracy: Essential for tasks requiring precise angular measurements.

 Ease of Use: Digital clinometers offer user-friendly interfaces and advanced features.
 Versatility: Suitable for a wide range of applications in various fields.

 Limitations:
 Environmental Sensitivity: Some clinometers can be affected by temperature changes,
humidity, and vibrations.
 Cost: High-precision clinometers can be expensive due to their advanced technology and
materials.
 Autocollimator
Operating Principle:

 An autocollimator projects a collimated beam of light onto a reflective surface.

 The reflected light returns to the autocollimator and forms an image on a detector, such as
a reticle or a digital sensor.
 By analyzing the displacement of the reflected beam, the instrument measures angular
deviations with high precision.

Types of Autocollimators:

 Visual Autocollimators: Use an eyepiece to observe the reflected image and measure
angles manually.
 Digital Autocollimators: Provide digital readouts and often come with software for data
analysis and recording.
 Laser Autocollimators: Employ laser light for longer ranges and higher precision.

 Applications:

 Angle Measurement: Determining small angular deviations, typically in arc seconds or

milliarc seconds.
 Component Alignment: Ensuring precise alignment of optical, mechanical, and
electronic components.
 Flatness and Straightness Testing: Checking the flatness of surfaces and the
straightness of lines or edges.
 Calibration of Angular Scales: Calibrating rotary tables, polygons, and other angular
measurement devices.
 Surface Plate Calibration: Assessing the flatness of granite or cast iron surface plates
used in precision measurement.
 Measurement Accuracy:

 Autocollimators can achieve extremely high accuracy, often measuring angular

differences to within a few arc seconds or even milliarc seconds.
 Digital autocollimators enhance accuracy with advanced optics, sensors, and data
processing capabilities.

 Advantages:

 High Precision: Critical for applications requiring precise angular measurement and
alignment.
 Non-Contact Measurement: Allows for the measurement of angles without physically
touching the object.
 Versatility: Suitable for a wide range of metrology applications in various industries.

 Limitations:

 Environmental Sensitivity: Autocollimators can be affected by temperature changes,

vibrations, and air currents.
 Cost: High-precision autocollimators can be expensive due to their sophisticated design
and components.

 Angle Dekkor:

Working Principle: The working principle of an Angle Dekkor, which is a type of

electronic autocollimator, involves the precise measurement of small angular deviations
using optical and electronic components.
Equipment:

 Angle Dekkor
 Reflective target (mirror)
 Component to be measured
 Stable mounting stand for the Angle Dekkor
 Data recording system (if using a digital Angle Dekkor)

Working:

 Setup:

 Place the component on a stable surface in a vibration-free environment.

 Mount the Angle Dekkor on a stable stand and position it to project its beam onto the
reflective surface of the component.

 InitialCalibration:

 Align the Angle Dekkor with the reflective target on the component. Adjust the position
until the reflected beam is centered on the detector.
 Note the initial reading on the Angle Dekkor, which serves as the reference point.

 Measurement:

 Rotate or tilt the component to the desired position.

 Observe the displacement of the reflected beam on the Angle Dekkor’s display.
 Record the angular deviation from the reference point. Digital models may log this data
automatically.

 DataAnalysis:

 Compile the measurements and analyze them to determine the angular deviation of the
component.
 Compare the deviations with the specified tolerance for the component.

 Adjustment (if necessary):

 If the component is out of tolerance, make necessary adjustments and re-measure.

 Repeat the measurement process to ensure the component now meets the required
specifications.

 Verification:

 Perform a final verification measurement to confirm the accuracy of the component’s

angles.
 Document the results for quality control records.
Practical Application:
1. Calibration of Machine Tools: Ensuring that the tool is set at the correct angle.
2. Measurement of Surface Flatness: Checking that a surface plate is flat.
3. Alignment Tasks: Aligning optical components, machine parts, and other precision
instruments.