Unit 34: Theories of Crime

Student name

Id number

Date of submission
Table of Contents
Introduction......................................................................................................................................3
Biological Theoretical Explanations................................................................................................3
Psychological Theoretical Explanations..........................................................................................5
Sociological Theoretical Explanations............................................................................................6
Critical Evaluation of Theoretical Perspectives on Crime and Deviance........................................8
Theories Of Biology from a Broad Perspective...........................................................................8
Philosophical Views in Psychology.............................................................................................8
Sociological Theoretical Viewpoints...........................................................................................9
References......................................................................................................................................11
Introduction
Agencies of law enforcement, lawmakers and community units of these societies have to deal
with great difficulties because of widespread and deep rooted nature of crime and deviance in the
world The causes that lead to deviance and crime manifest in multiple intrapersonal and societal
factors comprising of personal preferences, economical aspects and cultural system. Thus, for the
purpose of formulating purposeful and all-inclusive strategies of crime prevention and social
cohesion, it is necessary to dig deeper and understand the root causes of the same.

The intention of this brief paper is to investigate the complexity of crime and deviance areas by
unfolding the leading theories that are used in developing our approaches to these fields. The
research explores biopsychosocial perspectives to establish criminal behavior’s complexity and
as such, educate the reader on the multitude of contributing variables. Our aim is to quantify the
perks and shortfalls of all of these views that concern criminal behavior by taking a close look to
each of these points of view, thus bettering our understanding of criminal behavior.

One of the most difficult factors that the Metropolitan Police Service has to deal with on a daily
basis is crime and deviance. Therefore, the MPS has to review and change its procedures and
processes of analysis from time to time for the necessary improvements. This briefing paper
consciously draws on concepts from diverse sciences to empower law enforcement authorities to
face the complexities of criminality constructively. Through addressing the problem of both
crime and deviance in the same way, and, subsequently, the research community aims to find
more targeted approaches, backed by empirical data. And as a result, new communities may be
formed that are now safer and more resilient than before.

Biological Theoretical Explanations

Beaver and Barnes (2012) say that biosocial theories of crime and deviance are arguing that the
chances of a person to do a crime or show any abnormal behavior are more likely to be
controlled by biological rather than any other factor. The theory of the "born criminal" which
was Lombrosospe most famous supporters contended that some particular bodily features would
imply one person prone to criminal behavior (Raine, 2013). If you take the nature of his theory
and lack of empirics into consideration, Lombroso's separation of humans into criminal and
noncriminal has large weaknesses.
The study of modern biology has gone a long way from the old times when psychosocial factors
were placed at the heart of science to today when genetic and neuronal factors are eagerly
studied. The model created by Caspi et.al (2002) confirmed that according to the genetic study,
the relationship between the genetic variations and anti-social behaviour was proofed. Research
on identical twins who share the same DNA has shown greater rates of recognition than in case
of fraternal twins (dizygotic twins), thereby establishing that the manifestation of criminal
behaviour is to certain extent inherited. It is suggested that a person's vulnerability towards
committing acts of crime may be determined together with their genetic inclinations.

About the other hand, research on the physiological components of crime has demonstrated that
those who are criminally minded differ from the others in how their brains are organized and
work (Raine, 2013). The frontal lobe, which is a part of the brain for making decisions and
controlling behaviors, has been associated with a lack of normal behavior. In fact, the link is
established at the level of the encephalon between the behavior of an excessively violent and
impulsive nature—which is commonly associated with the realm of criminals— and
neurotransmitter system disorders (like serotonin and dopamine).

However, the core reason is that they are inclined to overstate the complex nature of crime and
misfortune, and thus biological theories have come under fire (Moffitt, 2005) Scientists argue
that a desire to bring a child up in a certain way may be a factor to which they are not giving
enough attention. Portents of danger such as crime-inducing landscape may include disorganized
society, lack of employment, and poverty, and this increases the chance that a person can resort
to criminal actions.

Biological theories, usually, do not account for the rapid changes that are going on between
genealogy and the level to which this is influenced by one’s environment (Beaver & Barnes,
2012). In the terms of diathesis-stress model, many people with psychopathology and propensity
for violence are prone to such kind of behavior because they are born with genetic
predisposition. These vulnerabilities, nevertheless, would be revealed only in certain conditions,
the occurrence which of might be the exposure to extreme conditions, such as experiences of
trauma or violence. Hence, the biological theories should not be considered a sole source of
complete understanding of the criminal behavior but should be also combined with the
knowledge about the society and psychology.

Finally, we need to acknowledge that biological theories give us an inside into the neurological
basis of criminal behavior and the genetics of criminal propensity. However, these topics are just
a part of a significant matter. We can get more comprehensive insight into the nature of criminal
behavior and deviance through the combination of biological, psychological and social sciences
that in turn would make the designing of the tactics for intervention and prevention much easier.

Psychological Theoretical Explanations

Criminology is a psychological approach that is used to explain certain crimes with
characteristics, events and thoughts of individuals. When it comes to this aspect, we often hear
about Freud's psychoanalytic theory which is acknowledged by many as a crucially defining
framework. According to this notion, it is unfinished conflicts and not-yet-conscious motives that
cause someone to become a criminal (Bartol & Bartol, 2020). As per Freud's theory, the
combination of not having secret games that have been terminated, as well as resolution of
unresolved conflicts from early childhood, is what can make people engage in criminal activity.
The elementary principles of Freud's thinking created the foundation for later psychological
philosophical systems, such as psychodynamics and behaviorism. Its capabilities in bias and
theory outmatch one's neutrality and empirical subordination, making it severely questioned by
the critics.

Behavioral theories such as differential association theory and social learning theory bear
convincing evidence that education and learning are at the core of criminal behavior. As
suggested by Bandura's theory, individuals take on behaviors they have seen, copied, and been
rewarded with through them. In this particular situation, the probabilities of criminal actions
going on repeatedly are positively influenced by the fact that people see such behaviors around
them and it becomes a norm that eventually shapes them to participate. Empirical evidence
demonstrating a link between deviant behaviors and imitation and role modeling (Bandura, Ross,
& Ross, 1961) comes from studies of this kind.

According to Edwin Sutherland's differential association theory, the main tool a person uses in
acquiring criminal behavior is by interacting with the other people who support unlawful acts,
deviant conduct and criminal tendencies (Akers & Jensen, 2021). Engagement in criminal
behavior is a phenomenon that tends to increase with increase in the number of people in one's
social circle that have positive views on criminal activities and deviance. Findings from studies
have clearly shown that the affiliation of one’s peers have an impact on delinquent behavior and
naturally gives the principle of differential association the credibility that it deserves (Sutherland,
1947).

Even though they are very distinguishing, criticism against behavioral theories has been quite
harsh for overlooking the exact role played by the thought process and personal judgments in
behavior (Akers & Jensen, 2021). Coaching models underestimate the role socialization and
reinforcement of the external world, but at the same time, they cannot give full credit to the
cognitive functions underlying self-control and decision making. Similarly, the psychological
factors are not always the only ones that determine whether a person commits a crime or not;
there may be a whole range of biological and genetic factors. Therefore, a holistic view on
causes of crime is top priority in crime prevention.

Ultimately, psychological methods offer a profound comprehension of the personal determinants

that are key to such behavior. On the one hand, it's important to acknowledge that they have their
limitations, but the psychoanalytic theory by Freud and the behavioral theories nonetheless
provide a basis for the construction models that are able to explain the psychological dynamics
that make some people become criminals. Blending psychological with biological and social
theories asserts the chance to get to an in-depth understanding of crime and deviance which
allows to implement corresponding protective and remedial techniques.

Sociological Theoretical Explanations

Sociological theories postulate on structural elements and social context as foundations that can
encourage or inhibit criminal conduct and deviance. Therefore, among the many theories in this
area of study, strain theory was developed by Robert Merton as one of the most prominent. It
reflects the fact that some social goals are not attainable, while others are scarce, which causes
stress and redirects the people to engage in deviant behavior (Agnew, 1992). As far as Merton is
concerned, those who cannot achieve social success through the culturally approved means of
behavior can easily be drawn to breaks the law. As it puts emphasis on the relevance of social
controls and structural confines, the theory of Social Strain is responsible for explaining different
deviant behaviors including property crime and drug abuses. (Merton, 1938).

Becker (1963) defines as a social perspective that refers to the role of the society and labeling
process in shaping people’s identities and behaviours. According to labeling theorists,
individuals who are the targets of deviating categories of society, may start considering these
labels as an integral part of their personality. Labeling can have other ramifications that may lead
to further deviancy behavior as the people become to perform the expected norms according to
what they see themselves as and in the process creates a self-fulfilling prophecy (Lemert, 1951).
A different perspective in evaluating criminal and deviant behaviors is conflict theory which
argues that these actions are mostly influenced by disparities in power and social injustices
(Chambliss & Seidman as cited in 1982). According to conflict theorists, certain social classes
are able to control and marginalize the weaker groups within the society and the criminal justice
system serves to advantage these classes and not the accused. Quinney (1977) argues that laws
and law enforcement covertly bias and target vulnerable population to consolidate the existence
of the dominant community and perpetuate the social stratification.
The critiques of sociological theories are based on their tendency to disregard the actual
situations by which crimes and deviance take place (Curran &Renzetti, 2001). According to
some critics, theories capable of underestimated the power of individual agency and of not
properly considering the ultimate complexity of experiences in the social groups. However,
sociological theories might also not recognize enough the impact brought by the mental and
biological determinants to crime development. This exemplifies how interdisciplinary approach
should be given primary attention in the problem-solving mechanism of crime.

Lastly, classical sociological theories present valuable evidence about the structural realities and
social processes that bring delinquency and deviance to life. On the one hand, labeling theory
shows the magnitude of social obligations in the process of development of deviant identities; in
contrast, strain theory shows the influence of social pressures on the beginning of deviant
behavior. Conflict theory, with an emphasis on the role of power preponderance and social
inequality in crime and the criminal justice system, is explained in detail. By the way of
recognizing sociological insights and applying knowledge from other fields of science the full
and most applicable understanding of criminality and deviance may take place. This, in turn, will
allow the creation of much more efficient preventive and intervention strategies.

Critical Evaluation of Theoretical Perspectives on Crime and Deviance

All dimensions of criminology such as biological, psychological and sociological factors should
be taught in an interdisciplinary framework where the interrelatedness of the factors is
emphasized and a holistic knowledge is obtained. All theoretical paradigms, regardless of how
much insight they bring to bear on the nature of crime, tend to give the sociological theories the
edge because they provide the most inclusive perception if examined carefully. The evaluation
will critically look at both the advantages and disadvantages of each theoretical framework and
assert that if compared with the rest, conflict theory (a sociological point of view) is the most
compelling theory for violent crime according to the research.

Theories Of Biology from a Broad Perspective

Countless biological approaches like Lombroso's 'the born criminal' theory have been the main
topic of this theory for a long time as well as more recent genetic and neurological thoughts and
perspectives on predisposing individuals to illegal behavior. The theories above have grown our
knowledge of the mental and gene aspects of criminality, giving the crux knowledge to the
multiplicity of genetic heterogeneity, and the neuroscience of brain abnormalities (Raine, 2013).
Nevertheless, both of the biological postulates can be oversimplified and they can ignore
important causal factors of crime. The argument that genetic predispositions to criminality are
determining is among the issues (Moffitt, 2005).

The biological background of a person, no doubt, gives way to the probability of criminal
activity, but the social, economic, and political factors, separately, are of more far-reaching effect
on the general level of crime. On one hand, making such theories far-reaching to the point of not
covering the socio-economic aspect of criminals negates the biological basis.

Philosophical Views in Psychology

Theories of psychological nature, which draw the attention to personal abilities, experiences, and
cognitive processes in forming the crime motive fall under Freud's psychoanalytic theory and
social learning theory. The theories offered insights into the psychological aspects, including the
unconscious motives and the cognitive processes, behind criminal behavior, according to Bartol
and Bartol (2020) and Krieder and Jensen (2021). The problem spot is that the psychological
theory does not consider the social surroundings as well as the impact of structural factors on
conduct in the process of criminal activity occurring.

Psychological issues are no doubt significant influencers of crime, but no-one has ever found a
satisfactory explanation why some individuals, or even a whole group, tend to engage in criminal
activities more frequently than others. Psychological theories, however, tend to have their
limitations and cannot fully address the root causes of criminal behavior and deviance, which are
the structural injustices and the structuring power relations in the society. Hence, because of this,
their capacity to be able to explain or to grasp the reasons why people commit crime is low.

Sociological Theoretical Viewpoints

Social contexts theories which deal with how social factors like people's interactions and their
group context affect crime and deviance come to the fore. As Agnew (1992), Becker (1963), and
Chambliss & Seidman (1982) state, sociological conflict theory, labeling theory, and strain
theory are the most important ones. They all shed some light on aspects of socio-cultural
environment that play the leading part in the crime formation process.
The Merton Strain theory puts forth how structural factors such as socioeconomic inequalities
and limited prospects for advancement facilitate rise in strife that may translate to criminal
activities (Merton, 1938). Tagging theory is the process in accordance to which Lemert (1951)
lays emphasis on social reactions and labeling processes which further contribute the formation
of individual identities and behaviors; this process in turns contributes to the reproduction of
abnormal behaviors. Conflict theory, that is built upon Marx’s work, maintains that such features
as economic conflict and unequal structures within a society are the main factors that lead to
crime. In this sense, the system can be considered to be created as a way for the ruling class to be
a primary beneficiary (Quinney, 1977).
In socially scientific explanations we can find the answer to the question of how well these ideas
work to bring a complete understanding of crime and deviance. The perspective of social science
is well known that it is the interplay of individual, interpersonal and group as well as institutional
that leads to crime (Curran & Renzetti, 2001). Unlike the theories on the biological and
psychological, this theory is particular to it. The theory of conflict focuses on the role played in
the promotion of aggressive behavior by systems such as poverty, racism, and social fallouts
which in such way provides for a compelling reasoning of violent behavior. The Conflict theory
emphasizes that there is an aspect of the criminal justice system that is made up of the selections
of who to be punished and the uneven enforcement of the laws that are deemed to be class-
biased.
References
Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency.
Criminology, 30(1), 47–87.
Akers, R. L., & Jensen, G. F. (2021). Social Learning Theory and the Explanation of Crime: A
Guide for the New Century. Routledge.
Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of Aggression Through Imitation of
Aggressive Models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(3), 575–582.
https://doi.org/10.1037/h0045925
Bartol, C. R., & Bartol, A. M. (2020). Criminal Behavior: A Psychological Approach. Pearson.
Beaver, K. M., & Barnes, J. C. (2012). Genetic and Environmental Influences on Antisocial
Behavior: A Meta-analysis of Twin and Adoption Studies. Psychological Bulletin,
138(1), 28–56.
Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. E., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, I. W., Taylor, A., & Poulton, R.
(2002). Role of Genotype in the Cycle of Violence in Maltreated Children. Science,
297(5582), 851–854. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1072290
Chambliss, W. J., & Seidman, R. (1982). Law, order, and power. Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company.
Curran, D. J., & Renzetti, C. M. (2001). Theories of crime. Allyn and Bacon.
Lemert, E. M. (1951). Social pathology: A systemic approach to the theory of sociopathic
behavior. McGraw-Hill.
Merton, R. K. (1938). Social structure and anomie. American Sociological Review, 3(5), 672–
682.
Moffitt, T. E. (2005). Genetic and Environmental Influences on Antisocial Behaviors: Evidence
from Behavioral-Genetic Research. Advances in Genetics, 55, 41–104.
Quinney, R. (1977). Class, state, and crime: On the theory and practice of criminal justice.
Longman.
Raine, A. (2013). The Anatomy of Violence: The Biological Roots of Crime. Pantheon Books.
Sutherland, E. H. (1947). Principles of Criminology. J. B. Lippincott.