BAS I C

B IO M EC H A NI CS

N I N T H E D I T I O N

Su sa n J. Ha l l , Ph . D.
Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology
University of Delaware

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 BASIC BIOMECHANICS, NINTH EDITION

Published by McGraw Hill LLC, 1325 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10121. Copyright ©2022 by
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ISBN 978-1-260-83698-1 (bound edition)

MHID 1-260-83698-3 (bound edition)
ISBN 978-1-264-16971-9 (loose-leaf edition)
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Hall, Susan Jean, author.

Title: Basic Biomechanics / Susan J. Hall, College of Health Sciences,
University of Delaware.
Description: Ninth Edition. | New York : McGraw Hill LLC, 2022. |
Eighth edition: 2019. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020043553 | ISBN 9781260836981 (Hardcover) |
ISBN 9781264169719 (Loose-leaf Paperback)
Subjects: LCSH: Biomechanics—Textbooks. | Biomechanics—Problems, exercises, etc.
Classification: LCC QP303 .H35 2022 | DDC 612/.01441—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020043553

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does
not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw Hill LLC, and McGraw Hill LLC does not guarantee the
accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

mheducation.com/highered

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 BRIEF CONTENTS

1 What Is Biomechanics? 1
2 Kinematic Concepts for Analyzing Human Motion 25
3 Kinetic Concepts for Analyzing Human Motion 55
4 The Biomechanics of Human Bone Growth
and Development 81
5 The Biomechanics of Human Skeletal Articulations 107
6 The Biomechanics of Human Skeletal Muscle 133
7 The Biomechanics of the Human Upper Extremity 169
8 The Biomechanics of the Human Lower Extremity 213
9 The Biomechanics of the Human Spine 255
10 Linear Kinematics of Human Movement 293
11 Angular Kinematics of Human Movement 327
12 Linear Kinetics of Human Movement 355
13 Equilibrium and Human Movement 387
14 Angular Kinetics of Human Movement 419
15 Human Movement in a Fluid Medium 445

Appendices
A Basic Mathematics and Related Skills 475
B Trigonometric Functions 480
C Common Units of Measurement 483
D Anthropometric Parameters for the Human Body 484
E Equations 486

Glossary 489
Index 497

iii

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 CONTENTS

1 What Is Biomechanics? 1
Biomechanics: Definition and Perspective 2
What Problems Are Studied by Biomechanists? 4
Professions that Rely on Knowledge of Biomechanics 10
Why Study Biomechanics? 11
Problem-Solving Approach 11
Quantitative and Qualitative Problems 11
Solving Qualitative Problems 12
Formal versus Informal Problems 13
Solving Formal Quantitative Problems 13
Units of Measurement 14
Summary 16
Introductory Problems 16
Additional Problems 17
Laboratory Experiences 19

2 Kinematic Concepts for Analyzing Human Motion 25

Forms of Motion 26
Linear Motion 26
Angular Motion 26
General Motion 27
Mechanical Systems 27
Standard Reference Terminology 28
Anatomical Reference Position 28
Directional Terms 29
Anatomical Reference Planes 30
Anatomical Reference Axes 31
Joint Movement Terminology 31
Sagittal Plane Movements 31
Frontal Plane Movements 32
Transverse Plane Movements 35
Other Movements 37
Spatial Reference Systems 37
Analyzing Human Movement 38
Prerequisite Knowledge for a Qualitative Analysis 39
Planning a Qualitative Analysis 40
Conducting a Qualitative Analysis 42
Tools for Measuring Kinematic Quantities 45
Video and Film 45
Summary 46
Introductory Problems 47
Additional Problems 48
Laboratory Experiences 49

iv

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 CONTENTS v

3 Kinetic Concepts for Analyzing Human Motion 55

Basic Concepts Related to Kinetics 56
Inertia 56
Mass 57
Force 57
Center of Gravity 58
Weight 58
Pressure 60
Volume 60
Density 62
Torque 62
Impulse 63
Mechanical Loads on the Human Body 64
Compression, Tension, and Shear 64
Mechanical Stress 65
Torsion, Bending, and Combined Loads 66
The Effects of Loading 67
Repetitive versus Acute Loads 68
Tools for Measuring Kinetic Quantities 69
Vector Algebra 69
Vector Composition 70
Vector Resolution 71
Graphic Solution of Vector Problems 72
Trigonometric Solution of Vector Problems 72
Summary 74
Introductory Problems 74
Additional Problems 75
Laboratory Experiences 77

4 The Biomechanics of Human Bone Growth and Development 81

Composition and Structure of Bone Tissue 82
Material Constituents 82
Structural Organization 82
Types of Bones 84
Bone Growth and Development 85
Longitudinal Growth 86
Circumferential Growth 86
Adult Bone Development 87
Bone Response to Stress 87
Bone Modeling and Remodeling 87
Bone Hypertrophy 89
Bone Atrophy 89
Osteoporosis 91
Postmenopausal and Age-Associated Osteoporosis 92
Female Athlete Triad 93
Preventing and Treating Osteopenia and Osteoporosis 94
Common Bone Injuries 94
The Biomechanics of Bone Fractures 94
Epiphyseal Injuries 96

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 vi CONTENTS

Summary 96
Introductory Problems 97
Additional Problems 97
Laboratory Experiences 99

5 The Biomechanics of Human Skeletal Articulations 107

Joint Architecture 108
Immovable Joints 108
Slightly Movable Joints 109
Freely Movable Joints 109
Articular Cartilage 111
Articular Fibrocartilage 112
Articular Connective Tissue 112
Joint Stability 113
Shape of the Articulating Bone Surfaces 114
Arrangement of Ligaments and Muscles 114
Other Connective Tissues 115
Joint Flexibility 115
Measuring Joint Range of Motion 116
Factors Influencing Joint Flexibility 116
Flexibility and Injury 117
Techniques for Increasing Joint Flexibility 118
Neuromuscular Response to Stretch 118
Active and Passive Stretching 121
Ballistic, Static, and Dynamic Stretching 121
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation 122
Common Joint Injuries and Pathologies 123
Sprains 123
Dislocations 123
Bursitis 123
Arthritis 124
Rheumatoid Arthritis 124
Osteoarthritis 124
Summary 125
Introductory Problems 125
Additional Problems 126
Laboratory Experiences 127

6 The Biomechanics of Human Skeletal Muscle 133

Behavioral Properties of the Musculotendinous Unit 134
Extensibility and Elasticity 134
Irritability and the Ability to Develop Tension 135
Structural Organization of Skeletal Muscle 136
Muscle Fibers 136
Motor Units 139
Fiber Types 140
Fiber Architecture 142
Skeletal Muscle Function 145
Recruitment of Motor Units 145
Change in Muscle Length with Tension Development 146

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 CONTENTS vii

Roles Assumed by Muscles 147

Two-Joint and Multijoint Muscles 148
Factors Affecting Muscular Force Generation 149
Force–Velocity Relationship 149
Length–Tension Relationship 150
Stretch-Shortening Cycle 151
Electromyography 152
Electromechanical Delay 153
Muscular Strength, Power, and Endurance 153
Muscular Strength 153
Muscular Power 156
Muscular Endurance 157
Muscle Fatigue 158
Effect of Muscle Temperature 158
Common Muscle Injuries 159
Strains 159
Contusions 159
Cramps 159
Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness 159
Compartment Syndrome 160
Summary 160
Introductory Problems 160
Additional Problems 161
Laboratory Experiences 163

7 The Biomechanics of the Human Upper Extremity 169

Structure of the Shoulder 170
Sternoclavicular Joint 170
Acromioclavicular Joint 170
Coracoclavicular Joint 171
Glenohumeral Joint 171
Scapulothoracic Joint 173
Bursae 173
Movements of the Shoulder Complex 174
Muscles of the Scapula 175
Muscles of the Glenohumeral Joint 176
Flexion at the Glenohumeral Joint 176
Extension at the Glenohumeral Joint 176
Abduction at the Glenohumeral Joint 178
Adduction at the Glenohumeral Joint 179
Medial and Lateral Rotation of the Humerus 179
Horizontal Adduction and Abduction at the Glenohumeral Joint 180
Loads on the Shoulder 181
Common Injuries of the Shoulder 183
Dislocations 183
Rotator Cuff Damage 184
Rotational Injuries 185
Subscapular Neuropathy 185
Structure of the Elbow 186
Humeroulnar Joint 186
Humeroradial Joint 186

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 viii CONTENTS

Proximal Radioulnar Joint 186

Carrying Angle 186
Movements at the Elbow 187
Muscles Crossing the Elbow 187
Flexion and Extension 187
Pronation and Supination 188
Loads on the Elbow 189
Common Injuries of the Elbow 192
Sprains and Dislocations 192
Overuse Injuries 192
What Research Tells Us about the Biomechanics
of Baseball Pitching 193
Structure of the Wrist 194
Movements of the Wrist 195
Flexion 195
Extension and Hyperextension 195
Radial and Ulnar Deviation 197
Structure of the Joints of the Hand 197
Carpometacarpal and Intermetacarpal Joints 197
Metacarpophalangeal Joints 197
Interphalangeal Joints 198
Movements of the Hand 198
Common Injuries of the Wrist and Hand 201
Summary 202
Introductory Problems 202
Additional Problems 203
Laboratory Experiences 205

8 The Biomechanics of the Human Lower Extremity 213

Structure of the Hip 214
Movements at the Hip 215
Muscles of the Hip 215
Flexion 215
Extension 217
Abduction 217
Adduction 218
Medial and Lateral Rotation of the Femur 219
Horizontal Abduction and Adduction 219
Loads on the Hip 220
Common Injuries of the Hip 221
Fractures 221
Contusions 222
Strains 222
Structure of the Knee 222
Tibiofemoral Joint 222
Menisci 222
Ligaments 224
Patellofemoral Joint 225
Joint Capsule and Bursae 225
Movements at the Knee 225
Muscles Crossing the Knee 225
Flexion and Extension 225

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 CONTENTS ix

Rotation and Passive Abduction and Adduction 227

Patellofemoral Joint Motion 227
Loads on the Knee 228
Forces at the Tibiofemoral Joint 228
Forces at the Patellofemoral Joint 228
Common Injuries of the Knee and Lower Leg 229
Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries 230
Posterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries 231
Medial Collateral Ligament Injuries 231
Meniscus Injuries 231
Iliotibial Band Friction Syndrome 232
Patellofemoral Pain Syndrome 232
Shin Splints 233
Structure of the Ankle 233
Movements at the Ankle 233
Structure of the Foot 236
Subtalar Joint 236
Tarsometatarsal and Intermetatarsal Joints 236
Metatarsophalangeal and Interphalangeal Joints 236
Plantar Arches 236
Movements of the Foot 237
Muscles of the Foot 237
Toe Flexion and Extension 237
Inversion and Eversion 237
Pronation and Supination 238
Loads on the Foot 239
Common Injuries of the Ankle and Foot 239
Ankle Injuries 240
Overuse Injuries 240
Alignment Anomalies of the Foot 240
Injuries Related to High and Low Arch Structures 242
What Research Tells Us about Barefoot Running 242
Summary 243
Introductory Problems 244
Additional Problems 244
Laboratory Experiences 247

9 The Biomechanics of the Human Spine 255

Structure of the Spine 256
Vertebral Column 256
Vertebrae 257
Intervertebral Discs 258
Ligaments 262
Spinal Curves 263
Movements of the Spine 264
Flexion, Extension, and Hyperextension 265
Lateral Flexion and Rotation 266
Muscles of the Spine 266
Anterior Aspect 266
Posterior Aspect 268
Lateral Aspect 271
Loads on the Spine 272

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 x CONTENTS

Common Injuries of the Back and Neck 278

Low Back Pain 278
Soft-Tissue Injuries 280
Acute Fractures 280
Stress Fractures 280
Disc Herniations 281
Whiplash Injuries 282
Summary 283
Introductory Problems 283
Additional Problems 284
Laboratory Experiences 285

10 Linear Kinematics of Human Movement 293

Linear Kinematic Quantities 294
Distance and Displacement 295
Speed and Velocity 296
Acceleration 301
Average and Instantaneous Quantities 304
Kinematics of Projectile Motion 305
Horizontal and Vertical Components 305
Influence of Gravity 305
Influence of Air Resistance 306
Factors Influencing Projectile Trajectory 307
Projection Angle 308
Projection Speed 309
Relative Projection Height 311
Optimum Projection Conditions 312
Analyzing Projectile Motion 313
Equations of Constant Acceleration 315
Summary 320
Introductory Problems 320
Additional Problems 321
Laboratory Experiences 323

11 Angular Kinematics of Human Movement 327

Observing the Angular Kinematics of Human Movement 328
Measuring Angles 328
Joint Angles and Body Segment Orientations 329
Tools for Measuring Body Angles 331
Instant Center of Rotation 331
Angular Kinematic Relationships 331
Angular Distance and Displacement 332
Angular Speed and Velocity 335
Angular Acceleration 339
Angular Motion Vectors 341
Average versus Instantaneous Angular Quantities 341
Relationships Between Linear and Angular Motion 341
Linear and Angular Displacement 341
Linear and Angular Velocity 342
Linear and Angular Acceleration 344
Summary 347

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 CONTENTS xi

Introductory Problems 347

Additional Problems 348
Laboratory Experiences 351

12 Linear Kinetics of Human Movement 355

Newton’s Laws 356
Law of Inertia 356
Law of Acceleration 356
Law of Reaction 357
Law of Gravitation 358
Mechanical Behavior of Bodies in Contact 359
Friction 360
Momentum 365
Impulse 366
Impact 369
Work, Power, and Energy Relationships 372
Work 372
Power 373
Energy 373
Conservation of Mechanical Energy 375
Principle of Work and Energy 376
Summary 379
Introductory Problems 379
Additional Problems 380
Laboratory Experiences 383

13 Equilibrium and Human Movement 387

Equilibrium 388
Torque 388
Resultant Joint Torques 391
Levers 394
Anatomical Levers 397
Equations of Static Equilibrium 399
Equations of Dynamic Equilibrium 400
Center of Gravity 403
Locating the Center of Gravity 404
Locating the Human Body Center of Gravity 405
Stability and Balance 408
Summary 411
Introductory Problems 411
Additional Problems 412
Laboratory Experiences 415

14 Angular Kinetics of Human Movement 419

Resistance to Angular Acceleration 420
Moment of Inertia 420
Determining Moment of Inertia 422
Human Body Moment of Inertia 423
Angular Momentum 424
Conservation of Angular Momentum 426

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 xii CONTENTS

Transfer of Angular Momentum 427

Change in Angular Momentum 430
Angular Analogues of Newton’s Laws of Motion 433
Newton’s First Law 433
Newton’s Second Law 434
Newton’s Third Law 434
Centripetal Force 435
Summary 437
Introductory Problems 437
Additional Problems 438
Laboratory Experiences 441

15 Human Movement in a Fluid Medium 445

The Nature of Fluids 446
Relative Motion 446
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow 448
Fluid Properties 448
Buoyancy 449
Characteristics of the Buoyant Force 449
Flotation 449
Flotation of the Human Body 450
Drag 452
Skin Friction 453
Form Drag 454
Wave Drag 456
Lift Force 458
Foil Shape 458
Magnus Effect 462
Propulsion in a Fluid Medium 464
Propulsive Drag Theory 464
Propulsive Lift Theory 465
Stroke Technique 465
Summary 466
Introductory Problems 466
Additional Problems 467
Laboratory Experiences 469

Appendices
A Basic Mathematics and Related Skills 475
B Trigonometric Functions 480
C Common Units of Measurement 483
D Anthropometric Parameters for the Human Body 484
E Equations 486

Glossary 489
Index 497

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 PREFACE

T he ninth edition of Basic Biomechanics has been significantly updated and

­redesigned from the previous edition. As the interdisciplinary field of biomechan-
ics grows in both breadth and depth, it is important that even introductory textbooks
reflect the nature of the science. Accordingly, the text has been revised, expanded,
and updated, with the objectives being to present relevant information from recent
research findings and to prepare students to analyze human biomechanics.
The approach remains an integrated balance of qualitative and quantitative exam-
ples, applications, and problems designed to illustrate the principles discussed. The
ninth edition also retains the important sensitivity to the fact that some beginning
students of biomechanics possess weak backgrounds in mathematics. For this reason,
it includes numerous sample problems and applications, along with practical advice
on approaching quantitative problems.

O RGANI ZATI O N

Each chapter follows a logical and readable format, with the introduction of new con-
cepts consistently accompanied by practical human movement examples and applica-
tions from across the life span and across sport, clinical, and daily living a­ ctivities.

NE W CO NTE NT HI GHLIGHT S

New content has been added to provide updated scientific information on relevant
topics. All chapters have been revised to incorporate the latest information from the
biomechanics research literature, and numerous new sport and clinical applications
and examples are included. Topics added or expanded include articular cartilage
repair, electromechanical delay, facet joint structure and function, hamstrings
strains, barefoot running, baseball pitching, stand-up paddle boarding, bone health
in microgravity, swimming technique, uses of exoskeletons, and careers utilizing
biomechanics.

Balanced Coverage
Biomechanics is a field that analyzes the mechanical aspects of biological organisms.
In this book focused on human biomechanics, anatomical and mechanical factors, as
well as functional applications are covered. The integrated approach to coverage of
these areas taken in previous editions is continued in this ninth edition.

Applications Oriented
All chapters in this new edition contain discussion of a broad range of updated hu-
man movement applications, many of which are taken from the recent biomechanics
research literature. Special emphasis has been placed on examples that span all ages
and address clinical and daily living issues, as well as sport applications.

Laboratory Experiences
The integrated laboratory manual at the end of each chapter includes a number of
updates. xiii

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 xiv Preface

P E DAG OGICAL FEAT U RES

In addition to the sample problems, problem sets, laboratory experiences, end-of-chapter

key terms lists, and lists of websites, the book contains other pedagogical features from
previous editions. These include key concepts, marginal definitions, sample problems,
­chapter summaries, introductory and additional problems, references, and appendices.

ANCIL L ARIES

Connect
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Resources for instructors and students include:
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• Instructor’s manual, originally developed by Darla Smith, faculty emerita, University
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SmartBook 2.0 ®
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 Preface xv

• Rubric building and scoring

• Ability to assign draft and final deadline milestones
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Test Builder in Connect

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to format tests that can be printed or administered within a LMS. Test Builder offers
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MaxTRAQ™
The ninth edition of Basic Biomechanics can be used with MaxTRAQ™ software
(for a small additional price). MaxTRAQ is a downloadable motion analysis
software that offers an easy-to-use tool to track data and analyze various motion
elected by the ­authors. The MaxTRAQ software includes video clips of golf swing,
gait, and other ­motions; 2D manual tracking; coverage of distance and angles; and
more!
Visit http://www.motionanalysisproducts.com/Motion_Analysis_Store.html to
purchase MaxTRAQ software for use with Basic Biomechanics, 9e. Each MaxTRAQ
access code is unique and not related to any other registration or ID number. Each
code is good for one-time registration and is available by download.

hal_36983_fm_i-xx.indd 15 25/01/21 12:20 PM

 xvi Preface

AC K NOWL ED GMEN T S

I wish to extend appreciation to the following reviewers:

Marion Alexander
University of Manitoba
Marcus William Barr
Ohio University
Mark Geil
Georgia State University
A. Page Glave
Sam Houston State University
Nicholas Hanson
Western Michigan University
Alex Jordan
Concordia University
Eric E. LaMott
Concordia University, St. Paul
Jean McCrory
West Virginia University
Michael Nolan
Missouri Baptist University
Jacob Sosnoff
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Mitchell Stephenson
University of Montana Western
Michael Torry
Illinois State University
Matthew Wagner
Sam Houston State University
Finally, I also very much appreciate the excellent suggestions I have received over the
nine editions of this book from numerous students and colleagues.

Susan J. Hall
Professor Emerita,
Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology
University of Delaware

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 Preface xvii

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hal_36983_fm_i-xx.indd 20 25/01/21 12:20 PM
 1
C H A P T E R

What Is Biomechanics?

After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

Define the terms biomechanics, statics, dynamics, kinematics, and kinet-

ics, and explain the ways in which they are related.

Describe the scope of scientific inquiry addressed by biomechanists.

Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative approaches for analyzing

human movement.

Explain how to formulate questions for qualitative analysis of human

movement.

Use the 11 steps identified in the chapter to solve formal problems.

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 2 BASIC BIOMECHANICS

W hy do some golfers slice the ball? How can workers avoid developing low
back pain? What cues can a physical education teacher provide to help
students learn the underhand volleyball serve? Why do some elderly individuals
tend to fall? We have all admired the fluid, graceful movements of highly skilled
performers in various sports. We have also observed the awkward first steps of a
young child, the slow progress of an injured person with a walking cast, and the
hesitant, uneven gait of an elderly person using a cane. Virtually every activity
class includes a student who seems to acquire new skills with utmost ease and a
student who trips when executing a jump or misses the ball when attempting to
catch, strike, or serve. What enables some individuals to execute complex
movements so easily, while others appear to have difficulty with relatively simple
movement skills?
Although the answers to these questions may be rooted in physiological, psy-
chological, or sociological issues, the problems identified are all biomechanical in
nature. This book will provide a foundation for identifying, analyzing, and solving
problems related to the biomechanics of human movement.
Learning to walk is an ambitious
task from a biomechanical
perspective. Ariel Skelley/Getty Images
BI OMEC HAN ICS: D EFIN IT ION
AN D PERSPECT IVE

•Courses in anatomy, The term biomechanics combines the prefix bio, meaning “life,” with the field
physiology, mathematics, of mechanics, which is the study of the actions of forces. The international com-
physics, and engineering munity of scientists adopted the term biomechanics during the early 1970s to
provide background ­describe the science involving the study of the mechanical aspects of living or-
knowledge for ganisms. Within the fields of kinesiology and exercise science, the living organ-
biomechanists.
ism most commonly of interest is the human body. The forces studied include
biomechanics both the internal forces produced by muscles and the external forces that act on
application of mechanical
­principles in the study of living
the body.
organisms

Anthropometry is the study of the

size, shape, and composition of the
body segments. Anthropometric
characteristics may predispose an
athlete to success in one sport and
yet be disadvantageous for
participation in another. Left: Fuse/
Corbis/Getty Images; Right: Comstock/
Getty Images

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 CHAPTER 1: WHAT IS BIOMECHANICS? 3

Biomechanics FIGURE 1-1

Biomechanics uses the principles
of mechanics for solving problems
related to the structure and
function of living organisms.
Mechanics

Function

Structure

Biomechanists use the tools of mechanics, the branch of physics involving mechanics
analysis of the actions of forces, to study the anatomical and functional aspects of branch of physics that analyzes
the actions of forces on particles
living organisms (Figure 1-1). Statics and dynamics are two major subbranches of and mechanical systems
mechanics. Statics is the study of systems that are in a state of constant motion,
that is, either at rest (with no motion) or moving with a constant velocity. statics
branch of mechanics dealing
­Dynamics is the study of systems in which acceleration is present. with systems in a constant state
Kinematics and kinetics are further subdivisions of biomechanical study. What of motion
we are able to observe visually when watching a body in motion is termed the
dynamics
­kinematics of the movement. Kinematics involves the study of the size, sequenc- branch of mechanics dealing
ing, and timing of movement, without reference to the forces that cause or result with systems subject to
from the motion. The kinematics of an exercise or a sport skill execution is also ­acceleration
known, more commonly, as form or technique. Whereas kinematics describes the kinematics
appearance of motion, kinetics is the study of the forces associated with motion. study of the description of
Force can be thought of as a push or pull acting on a body. The study of human ­motion, including considerations
of space and time
biomechanics may include questions such as whether the amount of force the
muscles are producing is optimal for the intended purpose of the movement. kinetics
Although biomechanics is relatively young as a recognized field of scientific study of the action of forces
inquiry, biomechanical considerations are of interest in several different scientific
disciplines and professional fields. Biomechanists may have academic back-
grounds in zoology; orthopedic, cardiac, or sports medicine; biomedical or bio-
mechanical engineering; physical therapy; or kinesiology, with the commonality
being an interest in the biomechanical aspects of the structure and function of
living things.
The biomechanics of human movement is one of the subdisciplines of
­kinesiology, the study of human movement. Although some biomechanists study kinesiology
topics such as ostrich locomotion, blood flow through constricted arteries, or study of human movement
micromapping of dental cavities, this book focuses primarily on the biomechanics
of human movement from the perspective of the movement analyst.
Biomechanics is also a scientific branch of sports medicine. Sports medicine is sports medicine
an umbrella term that encompasses both clinical and scientific aspects of exercise clinical and scientific aspects of
sports and exercise
and sport. The American College of Sports Medicine is an example of an organi-
zation that promotes interaction between scientists and clinicians with interests in
sports medicine–related topics.

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 4 BASIC BIOMECHANICS

What Problems Are Studied by Biomechanists?

As expected given the different scientific and professional fields represented,
­biomechanists study questions or problems that are topically diverse. For ­example,
•In research, each new zoologists have examined the locomotion patterns of dozens of species of animals
study, investigation, or walking, running, trotting, and galloping at controlled speeds on a treadmill to deter-
experiment is usually mine why animals choose a particular stride length and stride rate at a given speed.
designed to address a They have found that running actually consumes less energy than walking in small
particular question or
animals up to the size of dogs, but running is more costly than walking for larger ani-
problem.
mals such as horses (2). One of the challenges of this type of ­research is determining
how to persuade a cat, a dog, or a turkey to run on a treadmill (Figure 1-2).
Both animals and humans appear to select a style of gait—walking or running,
short steps or long steps, and step frequency—based on the energetic effectiveness
of the particular movement pattern. Accordingly, a particular gait is generally
selected because its energetic cost is less than that of alternative gaits (1). Among
humans, the energy cost of running increases with running speed, as well as with
the amount of weight being carried by the runner. Expressed as oxygen uptake
(VO2) at a given submaximal running velocity, this energy cost is known as run-
Biomechanists have studied ning economy. Running economy is based on a complex interaction of biomechan-
numerous aspects of running. ical, metabolic, neuromuscular, and cardiorespiratory factors (11). Interestingly,
Sergey Nivens/Shutterstock researchers have shown that barefoot or minimally shod running is more econom-
ical than running in running shoes, possibly due to enhanced storage and return
of elastic energy in the Achilles tendon (9).
The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) sponsors
another multidisciplinary line of biomechanics research to promote understand-
ing of the effects of microgravity on human anatomy and physiology. Of concern
is the fact that astronauts who have been out of the earth’s gravitational field for
just a few days have returned with muscle atrophy, cardiovascular and immune
system changes, and reduced bone density, mineralization, and strength, ­especially
in the lower ­extremities.

FIGURE 1-2
Research on the biomechanics of
animal gaits poses some interesting
problems.

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 CHAPTER 1: WHAT IS BIOMECHANICS? 5

An astronaut exercising on the

International Space Station.
Source: NASA

Since those early days of space flight, biomechanists have designed and built a
number of exercise devices for use in space to attempt to counteract the negative
effects of being outside of the Earth's gravitational field. Some of this research
has focused on the design of treadmills for use in space that load the bones of the
lower extremity with ­deformations and strain rates that are optimal for stimulat-
ing new bone ­formation. Other approaches involve combining voluntary muscle
contraction with electrical stimulation of the muscles to maintain muscle mass
and tone. Although astronauts on the International Space Station spend 25% of
each working day participating in a complex, multi-modal countermeasure exer-
cise program, questions still remain about the effectiveness of the current proto-
col for astronaut support during extended space missions (7).
Maintaining sufficient bone-mineral density is also a topic of concern here on
Earth. Osteoporosis is a condition in which bone mineral mass and strength are so
severely compromised that daily activities can cause bone pain and fracturing. This
condition is found in most elderly individuals, with earlier onset in women, and is
becoming increasingly prevalent throughout the world with the increasing mean
age of the population. Approximately 50% of women experience one or more oste-
oporotic fractures after age 50, and after age 60, about 90% of all ­fractures in both
men and women are osteoporosis related (4). The most common fracture site is the
vertebrae, with the presence of one fracture indicating increased risk for future
vertebral and hip fractures. Biomechanists are exploring exercise interventions to
prevent or curtail loss of bone mineral mass and reduce the likelihood of osteopo-
rotic fractures. This topic is explored in depth in Chapter 4.

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