2.

1 EXPLAIN DATA ACQUISITION CONCEPTS

I. Data Integration Techniques:

These methods help combine data from various sources into a unified format for analysis.

• Extract, Transform, Load (ETL):

1. Extracts data from multiple sources.
2. Transforms the data into a consistent format (cleaning, filtering).
3. Loads the transformed data into a target system (data warehouse).
• Extract, Load, Transform (ELT):
1. Similar to ETL, but the order differs.
2. Extracts data from sources.
3. Loads the raw data directly into the target system.
4. Transforms the data within the target system. (ELT is preferred for large datasets)
• Delta Load: Focuses on updating the target system with only new or changed data since the
last load. Saves time and resources compared to full data refreshes.
• Application Programming Interfaces (APIs): APIs allow applications to communicate and
exchange data securely. Enables integration between different software systems.

II. Data Collection Methods:

These methods gather data from various sources for analysis.

• Web Scraping: Automated process of extracting data from websites. Useful for public web data,
but legality and ethics need consideration.
• Public Databases: Government agencies, research institutions, and other organizations often
provide open-access datasets on various topics.
• Application Programming Interface (API)/Web Services: Similar to data integration APIs,
web services provide programmatic access to data from online sources.
• Survey: Directly asking individuals questions to collect data and opinions. Surveys can be
conducted online, in person, or via phone.
• Sampling: Selecting a representative subset of a population to study the whole. Reduces data
collection time and cost while maintaining generalizability.
• Observation: Recording and analyzing behavior or events without intervention. Useful for
understanding user interactions or real-world phenomena.

2.2 IDENTIFY COMMON REASONS FOR CLEANSING AND PROFILING DATASETS

Data Quality Issues:

These terms describe various inconsistencies and errors that can affect data analysis.

• Duplicate Data:
o Exact copies of the same record appear multiple times in a dataset.
o This can inflate results and skew analysis.
o Techniques like deduplication can be used to remove duplicates.
• Redundant Data:
o Similar to duplicate data, but the information is repeated across different fields or records.
o Can lead to wasted storage space and make analysis cumbersome.
o Data restructuring or combining fields might be necessary.
 • Missing Values:
o Data points that are absent from a dataset.
o Can occur due to data entry errors, sensor malfunctions, or incomplete surveys.
o Techniques like imputation (estimating missing values) or data deletion (if appropriate)
can be used.
• Invalid Data:
o Data that doesn't conform to the expected format or range.
o Examples include negative ages, nonsensical text entries, or out-of-range values.
o Data cleaning techniques like filtering or correcting errors might be needed.
• Non-parametric Data:
o Data that doesn't follow a specific statistical distribution (e.g., normal distribution).
o This can limit the use of certain statistical methods that assume a specific distribution.
o Different statistical tests or transformations might be employed for non -parametric data.
• Data Outliers:
o Data points that fall significantly outside the typical range of the data.
o Outliers can distort analysis and mask underlying trends.
o Statistical tests can identify outliers, and analysts need to decide if they are genuine or
errors.
• Specification Mismatch:
o Inconsistency between how data is expected to be formatted and how it's actually stored.
o Examples include incorrect data types (e.g., text instead of numbers) or unexpected units
(e.g., centimeters instead of meters).
o Data validation processes can be implemented to catch these mismatches.
• Data Type Validation:
o The process of ensuring data adheres to the defined format (e.g., numeric, text, date).
o Helps prevent invalid data from entering the system and improves data consistency.
o Data validation can be automated during data entry or analysis.

3.3 EXECUTE DATA MANIPULATION TECHNIQUES

Data Transformation Techniques:

These techniques modify data to prepare it for analysis.

• Recoding Data:
o Assigning new values or categories to existing data points.
o Useful for simplifying complex data (e.g., grouping income ranges).
• Data Types: There are two main data types: * Numeric: Data representing quantities (e.g., age,
price, weight). * Categorical: Data classified into distinct groups (e.g., hair color, job title).
• Derived Variables: Creating new variables based on existing data through calculations or
transformations.
o Examples include calculating income percentiles or average order value.
• Data Merging:
o Combining data from two or more datasets based on a shared field (e.g., customer ID).
o Enriches datasets with additional information.
• Data Blending:
o Similar to merging, but combines data while preserving the original structure of each
dataset.
o Useful for visualizing data from different sources side-by-side.
• Concatenation:
o Joining strings or text data from multiple fields into a single field.
o Useful for combining first and last names or creating full addresses.
 • Data Append:
o Adding new rows of data to an existing dataset, without merging based on a shared field.
o Useful for adding supplemental information not present in the original dataset.
• Imputation:
o Estimating missing data points based on other information in the dataset.
o Different methods exist, such as mean/median imputation or using statistical models.
• Reduction/Aggregation:
o Summarizing data by combining values into higher-level categories.
o Examples include calculating total sales or average customer rating.
• Transpose:
o Swapping rows and columns in a dataset.
o Useful for reshaping data for different analysis methods.
• Normalize Data:
o Scaling numeric data to a common range (e.g., 0-1 or z-scores).
o Improves the performance of some machine learning algorithms.
• Parsing/String Manipulation:
o Extracting or modifying text data to a usable format.
o Examples include removing special characters, converting to uppercase/lowercase, or
splitting strings.

2.4 COMMON TECHNIQUES FOR DATA MANIPULATION AND QUERY OPTIMIZATION

Data Manipulation Techniques in Queries:

These techniques allow you to refine and analyze data within a database system.

• Data Manipulation:
o Modifying data retrieved from a database through various functions.
▪ Filtering: Selecting specific rows based on criteria (e.g., selecting customers from
a specific region).
▪ Sorting: Arranging data in a specific order (e.g., sorting products by price).
▪ Date Functions: Functions to work with date and time data (e.g., extracting year,
calculating age).
▪ Logical Functions: Performing logical comparisons (e.g., checking if a value is
greater than another).
▪ Aggregate Functions: Summarizing data by calculating totals, averages, counts,
etc. (e.g., finding total sales).
▪ System Functions: Functions related to the database system itself (e.g., getting
current user, system date).
• Query Optimization:
o Techniques to improve the performance of database queries.
▪ Parametrization: Replacing fixed values in queries with parameters for dynamic
execution.
▪ Indexing: Creating database indexes to speed up data retrieval based on specific
columns.
▪ Temporary Tables: Creating temporary tables within a query for intermediate
processing.
• Working with Subsets:
o Techniques to focus on specific portions of data.
▪ Subset of Records: Selecting a specific group of rows based on criteria (similar
to filtering).
• Understanding Query Execution:
 o Analyzing how a database processes a query.
▪ Execution Plan: Visual representation of the steps the database takes to execute
a query.

3.1 APPLY THE APPROPRIATE DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICAL METHODS

Measures of Central Tendency:

• Mean: Also called the arithmetic average, it's the sum of all the values in a dataset divided by
the number of values. It represents the "center of gravity" of the data.
• Median: The middle value when the data is arranged in ascending or descending order. If you
have an even number of values, the median is the average of the two middle values.
• Mode: The most frequently occurring value in a dataset. There can be one mode (unimodal),
two modes (bimodal), or even more (multimodal) depending on the data.

Measures of Dispersion:

• Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset. It tells you how
spread out the data is, but can be sensitive to outliers.
• Min: The lowest value in a dataset.
• Max: The highest value in a dataset.
• Distribution: The way the data is spread out. It can be symmetrical (bell-shaped), skewed
(lopsided), or have other shapes. Understanding the distribution helps choose appropriate
statistical methods.
• Variance: The average squared deviation of each value from the mean. It tells you how much,
on average, the data points vary from the mean, but it's in squared units and can be hard to
interpret directly.
• Standard Deviation: The square root of the variance. It's in the same units as the original data,
making it easier to interpret the spread compared to variance.

Frequencies/Percentages:

• Frequencies: The number of times each value appears in a dataset.

• Percentages: Frequencies expressed as a proportion of the total number of values, multiplied
by 100%.

Percent Change:

The difference between two values expressed as a percentage of the original value. It's calculated as:

(New Value - Old Value) / Old Value * 100%

Percent Difference:

Similar to percent change, but it represents the difference relative to the average of the two values. It's
calculated as:

(New Value - Old Value) / ((New Value + Old Value) / 2) * 100%

Confidence Intervals:
A range of values that is likely to contain the true population parameter (e.g., mean) with a certain level
of confidence (e.g., 95%). It helps estimate the population value based on sample data and account for
some margin of error.

3.2 PURPOSE OF INFERENTIAL STATISTICAL METHODS

Hypothesis Testing:

• Hypothesis Testing: A statistical method to assess claims about a population based on sample
data. It involves:
o Null Hypothesis (H₀): The default assumption, often stating "no difference" between
groups.
o Alternative Hypothesis (H₁): The opposite of the null hypothesis, what you aim to prove.
o Test Statistic: A numerical value calculated from the data to assess the evidence against
the null hypothesis.
o P-value: The probability of observing a test statistic as extreme or more extreme,
assuming the null hypothesis is true. Lower p-values indicate stronger evidence against
the null hypothesis.
o Significance Level (α): The maximum acceptable probability of rejecting a true null
hypothesis (often set at 0.05).
• Type I Error (α error): Rejecting a true null hypothesis. This is like mistakenly accusing
someone innocent.
• Type II Error (β error): Failing to reject a false null hypothesis. This is like missing someone
guilty.

Common Statistical Tests:

• T-test: Used to compare means between two groups. There are different variations for
independent or paired samples, and assumptions about population variance.
o Z-test: A specific type of t-test used when the population variance is known and the
sample size is large.
• Z-score: A measure of how many standard deviations a specific point is away from the mean.
It helps compare values from different datasets.
• P-value (as mentioned above): A crucial element in hypothesis testing, indicating the strength
of evidence against the null hypothesis.
• Chi-squared (χ²): Used to assess relationships between categorical variables, testing if the
observed frequencies differ significantly from what would be expected by chance.

Regression and Correlation:

• Simple Linear Regression: A statistical method to model the relationship between a continuous
dependent variable (predicted) and a single continuous independent variable (predictor). It
estimates a straight line that best fits the data points.
• Correlation: A measure of the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two
variables. It can range from -1 (perfect negative correlation) to +1 (perfect positive correlation),
with 0 indicating no linear relationship.

3.3 SUMMARIZE TYPES OF ANALYSIS AND KEY ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

Process:

1. Review/Refine Business Questions:

o Clearly define the problem or question you are trying to answer.
o Ensure the questions are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound
(SMART).
o Refine them to be answerable with data analysis.
2. Determine Data Needs and Sources:
o Identify the data required to answer your questions.
o Consider what data is available internally (databases, spreadsheets) and what might
need external sources.
o Evaluate data quality, completeness, and relevance.
3. Scoping/Gap Analysis:
o Define the scope of the analysis based on resources, timelines, and data availability.
o Identify any data gaps that might hinder your analysis and explore options to fill them
(e.g., data collection efforts).

Types of Analysis:

Once you have a clear understanding of your questions and data, you can choose the most suitable
analysis type:

• Trend Analysis: Identifies trends over time in a dataset. Useful for understanding growth
patterns, seasonal variations, or long-term shifts. Techniques include time series analysis and
moving averages.
• Comparison of Data Over Time: Compares data points or metrics at different points in time.
Helps identify changes, progress, or areas requiring improvement. Often visualized using line
charts or bar charts.
• Performance Analysis: Evaluates performance against defined goals or benchmarks. Tracks
metrics like sales targets, customer satisfaction scores, or production efficiency.
• Basic Projections to Achieve Goals: Uses past data and trends to create a forecast of future
values. Helps set realistic expectations and define strategies for achieving goals. Techniques
include linear regression or simple forecasting models.
• Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA): An initial, open-ended investigation of data to understand
its characteristics, patterns, and potential relationships. Utilizes descriptive statistics (mean,
median, standard deviation) and data visualization techniques (histograms, box plots) to gain
insights.
• Link Analysis: Examines connections between data points to understand relationships and
identify patterns. Common in network analysis, where nodes (entities) and edges (connections)
are visualized to uncover hidden relationships.

These are just some of the common analysis types. The best choice depends on your specific questions
and data. Remember, effective analysis often involves a combination of techniques.

5.1 SUMMARIZE IMPORTANT DATA GOVERNANCE CONCEPTS

Data Security and Management: A Deep Dive

Here's a breakdown of the details you requested on data access, security, storage, usage, and
classification:
Data Access Requirements:

• Role-based Access Control (RBAC): Defines access permissions based on user roles within
an organization. Users are assigned roles with specific permissions to access, modify, or delete
data relevant to their tasks.
• User Group-based Access Control: Grants access to specific user groups defined by shared
characteristics (e.g., department, project team). Users within the group inherit the access
permissions assigned to the group.
• Data Use Agreements: Formal contracts outlining how users or third parties can access and
utilize data. These agreements typically specify permitted uses, data security obligations, and
consequences of misuse.
• Release Approvals: An additional layer of control where data access requests require approval
from designated individuals before granting access. This ensures sensitive data is only accessed
by authorized personnel.

Data Security Requirements:

• Data Encryption: Transforms data into an unreadable format using encryption algorithms. This
protects data at rest (stored) and in transit (being transmitted) from unauthorized access.
• Data Transmission Security: Protocols like Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) or Transport Layer
Security (TLS) encrypt data communication over networks, protecting data from interception.
• De-identification/Data Masking: Techniques to remove or obfuscate personally identifiable
information (PII) from datasets while preserving other relevant data points. This helps protect
privacy while enabling data analysis.

Storage Environment Requirements:

• Shared Drives: Network-attached storage (NAS) or cloud-based shared drives offer centralized
access to data for authorized users. However, security measures are crucial to manage access
control.
• Cloud-based Storage: Scalable and accessible storage solutions offered by cloud service
providers. Security considerations include provider reputation, data encryption practices, and
compliance with relevant regulations.
• Local Storage: Data stored on physical devices like hard drives or servers located on -site.
Offers greater control but requires robust physical and digital security measures.

Data Use Requirements:

• Acceptable Use Policy (AUP): A document outlining acceptable and prohibited uses of
organizational data. It helps ensure responsible data handling and prevents misuse.
• Data Processing: Defines the procedures and tools used to transform, analyze, or manipulate
data. Clear guidelines ensure proper data handling and adherence to regulations.
• Data Deletion: Protocols specifying how and when data is deleted or archived. This helps
manage storage space, comply with data retention regulations, and protect privacy.
• Data Retention: Policies outlining how long data is stored based on legal, regulatory, or
business requirements.

Entity Relationship (ER) Requirements:

• Record Link Restrictions: Defines rules governing how data records from different tables or
datasets can be linked. This ensures data integrity and prevents inconsistencies.
 • Data Constraints: Rules that define valid values or limitations for specific data fields. Examples
include data type restrictions (e.g., number, date) or primary key constraints to ensure unique
record identifiers.
• Cardinality: Defines the relationship between entities in an ER model. It specifies how many
records in one table can be linked to records in another table (e.g., one-to-one, one-to-many,
many-to-many).

Data Classification:

• Personally Identifiable Information (PII): Any data that can be used to identify a specific
individual directly or indirectly (e.g., name, address, social security number). Stringent security
measures are required for PII.
• Personal Health Information (PHI): Protected health data relating to an individual's past,
present, or future physical or mental health (e.g., medical records, diagnoses). Subject to
specific regulations like HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act).
• Payment Card Industry (PCI) Data: Sensitive data associated with payment cards (e.g., credit
card numbers, expiration dates). PCI Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) outlines compliance
requirements for handling and storing such data.

Jurisdiction Requirements:

• Impact of Industry and Governmental Regulations: Data security and use are heavily
influenced by industry regulations and local laws. Understanding relevant regulations (e.g.,
GDPR in Europe, CCPA in California) is crucial for compliance.
• Data Breach Reporting: Regulations often mandate reporting data breaches to affected
individuals and relevant authorities within specific timeframes.

Escalation:

• Data Breach Escalation: If a data breach is suspected, it's critical to escalate the issue to
appropriate authorities within the organization (e.g., security team, data protection officer).

By understanding these details, you can establish a comprehensive framework for data security, access
control, and responsible data management.

5.2 APPLY DATA QUALITY CONTROL CONCEPTS

Circumstances to Check for Quality

• Data Acquisition/Data Source:

o Verify data source reliability and reputation.
o Check for completeness of transferred data (no missing files/tables).
o Ensure data formats match expectations (e.g., CSV, Excel).
• Data Transformation/Intrahops:
o Validate transformation logic against data lineage.
o Monitor for errors or inconsistencies introduced during transformation.
o Check for data loss or corruption during processing.
• Pass Through:
o Ensure no unintended modifications occur during data transfer.
o Verify data integrity is maintained during movement.
 o Monitor for delays or interruptions that might affect data quality.
• Conversion:
o Validate data conversion accuracy (e.g., units, formats).
o Check for data loss or corruption during conversion.
o Ensure converted data aligns with intended use case.
• Data Manipulation:
o Verify manipulation logic against business rules.
o Monitor for errors or inconsistencies introduced during manipulation.
o Ensure data integrity is maintained after manipulation.
• Final Product (Report/Dashboard, etc.):
o Check for data visualization accuracy and clarity.
o Validate calculations and aggregations displayed in the report.
o Ensure the report reflects the intended insights from the data.

Automated Validation

• Data Field to Data Type Validation:

o Enforce data type rules to prevent invalid entries (e.g., numbers in text fields).
o Automate checks to identify data type mismatches.
• Number of Data Points:
o Set expected data point thresholds based on source and context.
o Utilize automated alerts for significant deviations from expected data volume.

Data Quality Dimensions

• Data Consistency: Ensure data adheres to defined formats, rules, and representations across
all instances.
• Data Accuracy: Verify data reflects reality and is free from errors or misrepresentations.
• Data Completeness: Check for missing data points and ensure all necessary information is
present.
• Data Integrity: Maintain the logical consistency and trustworthiness of data throughout its
lifecycle.
• Data Attribute Limitations: Understand and document any limitations associated with specific
data attributes (e.g., precision, range).

Data Quality Rule and Metrics

• Conformity: The number of data points that adhere to defined quality rules.
• Non-Conformity: The number of data points that violate defined quality rules.
• Rows Passed: The number of data rows that successfully complete the validation process.
• Rows Failed: The number of data rows that fail quality checks and require correction.

Methods to Validate Quality

• Cross-Validation: Compare data from different sources to identify inconsistencies.

• Sample/Spot Check: Manually review a representative sample of data for quality issues.
• Reasonable Expectations: Set realistic expectations for data quality based on source and use
case.
• Data Profiling: Analyze data to understand its structure, distribution, and potential issues.
• Data Audits: Conduct systematic reviews to assess data quality at various stages.
By employing these methods and considerations, you can ensure your data is of high quality, leading
to more reliable and trustworthy insights.

5.3 EXPLAIN MASTER DATA MANAGEMENT (MDM) CONCEPTS

MDM Processes and Circumstances

MDM Processes

• Consolidation of multiple data fields: This involves identifying and merging duplicate entries
for the same entity (e.g., customer, product) across different systems. MDM creates a single,
unified record with the most accurate and complete information.
• Standardization of data field names: Different systems might use different names for the same
data points (e.g., "customer name" vs. "client"). MDM defines consistent naming conventions to
ensure everyone understands the data the same way.
• Data dictionary: This is a central repository that defines each data element used within the
MDM system. It includes details like data type, format, allowed values, and business definitions
to ensure consistent data entry and interpretation.

Circumstances for MDM Implementation

• Mergers and Acquisitions (M&A): When companies merge or acquire others, they often have
overlapping data sets. MDM helps consolidate and standardize customer, product, and
employee information across the combined organization.
• Compliance with policies and regulations: MDM ensures data accuracy and consistency,
which is crucial for adhering to industry regulations (e.g., financial reporting) and data privacy
laws (e.g., GDPR).
• Streamline data access: MDM creates a single source of truth for critical data, making it easier
for different departments and applications to access consistent and reliable information. This
improves reporting, analytics, and overall decision -making.

In summary, MDM processes help manage and organize data, while the circumstances highlight
situations where a centralized approach to data management becomes crucial.