Grammar Definition Grammars

A grammar G is defined as G = (V, T, P, S) where:

Grammar z V : Finite set of variables/non-terminals
(We use capital letters A,B,C,… for variables)
z T : Alphabet/Finite set of terminals
(We use small letters a,b,c,… for terminals)
Context-sensitive Grammar z P : Finite set of rules/productions
Regular Grammar
z S : Start symbol
S ∈ V
Context-free Grammar V ∩ T = φ
Rule : α → β
+
α ∈ ( V ∪ T) , β ∈ (V ∪ T) *
Left-linear Grammar right-linear Grammar
Each grammar G defines a language L(G), which is the
set of strings in T* (=S*) that G can generate from S.
It is all about the production rules.
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Grammars Grammars
Definition Example

Given a grammar G = (V, T, P, S) Given a grammar G = (V, T ,P,S)

For a string w=uxv we can apply the production rule V={A, B, C}
xày to w so we get a string z=uyv. T={a, b, x}
In this case we write w z, which reads w drives z. S= A
And P is:
If w1 w2 … wn ,
we say that w1 drives wn and we write w1 * wn AaBxàaBAaBb
CaBxàaBAaCb
ABCà?

Grammars Grammars
Definition

Let G=(V, Τ, P, S) be a grammar.

• w ∈ (V ∪ T) * is a sentential form, if Some Remarks
S ⇒*G w

• w ∈ T * is a sentence, if S ⇒*G w The language L(G) = { w∈T* : S ⇒* w } contains

only strings of terminals, not variables.
• The language of G,
Notation: We summarize several rules for one variable:
L(G) = {w ∈ T* | S ⇒ G w}
*
A→ B
A → 01 by A → B | 01 | AA
A → AA

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 Grammars Right-Linear Grammars
Example
Definition
Given the grammar:
A Grammar G= (V, T ,P,S) is called right-
linear grammar if every production is of
G = {{S },{a , b},{S → λ , S → aSb}, S ) the form A à xB, or A à x where
A,B ∈ V, x ∈ T*
The language generated by this grammar is: Example: The grammar
x à 0x | 1y
y à 0x | 1z
L(G ) = {a n b n | n ≥ 0} z à 0x | 1z | ?
Is a right-linear grammar.
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Left-Linear Grammars Regular Grammars

Definition Definition

A Grammar G= (V, T ,P,S) is called left- A Grammar G= (V, T ,P,S) is called regular
linear grammar if every production is of grammar if its is left- or right-linear
the form A à Bx, or A à x where
A,B ∈ V, x ∈ T*
Example: The grammar Example: The grammar
x à x0 | y1 x à 0x | 1y
Example: The grammar
y à x0 | z1 y à 0x | 1z
x à x0 | y1
z à x0 | z1 | ? z à 0x | 1z | ?
y à x0 | z1
Is a left-linear grammar, Is a right-linear grammar,
z à x0 | z1 | ?
hence is Regular Grammar Hence is Regular Grammar
Is a left-linear grammar.

Grammars Grammars
Example 1

Write a grammar that generate the language: Example 3

L = { w ∈ { a , b }* | length ( w ) is EVEN }
Write a grammar that generate the language:
E → λ E → λ | aO | bO L = {w ∈{a , b, c}* | w does not contain abc}
| aaE | abE
| baE | bbE O→ aE | bE reset → b reset | c reset
| a seenA |λ
Example 2
seenA → a seenA | c reset
Write a grammar that generate the language:
| b seenAB |λ
L = {w ∈ {a , b}* | w has EVEN number of b' s}
seenAB → a seenA
E → λ | aE | bO
| b reset |λ
O → aO | bE

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 Context-free Grammars
Definition CFG = (V, T, P, S)

zV : Finite set of variables/non-terminals

zT : Alphabet/Finite set of terminals
Context-free Grammars zP : Finite set of rules/productions
zS : Start symbol
S∈ V
V∩T =φ
Rule : A → ω
A ∈ V ω ∈ (V ∪ T) *
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Context-free Grammars Context-free Grammars

Definition Derivation

zOne-step Derivation

zContext
Context--freeness: An A-rule can be
uAv A ⇒
→ω
uωv
applied whenever A occurs in a string,
zw is derivable from v in CFG, if there is a
irrespective of the context (that is, non-
finite sequence of rule applications such
terminals and terminals around A).
that:
v ⇒ w1 ⇒ ... ⇒ wn = w
In this case we can write this derivation as v *w

Context-free Grammars Context-free Grammars

Derivation Example 1
Let G = ({S}, {a,b},S,P) with for P:
The derivation as v * w is called: zS? aSa, and S? bSb, and S? ?.
zSome derivations from this grammar:
Leftmost derivation: if in every step the leftmost z S ⇒ aSa ⇒ aaSaa ⇒ aabSbaa ⇒ aabbaa
variable is selected for reduction z S ⇒ bSb ⇒ baSab ⇒ baab, and so on.

Rightmost derivation: if in every step the rightmost zIn general S ⇒….⇒ wwR for
variable is selected for reduction
w∈{a,b}*.

L(G)={wwR : w∈{a,b}*}

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 Context-free Grammars Context-free Grammars
Example 3
Example 2 G = ({S , A, B},{a , b},
Take the CFG S → 0 | 1 | ¬(S) | (S)∨(S) | (S)∧(S), which
{S → AB , A → aA | λ , generates all proper Boolean formulas that use
B → Bb | λ}, “0”, “1”, “¬”, “∨”, “∧”, “(“ and “)”.

S) Then “(0)∨((0)∧(1))” can be derived in the following

ways…
L(G ) = L(a * b*) [leftmost] S ⇒ (S)∨(S) ⇒ (0)∨(S) ⇒ (0)∨((S)∧(S))
Leftmost D erivation : ⇒ (0)∨((0)∧(S)) ⇒ (0)∨((0)∧(1))
[rightmost] S ⇒ (S)∨(S) ⇒ (S)∨((S)∧(S)) ⇒ (S)∨((S)∧(1))
S ⇒ AB ⇒ aAB ⇒ aB ⇒ aBb ⇒ ab ⇒ (S)∨((0)∧(1)) ⇒ (0)∨((0)∧(1))
Rightmost Derivation : [something else] S ⇒ (S)∨(S) ⇒ (0)∨(S) ⇒ (0)∨((S)∧(S))
⇒ (0)∨((S)∧(1)) ⇒ (0)∨((0)∧(0))
S ⇒ AB ⇒ ABb ⇒ Ab ⇒ aAb ⇒ ab

Context-free Grammars Context-free Grammars

Example 5
Example 4
Consider the CFG G:

S → aSa | aBa
Consider the CFG:

G = {{ S }, { a , b }, { S → λ , S → aSb }, S )
B → bB | b
zDerivation of aabb is
L( B) = {b m | m > 0}
S ⇒ aSb ⇒ aaSbb ⇒ aabb
L( S ) = {a n bm a n | n > 0 ∧ m > 0}
L(G)= L(S)

Context-free Grammars Context-free Grammars

Example 6 Example 7 Consider the CFGs G1 and G2 :

S → aSa | B
Consider the CFG G1: S → AB
B → bB | λ G1 :
S → aS | aB
A → aA | a G2 :

B → bB | λ
The language generated by G1 is:
B → bB | λ
L (G1) = {a nb m a n | n ≥ 0 ∧ m ≥ 0}
The language generated by G1 and G 2 is:
Consider the CFG G2: S → abSc | λ L(G1) = L(G 2) = L(S)

The language generated by G2 is: L ( S ) = { a n b m | m ≥ 0 ∧ n > 0}

L (G2 ) = {( ab) n c n | n ≥ 0} L( S ) = L (a +b* )

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 Context-free Grammars Context-free Grammars

Example 8 Exercise

Write a CFG to generate the language: a * ba * ba *

WRITE A CFG FOR THE EMPTY SET
S → aS | B
S → AbAbA G = { {S}, S, ∅, S }
B → bA
A → aA | λ A → aA | bC
C → aC | λ
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Left to right generation of string.

Context-free Grammars Context-free Grammars

Exercise 3 Example
Consider the CFG G=({S,Z},{0,1},S,P) with
P: S → 0S1 | 0Z1
Z → 0Z | ?
What is the CFG ({S},{(,)},S,P) that produces What is the language generated by G?
the language of correct parentheses like (), (()), or ()(())?
Answer: L(G) = {0i 1j | i≥j }

S? (S)|SS|? Specifically, S yields the 0j+k1j according to:

S ⇒ 0S1 ⇒ … ⇒ 0j S1j ⇒
0j Z1j ⇒ 0j 0Z1j ⇒ … ⇒ 0j+kZ1j ⇒ 0j+ke1j = 0j+k1j

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Context-free Grammars Context-free Grammars

Exercise Derivation Tree

n Can you make Context Free Grammars for the following? For a CFG G=(V,T,S,P) a derivation
tree has the following properties: Example
a) { 0n1n : n=
n=0}
b) { 0n1m : n,m=
n,m =0} 1) The root is labeled S S
2) Each leaf is from T∪{?}
c) Arithmetic a,b,c formulas like a+b×c+a (without ())
a+b× 3) Each interior node is from V
4) If node has label A∈V and ( S ) ∨ ( S )
n Answers: its children a1…an (from L to R),
a) S ? 0S1 | ? then P must have the rule
b) S ? 0S | R and R ? 1R | ? A? a1…an (with aj∈V∪T∪{?}) 0 ( S ) ∧ ( S )
5) A leaf labeled ? is a single
c) S×S
S ? a | b | c | S+S | S× child (has no siblings). 1
0
For partial derivation trees we have:
29 2a) Each leaf is from V∪T∪{?} 30

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 Context-free Grammars Context-free Grammars
Derivation Tree: Example Derivation Tree: Notes
Take the CFG S → 0 | 1 | ¬(S) | (S)∨(S) | (S)∧(S), which Application of a production rule A ? x is
generates all proper Boolean formulas that use “0”, “1”, represented by node A with children x.
“¬”, “∨”, “∧”, “(“ and “)”. (Note that the tree is ordered:
the ordering of the nodes matters.)
S
The derivation S ⇒* (0)∨((0)∧(1)) can be expressed by
the following derivation tree: S The root has variable S.

The yield of S (is S ) ∨ ( S )

( S ) ∨ ( S ) expressed by the
leaves of the tree.
0 ( S ) ∧ ( S )
0 ( S ) ∧ ( S )

0 1 31
0 1 32

Context-free Grammars Context-free Grammars

Derivation Tree: Notes Example 1 Consider the CFG G:

G = {{ S }, { a , b }, { S → λ , S → aSb }, S )
n Looking
at a tree you see the derivation without the
unnecessary information about its order.
zThe derivation of aabb is:
n Theorem
Theorem:: Let G be a CFG. We have w∈L(G L(G)) if and S ⇒ aSb ⇒ aaSbb ⇒ aabb
only if there exists a derivation tree of G with yield w.
S
n Also, y is a sentential form of G if and only if there exists
a partial derivation tree for G. zDerivation tree is S
n Remember: the root always has to be S. a b

a λ b
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Context-free Grammars Context-free Grammars

Example 3
<EXPR> ? <EXPR> + <EXPR>
Example 2
<EXPR> ? <EXPR> * <EXPR>
A ⇒ 0A1 ⇒ 00A11 ⇒ 00B11 ⇒ 00#11 <EXPR> ? ( <EXPR> )
<EXPR> ? a
A Build a parse tree for a + a * a
A <EXPR>

A
<EXPR>
B <EXPR>
<EXPR> <EXPR>
0 0 # 1 1
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a + a * a

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 Context-free Grammars

Exercise

WRITE A CFG FOR EVEN-LENGTH

PALINDROMES over S={a,b,c,d} ?
S ? aSa for all a ∈ S
S? ?

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