A Laboratory Manual for

Engineering Thermodynamics
(GTU Subject code:3131905)

Semester:3rd
Mechanical Engineering Department

Name of Student:
Enrollment No:
Department: Year:

Dr. S. & S. S. GHANDHY

GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, SURAT
Mechanical Engineering Department.GEC,Surat
 Dr. S. & S. S. GHANDHY
GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, SURAT

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr./Ms. _________________________________, Enrollment No.

______________________, Branch: Mechanical Engineering, Semester: III has
satisfactorily completed the term work for the subject: Engineering
Thermodynamics (3131905) for Academic year: ___________________.

Date of Submission: ____________________

Subject Faculty Head of Department

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 INDEX

Sr. No Name of Experiment Page CO Date Sign of Marks

No. Faculty (10)

To verify first and second law of thermodynamics

1
with Mechanical Heat Pump CO2

To verify first and second law with I.C. engine

2
CO2

3 To understand the application of SFEE to pipe in

pipe heat exchanger CO2

4 To understand applications of SFEE

CO2

5 To understand the application of entropyprinciple and

Guy-stodola theorem CO3

6 To study the comparisons of Otto, Diesel and Dual

cycles. CO4

7 To study variable affecting the performance of Rankine

cycle CO4

To Understand different components of VCR system

8
and to determine its COP CO4

9 To understand the effect of various operating

parameters on performance of VCR cycle CO4

10 To find out the calorific value of given fuel with the

help of Junker gas calorimeter. CO5

11 To find out the calorific value of given fuel with the

help of Junker gas calorimeter. CO5

TOTAL MARKS (OUT OF 100)

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 PRACTICAL: 1

AIM : To understand first and second law of thermodynamics with

MechanicalHeat Pump

Introduction:
Heat pumps, air conditioners, and refrigerators utilize heat transfer from cold to hot. They are
heat engines run backward. We say backward, rather than reverse, because except for Carnot
engines, all heat engines, though they can be run backward, cannot truly be reversed. Heat
transfer occurs from a cold reservoir Qc and into a hot one. This requires work input W, which is
also converted to heat transfer. Thus the heat transfer to the hot reservoir is Qh=Qc+W. A heat
pump’s mission is for heat transfer Qh to occur into a warm environment, such as a home in the
winter. The mission of air conditioners and refrigerators is for heat transfer Q c to occur from a
cool environment, such as chilling a room or keeping food at lower temperatures than the
environment.

Heat pumps, air conditioners, and refrigerators are heat engines operated backward. The one
shown here is based on a Carnot (reversible) engine. (a) Schematic diagram showing heat transfer
from a cold reservoir to a warm reservoir with a heat pump. The directions of W, Qh, and Qc are
opposite what they would be in a heat engine. (b) P-V diagram for a Carnot cycle similar but
reversed, following path ADCBA. The area inside the loop is negative, meaning thereis a net work
input. There is heat transfer Qc into the system from a cold reservoir along path DC, and heat
transfer Qh out of the system into a hot reservoir along path BA.

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Heat Pump:

The great advantage of using a heat pump to keep your home warm, rather than just burning fuel,
is that a heat pump supplies Qh=Qc+W. Heat transfer is from the outside air, even at a
temperature below freezing, to the indoor space. You only pay for W, and you get an additional
heat transfer of Qc from the outside at no cost; in many cases, at least twice as much energy is
transferred to the heated space as is used to run the heat pump. When you burn fuel to keep
warm, you pay for all of it. The disadvantage is that the work input (required by the second law
of thermodynamics) is sometimes more expensive than simply burning fuel, especially if the work
is done by electrical energy.

A simple heat pump has four basic components: (1) condenser, (2) expansion valve,
(3) evaporator, and (4) compressor. In the heating mode, heat transfer Q c occurs to the working
fluid in the evaporator (3) from the colder outdoor air, turning it into a gas. The electrically driven
compressor (4) increases the temperature and pressure of the gas and forces it into the condenser
coils (1) inside the heated space. Because the temperature of the gas is higher than the
temperature in the room, heat transfer from the gas to the room occurs as the gas condenses to a
liquid. The working fluid is then cooled as it flows back through an expansion valve (2) to the
outdoor evaporator coils.

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The electrically driven compressor (work input W) raises the temperature and pressure of the gas
and forces it into the condenser coils that are inside the heated space. Because the temperature
of the gas is higher than the temperature inside the room, heat transfer to the room occurs and
the gas condenses to a liquid. The liquid then flows back through a pressure- reducing valve to
the outdoor evaporator coils, being cooled through expansion. (In a cooling cycle, the evaporator
and condenser coils exchange roles and the flow direction of the fluid is reversed.)

The quality of a heat pump is judged by how much heat transfer Q h occurs into the warm space
compared with how much work input W is required. In the spirit of taking the ratio of what you
get to what you spend, we define a heat pump’s coefficient of performance (COPhp) to be

COPhp= Qh/W

Since the efficiency of a heat engine is Eff=W/Qh, we see that COPhp= 1/Eff, an important and
interesting fact. First, since the efficiency of any heat engine is less than 1, it means that
COPhp is always greater than 1—that is, a heat pump always has more heat transfer Qh than work
put into it. Second, it means that heat pumps work best when temperature differences are small.
The efficiency of a perfect, or Carnot, engine is Effc=1-(Tc/Th); thus, the smaller the temperature
difference, the smaller the efficiency and the greater the COPhp (because
COPhp=1/Eff).

*****

Answer the following Questions:

1. Write first law of thermodynamics and give suitable examples of it in day to day life.

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2. Write limitation of first law of thermodynamics.

3. Write Kelvin plank’s and Clausius statement of second law of thermodynamics

ASSESSMENT RUBRIC:

Diagrams & Written Understanding Question Total points

Sketches Explanation (3 points) Answer
(2 points) (2 points) (3 points) (10 Points)

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 PRACTICAL: 2

AIM : To understand first and second law with I.C. engine

Introduction:

An internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an
oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber thus the combustion flue gases have been produced that is a
working fluid of engine. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high-
pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine. The force is
applied typically to piston, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance,
transforming chemical energy into useful mechanical energy.

Internal combustion engine (diesel)

APPARATUS WITH SPECIFICATION:

1. Single cylinder water cooled diesel engine.

Rated Horse power: 5 H P, 1500 r p.m.

Stroke: 110 mm.

2. Dynamometer

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 Type: Electrical D .C type

3. Panel Board

It consists of Amp meter, Voltmeter and Switch fuse carrier. Fuel measuring tank.

Mounted on a sturdy iron stand, burette tube three way cock with connecting tube.

4. Air intake measurement.

5. Stopwatch.

THEORY:

The performance of an engine is generally given by heat balance sheet. To draw the heat balance sheet for
I.C. Engine, it is run at constant load. The quantity of fuel used in a given time and its calorific value, the
amount, inlet and outlet temperature of cooling water, the temperature of exhaust gases, etc. are recorded. After
that the heat used in difference section is calculated using the standard formulas which are given in the
calculation section.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

The following steps have been followed:

1. The level of the diesel in tank is checked and line up with the fuel pump through fuel measuring apparatus.

2. The engine started by hand cranking.

3. The inlet cooling line is fully opened.

4. A light load is put in the engine by inserting the load in electrical load box, and set the voltage 220 V using
voltage variac.

5. After achieving steady state condition, all the necessary data is noted down.

6. 3-set of each data is noted for 3- different load.

7. First data is taken in no-load condition.

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OBSERVATIONS:

Given:

C.V of fuel = 45MJ/kg

Generator efficiency=97%

Diameter of orifice meter= 0.015 m

Coefficient of discharge= 0.65

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Table 1

Sr No Voltage V Load in term of Current I

Table 2

Sr No Fuel Time taken Exhaust gas Exhaust gas Flow of Time taken Cooling water
consumption in volumetric temperature cooling insec temp oC
in ml sec flow rate oC water in
m3/s liter lit Inlet Outlet

CALCULATION:

Brake power (B. P) = VI/1000 C KW

Where, C Efficiency of generator.

Fuel Consumption (mf):

Volume flow rate of fuel = (Final volume of fuel - initial volume of fuel)/Time (m3/sec)

Mass flow rate of fuel (mf) = (Volume flow rate of fuel × density of fuel) (Kg/hr)

Sp. Gravity of fuel =0.86

Specific Fuel Consumption:

Break specific fuel consumption = (Fuel used in kg/hr) / (B.P in KW) = mf /B.P (Kg/KW-h)

Heat supplied by the fuel (Qs):

Heat supplied by the fuel (Qs) = mf×C.V×3600. (KJ/hr)

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mf= mass flow rate of fuel (Kg/sec)

C.V. = Calorific Value of fuel

Heat equivalent to B.P (QB.P):

QB.P = B.P × 3600 (KJ /hr)

Heat carried away by exhaust gas (QE):

The amount of heat carried away by exhaust gas QE = (ma+ mf) × Cpg × (Tg – Ta) (KJ/hr)

Where, Tg = Temperature of exhaust gas (K)

Ta = Temperature of air. (K)

Cpg = Specific Heat of exhaust gas. (KJ/Kg-K)

Heat carried away by cooling water (Qw):

The amount of heat carried by cooling water (Qw) = mw× Cpw × (TO -TI)

Where, TO = outlet Temperature of water. (K)

TI = inlet Temperature of water. (K)

mw = mass flow rate of water (kg/sec)

CPW = Sp. heat of water. (KJ/kg -k)

Unaccounted heat: QU = (QS – QW – QE – QBP) (KJ/hr)

Result:

Credit Percentage Debit Percentage

Heat supplied 100% Heat equivalent %

by burning of to break Power
fuel (KJ/hr) Qs QBP

Heat carried %
away by cooling
water QW

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 Heat carried %
away by exhaust
gas QE

Unaccounted %
heat loss QU

Total 100% Total 100%

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Conclusion:

From result table it can be concluded that complete conversion of heat received by burning of
fuel into break power of engine is never possible (2nd law of thermodynamics), part of heat will be
lost in the following manners.

1. Heat carried away by flue gases

2. Heat carried away by cooling water

3. Heat lost in surrounding ( unaccountable loss)

-***** - -

Answer the following:

1. How will you determine efficiency of any I.C.engine?

_ __

_ __

_ __
_ __

_ __

2. Which are the Heat losses in I.C.engine?

_ __

_ __
_ __

_ __

_ __

3. How will you verify first law of thermodynamics in I.C. engine

_ __

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_ __

_ __

_ __

_ __

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 PRACTICAL: 3

AIM : To understand the application of SFEE to pipe in pipe heat

exchanger

Introduction:

A heat exchanger is a system used to transfer heat between two or more fluids. Heat exchangers are used in
both cooling and heating processes. The fluids may be separated by a solid wall to prevent mixing or they may
be in direct contact. They are widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, power stations,
chemical plants, petrochemical plants, petroleum refineries, natural-gas processing, and sewage treatment. The
classic example of a heat exchanger is found in an internal combustion engine in which a circulating fluid
known as engine coolant flows through radiator coils and air flows past the coils, which cools the coolant and
heats the incoming air.

A double pipe heat exchanger (also sometimes referred to as a 'pipe-in-pipe' exchanger) is a type of heat
exchanger comprising a 'tube in tube' structure. As the name suggests, it consists of two pipes, one within the
other. One fluid flows through the inner pipe (analogous to the tube-side in a shell and tube type exchanger)
whilst the other flows through the outer pipe, which surrounds the inner pipe (analogous to the shell-side in a
shell and tube exchanger).

A cross-section of a double pipe exchanger would look something like this:

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They often have a U-tube structure to accommodate thermal expansion of the tubes without necessitating
expansion joints, as illustrated below:

Theory:

Consider a double pipe heat exchanger which consists of two concentric pipes arranged as per shown in fig.
The purpose of a heat exchanger is to increase the temperature of a cold fluid and decrease that of the hot fluid
which is in thermal contact, in order to achieve heat transfer. The fig. shows that the hot fluid passes through
the inner tube and the cold fluid passes through the outer tube of the double pipe heat exchanger.

As we know that steady flow energy equation;

𝑣22
𝑣12

𝑚̇1 (ℎ1 + + 𝑧1) + 𝑄 = 𝑚̇ 2 (ℎ2 + + 𝑧2) + W

2 2

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In above equation change in kinetic energy, potential energy will be neglected. Also there will not be any work
done, and energy exchange in the form of heat is confined only between the two fluid, i.e., there is no external
heat interaction or heat loss.

Applying steady flow energy equation for the control surface gives;

Energy associated with the fluid entering in control volume = Energy associated with the fluid leaving
in control volume

𝑚̇ℎℎ1 + 𝑚̇𝑐ℎ3 = 𝑚̇ ℎℎ2 + 𝑚̇𝑐ℎ4

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Where;

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 𝑚̇ℎ = 𝑚̇𝑎𝑠𝑠 ƒ𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜ƒ ℎ𝑜𝑡 ƒ𝑙𝑢i𝑑 i𝑛 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

𝑚̇𝑐 = 𝑚̇𝑎𝑠𝑠 ƒ𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜ƒ 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 ƒ𝑙𝑢i𝑑 i𝑛 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

ℎ1 = 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑜ƒ ℎ𝑜𝑡 ƒ𝑙𝑢i𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟i𝑛𝑔 i𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚̇𝑒 i𝑛 𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ℎ2 = 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦

𝑜ƒ ℎ𝑜𝑡 ƒ𝑙𝑢i𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣i𝑛𝑔 ƒ𝑟𝑜𝑚̇ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚̇𝑒 i𝑛 𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔ℎ3 = 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑜ƒ 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 ƒ𝑙𝑢i𝑑

𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟i𝑛𝑔 i𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚̇𝑒 i𝑛 𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ℎ4 = 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑜ƒ𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 ƒ𝑙𝑢i𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣i𝑛𝑔 ƒ𝑟𝑜𝑚̇

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚̇𝑒 i𝑛 𝐾𝐽/𝑘𝑔

****

Answer the following:

1. Write SFEE and apply the equation to boiler.

2. What is function of heat exchanger? Which are the different types of it?

3. What is an application of double pipe heat exchanger?

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ASSESSMENT RUBRIC:

Diagrams & Written Understanding Question Total points

Sketches Explanation (3 points) Answer
(2 points) (2 points) (3 points) (10 Points)

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 PRACTICAL: 4
AIM : To understand Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE) and its
application.

Introduction:

A very large class of devices of interest to engineers such as turbines, compressors, nozzles, boiler and
condenser operates under long-term steady-state condition i.e. after the initial start up period they operate in a
way that there are no variation of properties with time.

Steady flow process is a process where: the fluid properties can change from point to point in the
control volume but remains the same at any fixed point during the whole process.

To obtain steady flow conditions we need to satisfy three conditions:

 The streams of material crossing the control surface must not change flow rate with time. No
properties within the control volume change with time. That is mcv = constant Ecv = constant
 No properties change at the boundaries with time. Thus, the fluid properties at an inlet or exit will
remain the same during the whole process. They can be different at different opens.

 The heat and work interactions between a steady-flow system and its surroundings do not change with
time.

Mass and Energy Balance for Steady-flow Process

The conservation of mass principle, which has been previously introduced, in rate format, is:

During a steady-flow process, the total amount of mass contained within a control volume does not changewith
time. That is,

dmsystem/dt = 0

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Hence the conservation of mass principle gives the total amount of mass entering a control volume equal to
the total amount of mass leaving it. In an equation format, it is

Mass and Energy balance for Steady-flow Process

(Total mass entering the control volume per unit time)

(Total mass leaving the control volume per unit time)

or,

where
i = inlet
e = exit

Also, the energy balance for a process, which has been previously introduced, in rate format, is:

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For a steady-flow process, the total energy content of a control volume remains constant. That is,

dEsystem/dt = 0

Thus, the amount of energy entering a control volume in all forms (heat, work, mass transfer) must be equal
to the amount of energy leaving it for a steady-flow process. In an equation format, it is

(Rate of net energy transfer in by heat, work and mass)

(Rate of net energy transfer out by heat, work and mass)

Or,

Here , The total energy of a simple compressible system consists of three parts: internal, kinetic, and potential
energy.

E = U + KE + PE

For unit mass,

e = u + v2/2 + gz

where

e = total energy

u = internal energy

v = velocity of the system

z = the elevation of the fluid

The fluid entering or leaving a control volume possess an additional energy, the flow work (Pv). Hence, thetotal
energy of a flowing fluid becomes

e = Pv + u + v2/2 + gz
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where
e= the total energy of a flowing fluid

The definition of enthalpy gives

h = Pv + u

Replacing Pv + u by h yields

e = h + v2/2 + gz

By using the enthalpy instead of internal energy, flow work is not a concern.

For a general steady-flow process, the energy balance can be written as

If the sign introduced previously for heat and work is used, the energy balance for a general steady-flow
process can be rewritten as:

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Application of steady flow energy equation:

There are many practical example of devices through which steady flow process occurs. We can apply thesteady
flow energy equation for those devices

1. Nozzle and diffuser:

Nozzle is the device in which the velocity of the fluid increases due to the fall in pressure. And diffuser is just the
opposite of nozzle; here velocity decreases due to the rise in pressure. For those devices there is no heat

and work interaction and generally inlet and outlet both are same level; so the change in potential energy isalso
zero. So, considering an insulated nozzle as shown in figure-

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2. Turbine and Compressor:

Turbines are the work producing device whereas compressors are the work consuming device. For those devices
there is no heat transfer and change in potential energy is zero. Also due to the small velocity of flow, change
in kinetic energy is negligible. So, considering an insulated turbine as shown in figure-

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So, the S.F.E.E becomes

Similarly for compressor work is done upon the system so the work is negative. So for compressor-

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3. Throttling devices:

Examples of throttling devices are an orifice, capillary tube, a partially open valve or a porous plug. The passage
is constricted on those devices and there is an appreciable pressure drop and the flow is said to be throttled. For
those devices there is no heat and work interaction and also change in P.E and K.E are also negligible. So
considering a partially open valve with insulation as shown in figure-

Therefore the throttling processes are isenthalpic process.

4. Heat exchanger:
Heat exchangers are the devices in which heat is transferred from one liquid to another. Examples of heat
exchanger are condenser, evaporator e.t.c. For those devices there is no work interaction and also change in
K.E and P.E are negligible. There are two steady flow mass streams. Considering a condenser as shown in
figure in which a cold fluid and another fluid in vapour state goes in and the vapour condenses. So, for
condenser-

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 ***
Answer the following:
1. What do you mean by steady flow process? What is an importance of this process for
analysis to open system?
_
_
_ _
_
_
2. Write steady flow energy equation(SFEE).Apply this process to boiler
_

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 _
_
_
_

ASSESSMENT RUBRIC:

Diagrams & Written Understanding Question Total points

Sketches Explanation (3 points) Answer
(2 points) (2 points) (3 points) (10 Points)

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 PRACTICAL: 5

AIM : To understand the application of entropy principle and Guy-

stodola theorem

Introduction:

1. Entropy is a thermodynamic property that measures the degree of randomization or disorder at the
microscopic level. The natural state of affairs is for entropy to be produced by all processes.
2. A macroscopic feature which is associated with entropy production is a loss of ability to do useful
work. Energy is degraded to a less useful form, and it is sometimes said that there is a decrease in the
availability of energy.
3. Entropy is an extensive thermodynamic property. In other words, the entropy of a complex system is
the sum of the entropies of its parts.
4. The notion that entropy can be produced, but never destroyed, is the second law of
thermodynamics.

Reversible and Irreversible Processes

Processes can be classed as reversible or irreversible. The concept of a reversible process is an important one
which directly relates to our ability to recognize, evaluate, and reduce irreversibility in practical engineering
processes.

Consider an isolated system. The second law says that any process that would reduce the entropy of the isolated
system is impossible. Suppose a process takes place within the isolated system in what we shall call the forward
direction. If the change in state of the system is such that the entropy increases for the forward process, then
for the backward process (that is, for the reverse change in state) the entropy would decrease. The backward
process is therefore impossible, and we therefore say that the forward process is irreversible.

If a process occurs, however, in which the entropy is unchanged by the forward process, then it would also be
unchanged by the reverse process. Such a process could go in either direction without contradicting the second
law. Processes of this latter type are called reversible.

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The key idea of a reversible process is that it does not produce any entropy.

Entropy is produced in irreversible processes. All real processes (with the possible exception of
superconducting current flows) are in some measure irreversible, though many processes can be analyzed quite
adequately by assuming that they are reversible. Some processes that are clearly irreversible include

mixing of two gases, spontaneous combustion, friction, and the transfer of energy as heat from a body at high
temperature to a body at low temperature.

Recognition of the irreversibilities in a real process is especially important in engineering. Irreversibility, or

departure from the ideal condition of reversibility, reflects an increase in the amount of disorganized energyat
the expense of organized energy. The organized energy (such as that of a raised weight) is easily put to practical
use; disorganized energy (such as the random motions of the molecules in a gas) requires
``straightening out'' before it can be used effectively. Further, since we are always somewhat uncertain about
the microscopic state, this straightening can never be perfect. Consequently the engineer is constantly striving
to reduce irreversibilities in systems, in order to obtain better performance.

Examples of Reversible and Irreversible Processes

Processes that are usually idealized as reversible include:

 Frictionless movement

 Restrained compression or expansion

 Energy transfer as heat due to infinitesimal temperature nonuniformity

 Electric current flow through a zero resistance

 Restrained chemical reaction

 Mixing of two samples of the same substance at the same state.

Processes that are irreversible include:

 Movement with friction

 Unrestrained expansion

 Energy transfer as heat due to large temperature non uniformities

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  Electric current flow through a non zero resistance

 Spontaneous chemical reaction

 Mixing of matter of different composition or state.

Answer the following :

1. What do you understand by the word Entropy? Give practical examples of it.

2. Write Gouy stodola equation and give importance of it.

ASSESSMENT RUBRIC:

Diagrams & Written Understanding Question Total points

Sketches Explanation (3 points) Answer
(2 points) (2 points) (3 points) (10 Points)

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 PRACTICAL: 6
AIM : To study the comparisons of Otto, Diesel and Dual cycles.

Introduction:

The important variable factors which are used as the basis for comparison of the cycles are compression ratio,
peak pressure, heat addition, heat rejection and the net work. In order to compare the performance of the Otto,
Diesel and Dual combustion cycles, some of the variable factors must be fixed. In this section, a comparison of
these three cycles is made for the same compression ratio, same heat addition, constant maximum pressure and
temperature, same heat rejection and net work output. This analysis will show which cycle is more efficient for
a given set of operating conditions.

Case 1: Same Compression Ratio and Heat Addition:

The Otto cycle 1-2-3-4-1, the Diesel cycle 1-2-3'-4'-1 and the Dual cycle 1-2-2”-3”-4”-1 are shown in p-V and
T-θ diagram in Fig. (a) and (b) respectively for the same compression ratio and heat input.

From the T-s diagram, it can be seen that Area 5-2-3-6 = Area 5-2-3'-6’ = Area 5-2-2"- 3"-6" as this area
represents the heat input which is the same for all cycles. All the cycles start from the same initial state point
1 and the air is compressed from state 1 to 2 as the compression ratio is same. It is seen from the T-s diagram
for the same heat input, the heat rejection in Otto cycle (area 5-1-4-6) is minimum and heat rejection in Diesel
cycle (5-1-4'-6') is maximum.. Consequently, Otto cycle has the highest work output and efficiency. Diesel
cycle has the least efficiency and Dual cycle having the efficiency between the two.

Mechanical Engineering Department. GEC,Surat

One more observation can be made i.e., Otto cycle allows the working medium to expand more whereas Diesel
cycle is least in this respect. The reason is heat is added before expansion in the case of Otto cycle and the last
portion of heat supplied to the fluid has a relatively short expansion in case of the Diesel cycle.

Case 2: Same Compression Ratio and Heat Rejection:

Efficiency of Otto cycle is given by

Where, Qs is the heat supplied in the Otto cycle and is equal to the area under the curve 2-3 on the T-s diagram
[Fig.(b)]. The efficiency of the Diesel cycle is given by,

Where Q’s is heat supplied in the Diesel cycle and is equal to the area under the curve 2-3' on the T-s diagram
[Fig. (b)]. From the T-s diagram in Fig.4.7.2, it is clear that Qs > Q’s i.e., heat supplied in the Otto cycle is
more than that of the Diesel cycle. Hence, it is evident that, the efficiency of the Otto cycle is greater than the
efficiency of the Diesel cycle for a given compression ratio and heat rejection.

Case 3: Same Peak Pressure, Peak Temperature and Heat Rejection:

Figures (a) and (b) show the Otto cycle 1-2-3-4 and Diesel cycle 1-2'-3-4 on p-V and T-s coordinates, where
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the peak pressure and temperature and the amount of heat rejected are the same.

The efficiency of the Otto cycle,

Where, Qs in the area under the curve 2-3 in Fig. (b). The efficiency of the Diesel cycle, 1- 2-3'-3-4 is,

It is evident from Fig.4.7.3 that Qs > Q’s. Therefore, the Diesel cycle efficiency is greater than the Otto cycle
efficiency when both engines are built to withstand the same thermal and mechanical stresses.

Case 4: Same Maximum Pressure and Heat Input:

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For same maximum pressure and heat input, the Otto cycle (1-2-3-4-1) and Diesel cycle (1-2'-3'-4'-1) are shown
on p-V and T-s diagrams in Fig.4.7.4 (a) and (b) respectively. It is evident from the figure that the heat rejection
for Otto cycle (area 1-5-6-4 on T-s diagram) is more than the heat rejected in Diesel cycle (1-5-6'-

4'). Hence Diesel cycle is more efficient than Otto cycle for the condition of same maximum pressure and heat
input. One can make a note that with these conditions, the Diesel cycle has higher compression ratio than that
of Otto cycle. One should also note that the cycle which is having higher efficiency allows maximum expansion.
The Dual cycle efficiency will be between these two.

Answer the following :

1. What is compression ratio of the engine? Which type of engine (petrol or diesel) having higher
compression ratio?

2. What is difference between otto and diesel cycle?

Mechanical Engineering Department. GEC,Surat

ASSESSMENT RUBRIC:

Diagrams & Written Understanding Question Total points

Sketches Explanation (3 points) Answer
(2 points) (2 points) (3 points) (10 Points)

Mechanical Engineering Department. GEC,Surat

 PRACTICAL: 7
AIM : To study variable affecting the performance of Rankine cycle

Introduction:

The Rankine cycle closely describes the process by which steam-operated heat engines commonly
found in thermal power plants. The Rankine cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle of a heat
engine that converts heat into mechanical work while undergoing phase change. It is an idealized
cycle in which friction losses in each of the four components are neglected. The heat is supplied
externally to a closed loop, which usually uses water as the working fluid.
The ideal Rankine cycle does not involve any internal irreversibility and consists of the
following four processes:

1-2 Isentropic compression in a pump

2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler
3-4 Isentropic expansion in a turbine
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser

Water enters the pump at state 1 as saturated liquid and is compressed isentropically to the operating
pressure of the boiler. The water temperature increases somewhat during this isentropic compression process
due to a slight decrease in the specific volume of water. The vertical distance between states 1 and 2 on the T-
s diagram is greatly exaggerated for clarity. Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 2 and leaves
as a superheated vapor at state 3. The boiler is basically a large heat exchanger where the heat originating from
combustion gases, nuclear reactors, or other sources is transferred to the water essentially at
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constant pressure. The boiler, together with the section where the steam is superheated (the superheater), is
often called the steam generator.

The superheated vapor at state 3 enters the turbine, where it expands isentropically and produces work
by rotating the shaft connected to an electric generator. The pressure and the temperature of steam drop during
this process to the values at state 4, where steam enters the condenser. At this state, steam is usually a saturated
liquid–vapor mixture with a high quality. Steam is condensed at constant pressure in the condenser, which is
basically a large heat exchanger, by rejecting heat to a cooling medium such as a lake, a river, or the atmosphere.
Steam leaves the condenser as saturated liquid and enters the pump, completing the cycle. In areas where water
is precious, the power plants are cooled by air instead of water. This method of cooling, which is also used in
car engines, is called dry cooling. Several power plants in the world, including some in the United States, use
dry cooling to conserve water. Remembering that the area under the process curve on a T-s diagram represents
the heat transfer for internally reversible processes, we see that the area under process curve 2-3 represents the
heat transferred to the water in the boiler and the area under the process curve 4-1 represents the heat rejected
in the condenser. The difference between these two is the net work produced during the cycle.

The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is determined from:

Steam Power plants are the backbone of the total power generation. Thus even a small improvement in the
form of increasing the efficiency has a tremendous effect on the fuel saving and also reduction in emission of
green house gases. Thus one should not miss out any opportunity to find out the ways and means to increase
the efficiency of the steam power cycle. The ideal behind any improvement or modification is to increase the
thermal efficiency of the power plant.

Thus thermal efficiency improvement techniques are:

 By decreasing average temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid
(steam) in the condenser. (Lowering condenser Pressure)
 Super heating the Steam to higher Temperature
 Increasing Boiler Pressure

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 1. Lowering the Condenser Pressure:

Steam leaves the turbine and enters the condenser as saturated mixture in line with the corresponding
pressure of steam in the condenser. Lowering the condenser pressure always helps in delivering more net work
in the turbine as more expansion of steam in turbine is possible. By the help of T-s diagram the effect oflowering
the condenser pressure on the performance of the cycle can be seen and understood.

Positive Effects of Lowering the Condenser Pressure

To milk the advantage of higher efficiency Rankine cycle has to operate on lower condenser pressure usually
below atmospheric. But the limit for lower condenser-pressure is defined by the cooling water temperature
corresponding to saturation-pressure of the area. In the above T-s diagram it can be easily seen that the colored
area is the increase in net work out put on account of lowering the condenser pressure from P4 to P4’.

Negative Effects of Lowering the Condenser Pressure

The effect of lowering the condenser-pressure is not comes without any side effects. Thus
following are the adverse effects of lowering the condenser pressure:

 Additional heat input in the boiler on account decreased condensate re-circulation temperature (effect
of lower condenser pressure)
 With lower condenser pressure the possibility of increase of moisture content in steam at the final
expansion stage of the turbine increases. Decreases in dryness fraction of steam in later stages of the
turbine are undesirable as it results in slight decrease in efficiency and erosion of turbine blades.

Net Effects of Lowering the Condenser Pressure

 The overall net effect is more towards positive side, since the increase in heat input requirement in the
 boiler is marginal but the increase in net work output is more on account of decrease in condenser
pressure. Also the dryness fraction of the steam in the latter stages of the turbine is not allowed to drop
beyond 10-12%.

2. Super Heating the Steam to Higher Temperature

Superheating of steam is the phenomenon in which heat is transferred to the steam to super
heat the steam to higher temperature by maintaining the constant pressure in the boiler.

The shaded area in the above T-s diagram clearly showing the increase in net work (3-3’-4’-4) on account of
increase in superheat temperature of steam. Additional heat input in the form of energy, leaves the cycle as
work i.e. increase in work output surpass the additional heat input and heat rejection. Thermal efficiency of the
Rankine cycle increases on account of increase in steam temperature.

Positive Effects of Increasing the Steam Temperature

One desirable effect of increasing the increasing the steam temperature is that it doesn’t allow to thelast
stage moisture % of steam to increase. This effect can be easily seen on the T-s diagram (Fig:2) above.

Negative Effects of Increasing the Steam Temperature

Increasing the steam temperature results in small increase in heat input. There is a limit to which the
steam can be superheated and used in the power cycle. These limiting factors are related to metallurgical
proneness at high temperature and economic viability. Presently in supercritical power generating units,

steam temperature at turbine inlet is around 620 °C. Decision of any further increase in steam temperature can
be judiciously taken only after doing the metallurgical due diligence and evaluation of the cost-implications.
Net Effects of Increasing the Steam Temperature

From the T-s diagram , the net effect of temperature increase is more towards positive side, because
the gain from the network output surpasses the increase in heat input and slight increase in heat rejection. So
it is always beneficial to increase the steam temperature after accessing the reliability and economic viability.

3. Increasing Boiler Pressure

Alternative way of increasing the Rankine cycle efficiency is by increasing the boiler operating
pressure and thus in a way related with the temperature at which boiling is taking place in the boiler. Thus the
thermal efficiency of the cycle increases.

By the help of T-s diagram the effect of Increase in boiler pressure on the performance of thecycle
can be clearly seen and understood.
Because of increase in boiler pressure, Rankine cycle shifts slightly towards left as shown in the Fig, on T-s
diagram and thus following can be concluded from it:
 Substantial increase in net-work, as shown in the pink color shaded area of the above figure.
 As the cycle shift slightly towards left, so there is decrease in net work during the expansion of steam
in the turbine. (as shown in above fig, shaded in grey color)
 Reduction in the heat-rejection to the cooling water in the condenser.

Thus net-effect is marked increases in the thermal efficiency of the cycle on account of these measures.

Mechanical Engineering Department. GEC,Suart

Answer the following
1. Write the application of Rankine cycle. Which are the main parameters affect the performance of the
rankine cycle?

2. If I want to increase the efficiency of Rankine cycle, which parameter of the cycle should I vary and
why?

ASSESSMENT RUBRIC:

Diagrams & Written Understanding Question Total points

Sketches Explanation (3 points) Answer
(2 points) (2 points) (3 points) (10 Points)

Mechanical Engineering Department. GEC,Surat

 PRACTICAL:8
AIM : To Understand different components of VCR system and to
Determine its COP

Introduction:
A vapour compression refrigeration system is an improved type of air refrigeration system in which a suitable
working substance, termed as refrigerant is used. It condenses and evaporates at temperatures and pressures
close to the atmospheric conditions. The refrigerant used does not leave the system but is circulated throughout
the system alternately condensing and evaporating. The vapour compression refrigeration system is now days
used for all-purpose refrigeration. It is used for all industrial purpose from a small domestic refrigerator to a
big air conditioning plant. The vapour compression refrigeration cycle is based on the following factor:
 Refrigerant flow rate.

 Type of refrigerant used.

 Kind of application viz air-conditioning, refrigeration, dehumidification etc.

 The operation design parameters.

The vapour compression refrigeration cycle is based on a circulating fluid media, viz, a refrigerant having
special properties of vaporizing at temperatures lower than the ambient and condensing back to the liquid form,
at slightly higher than ambient conditions by controlling the saturation temperature and pressure. Thus, when
the refrigerant evaporates or boils at temperatures lower than ambient, it extracts or removes heat from the load
and lower the temperature consequently providing cooling. The pressure of super-heated vapour is increased to
a level by the compressor to reach a saturation pressure so that heat added to vapour is dissipated/ rejected into
the atmosphere with cooling medias . Thus, the liquid refrigerant recycled again inthe refrigeration cycle.
From figure (A), the vapour at low temperature and pressure (state ‘2’) enters the “compressor” where
it is compressed isentropically and subsequently its temperature and pressure increase considerably (state ‘3’).
This vapour after leaving the compressor enters the ‘‘condenser” where it is condensed into high pressure liquid
(state ‘4’) and is collected in a “receiver tank”. From receiver tank it passes through the “expansion valve”,
here it is throttled down to a lower pressure and has a low temperature (state ‘1’). After finding its way through
expansion “valve” it finally passes on to“evaporator” where it extracts heat from the surroundings or circulating
fluid being refrigerated

and vapourises to low pressure vapour (state ‘2’).

A simple vapor compression refrigeration system consists of the following equipments: a) Compressor b)
Condenser c) Expansion valve d) Evaporator

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 Figure: A

(a) Evaporator: The liquid refrigerant from the condenser at high pressure is fed through a throttling device to
an evaporator at a low pressure. On absorbing the heat to be extracted from Media to be cooled, the liquid
refrigerant boils actively in the evaporator and changes state. The refrigerant gains latent heat to vaporizes at
saturation temperature/ pressure and further absorbs sensible heat from media to be cooled and gets fully
vaporized and super heated. The “temperature-pressure relation chart” table can determine the pressure and
temperature in the evaporator.

(b) Compressor :The low temperature, pressure, superheated vapour from the evaporator is conveyed through
suction line and compressed by the compressor to a high pressure, without any change of gaseous state and
the same is discharge into condenser. During this process heat is added to the refrigerant and known as heat
of compression ratio to raise the pressure of refrigerant to such a level that the saturation temperature of the
discharge refrigerant is higher than the temperature of the available cooling medium, to enable the super heated
refrigerant to condense at normal ambient condition. Different types of compressors are reciprocating, rotary
and centrifugal and are used for different applications.

(c) Condenser: The heat added in the evaporator and compressor to the refrigerant is rejected in condenser at
high temperature/ high pressure. This super heated refrigerant vapour enters the condenser to dissipate its heat
in three stages. First on entry the refrigerant loses its super heat, it then loses its latent heat at which the

refrigerant is liquefied at saturation temperature pressure. This liquid loses its sensible heat, further and the

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refrigerant leaves the condenser as a sub cooled liquid. The heat transfer from refrigerant to cooling medium
(air or water) takes place in the condenser. The sub-cooled liquid from condenser is collected in a receiver
(wherever provided) and is then fed through the throttling device by liquid line to the evaporator. There are
several methods of dissipating the rejected heat into the atmosphere by condenser. These are water-cooled, air
cooled or evaporative cooled condensers. In the water-cooled condenser there are several types viz. Shell and
tube, shell and coil, tube in tube etc. In Evaporative cooled condenser, both air and water are used. Air-cooled
condensers are prime surface type, finned type or plate type. The selecting of the type depends upon the
application and availability of soft water.
A receiver tank is used to provide storage for a condensed liquid so that a constant supply of liquid is
available to the evaporator as required.

Figure: B
(d) Throttling device The high-pressure liquid from the condenser is fed to evaporator through device, which
should be designed to pass maximum possible liquid refrigerant to obtain a good refrigeration effect. The liquid
line should be properly sized to have minimum pressure drop. The throttling device is a pressure- reducing
device and a regulator for controlling the refrigerant flow. It also reduces the pressure from the discharge
pressure to the evaporator pressure without any change of state of the pressure refrigerant. The types of
throttling devices are: Capillary tubes Thermostatic expansion valves Hand expansion valves Hand valves. The
most commonly used throttling device is the capillary tube for application upto approx. 10 refrigeration tons.
The capillary is a copper tube having a small dia-orifice and is selected, based on the system design, the
refrigerant flow rate, the operating parameters (such as suction and discharge pressures), type of refrigerant,
capable of compensating any variations/ fluctuations in load by allowing only liquid
refrigerant to flow to the evaporator.

Mechanical Engineering Department. GEC,Surat

Merits and demerits of vapour compression system over Air refrigeration system :
Merits :

1. C.O.P. is quite high as the working of the cycle is very near to that of reversed Carnot cycle.
2. When used on ground level the running cost of vapour-compression refrigeration system is only 1/5th of
air refrigeration system.
3. For the same refrigerating effect the size of the evaporator is smaller.

4. Operating temperature range is huge.

5. The required temperature of the evaporator can be achieved simply by adjusting the throttle valve of the
same unit.

Demerits :

1. Initial cost is high, costly refrigerant

2. Environment hazardous refrigerant involved.

The above discussion is based on the ideal vapour-compression refrigeration cycle, and does not take
into account real-world effects like frictional pressure drop in the system, thermodynamic irreversibility
during the compression of the refrigerant vapour, or non-ideal gas behavior of refrigerant.

Figure:C Test-rig for Vapour Compression System

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 Figure: C (T-S chart for V.C.R)
Where
P1=Suction pressure
P2=Discharge pressure
T1= Temperature before entering to compressor
T2=Temperature after exit from compressor
T3=Temperature after condenser
T4=Temperature after expansion valve
𝑚̇ =Mass flow rate of refrigerant (reading from rotameter) (kg/s)
Observation table:

Sr No P1 T1 P2 T2 T3 T4 𝑚̇
1

Coefficient of performance: - The coefficient of performance is defined as the ratio of Heat

extracted in the evaporator to the work done on the refrigerant in compressor,

C.O.P. = Q/W
Using points (P1,T1) ; (P2,T2) ;T3 and T4 locate points 1,2,3,4 on the p-h chart for R-22 and obtain theenthalpy
values h1,h2, h3, h4
C.O.P.(theoretical) = ℎ1−ℎ4
ℎ2−ℎ1

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Result: The C.O.P. of the system is……………..

Answer the following:

1. How will you find the COP of VCR system?

2. What I the reason of compressing the refrigerant gas in compressor?

3. Enlist the different ECO friendly refrigerants.

ASSESSMENT RUBRIC:

Diagrams & Written Understanding Question Total points

Sketches Explanation (3 points) Answer
(2 points) (2 points) (3 points) (10 Points)

Mechanical Engineering Department. GEC,Surat

 PRACTICAL: 9
AIM : To understand the effect of various operating parameters on
performance of VCR cycle
Introduction:

Figure A shows the schematic of a standard, saturated, single stage vapour compression refrigeration system
and the operating cycle on a T-s and P-h diagram. As shown in the figure the standard single stage, saturated
vapour compression refrigeration system consists of the following four processes:
Process 1-2: Isentropic compression of saturated vapour in compressor Process
2-3: Isobaric heat rejection in condenser
Process 3-4: Isenthalpic expansion of saturated liquid in expansion device
Process 4-1: Isobaric heat extraction in the evaporator

Figure A

In actual refrigeration cycles, the temperature of the heat sink will be several degrees lower than the

Mechanical Engineering Department. GEC,Surat

condensing temperature to facilitate heat transfer. Hence it is possible to cool the refrigerant liquid in the
condenser to a few degrees lower than the condensing temperature by adding extra area for heat transfer. In
such a case, the exit condition of the condenser will be in the subcooled liquid region. Hence this process is
known as subcooling. Similarly, the temperature of heat source will be a few degrees higher than the evaporator
temperature, hence the vapour at the exit of the evaporator can be superheated by a few degrees. If

the superheating of refrigerant takes place due to heat transfer with the refrigerated space (low temperature heat
source) then it is called as useful superheating as it increases the refrigeration effect. On the other hand, it is
possible for the refrigerant vapour to become superheated by exchanging heat with the surroundings as it flows
through the connecting pipelines. Such a superheating is called as useless superheating as it does not increase
refrigeration effect.

Subcooling of refrigerant at exit of condenser:

Subcooling is beneficial as it increases the refrigeration effect by reducing the throttling loss at no
additional specific work input. Also subcooling ensures that only liquid enters into the throttling device leading
to its efficient operation. Figure B shows the VCRS cycle without and with subcooling on P-h and T- s
coordinates. It can be seen from the T-s diagram that without subcooling the throttling loss is equal to the
hatchedarea b-4’-4-c, whereas with subcooling the throttling loss is given by the area a-4”-4’-b. Thus the
refrigeration effect increases by an amount equal to (h4-h4’) = (h3-h3’). Another practical advantage of
subcooling is that there is less vapour at the inlet to the evaporator which leads to lower pressure drop in the
evaporator.

Figure B

The sub cooling may be achieved by any of the following methods:

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(i) By passing the liquid refrigerant from condenser through a heat exchanger through which the cold vapor at

suction from the evaporator is allowed to flow in the reversed direction. This process subcools the liquid but
superheats the vapor. Thus, COP is not improved though refrigeration effect is increased.
(ii) By making use of enough quantity of cooling water so that the liquid refrigerant is further cooled below the

temperature of saturation. In some cases, a separate subcooler is also made use of for this purpose. In this
case,COP is improved.

Superheating of refrigerant at exit of evaporator:

Useful superheating increases both the refrigeration effect as well as the work of compression. Hence
the COP (ratio of refrigeration effect and work of compression) may or may not increase with superheat,
depending mainly upon the nature of the working fluid. Even though useful superheating may or may not
increase the COP of the system, a minimum amount of superheat is desirable as it prevents the entry of liquid
droplets into the compressor. Figure C shows the VCRS cycle with superheating on P-h and T-s coordinates.
As shown in the figure, with useful superheating, the refrigeration effect, specific volume at the inlet to the
compressor and work of compression increase. Whether the volumic refrigeration effect (ratio of refrigeration
effect by specific volume at compressor inlet) and COP increase or not depends upon the relative increase in
refrigeration effect and work of compression, which in turn depends upon the nature of the refrigerant used.
The temperature of refrigerant at the exit of the compressor increases with superheat as the isentropes in the
vapour region gradually diverge.

Figure C

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Change in suction pressure (PS):

Figure D
Let the suction pressure or the evaporating pressure in a simple refrigeration cycle be reduced from PS to Ps’. It
will be clear from the figure that:
The refrigerating effect is reduced to: h1- h1’ The
work of compression is increased to: h2’ -h2
Hence, the decrease in suction pressure decreases the refrigeration effect and at the same time increases thework
of compression. But, both the effects tend to decrease the COP.

Change in discharge pressure (Pd):

Figure E

Let us assume that the pressure at the discharge or the condensing pressure is increased from Pd to Pd’. It will have

Mechanical Engineering Department. GEC,Surat

effects as follows:
The compressor work requirement is increased to: h2’ -h2 The
refrigerating effect is reduced to: h4’ -h4
Therefore, the increase in discharge pressure results in lower COP. Hence, the discharge pressure should bekept
as low as possible depending upon the temperature of the cooling medium available.

----------------------------**----------------------------

Answer the following:

1. If I want to increase the COP of given VCR system, which parameter should I vary and why?

2. If I want to increase only refrigerating effect of given refrigeration system, which parameter should I
vary and why?

ASSESSMENT RUBRIC:

Diagrams & Written Understanding Question Total points

Sketches Explanation (3 points) Answer
(2 points) (2 points) (3 points) (10 Points)

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 PRACTICAL: 10
AIM : To find out the calorific value of fuel with the help ofOxygen
Bomb Calorimeter.
Introduction:

The calorific value or the heat value of a solid, liquid or gaseous fuel is defined as the number of heat units
developed by the complete combustion of unit mass or unit normal volume of a given fuel. It may be expressed
as kJ/kg or kJ/normal m3.
Lower calorific value of a fuel is defined as the amount of heat evolved when a unit weight (or volume in the
case of gaseous fuels) of the fuel is completely burnt and water vapor leaves with the combustion products
without being condensed.

Higher calorific value of a fuel is defined as the amount of heat evolved when a unit weight (or volume in the
case of gaseous fuels) of the fuel is completely burnt and the products of combustion cooled to the normal
conditions (with water vapor condensed as a result). The heat contained in the water vapor must be recovered
in the condensation process.

In a bomb calorimeter, oxygen is employed at about 25 atmospheric pressure. No products escape during
the experiment and since the bomb which is the combustion vessel is immersed almost completely in water the
whole of the heat is transferred to the water. This type of calorimeter is as perfect as possible but its high cost
has allowed certain inferior types to compete with it.

Bomb Calorimeter:
One of the best instruments for measuring the calorific value of powdered and liquid fuels is the bomb
calorimeter. The fuel is burnt in a strong steel chamber, known as a bomb which is immersed in a known mass
of water. The fuel is placed in a crucible inside the bomb which is filled with oxygen under a pressureof 25-
30 atmospheres. It is then electrically ignited by a platinum or magnesium wire. The heat liberated by the rise
in temperature of water surrounding the bomb and then calorific value of the fuel is determined.

The advantages of using such a procedure for the determination of calorific value are as given below:
(a) Due to high pressure of oxygen supplied, large excess oxygen is provided and therefore the combustion is
complete.

(b) All heat liberated will be given to the surrounding water as the combustion is at constant volume.

(c) The addition of oxygen and very small amount of water (generally 10 cc) in the bomb do not affect the
combustion.

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(d) The test procedure and the arrangement employed favour the accurate computation of temperature loss
correction (cooling correction).

The calorimeter consists of a stainless steel vessel called the bomb which is placed in a calorimeter vessel. The
bomb is also made of monel metal. The calorimeter is placed in a double walled chromium plated jacket vessel
containing water. The calorimeter is closed on top with ebonite cover.

This is because of the reduction of radiation losses to the surroundings. An electrically driven stirrer is provided
to agitate water in the vessel. Mercury in glass thermometer having accuracy not less than 0.01°C is used to
measure the temperature of water surrounding the bomb. A thermometer called Beckman’s thermometer is
used for this purpose.

Generally silica-crucible is used to hold the fuel. For filling the bomb with oxygen, necessary arrangement is
provided such as copper tubing, a pressure gauge, control valve on the oxygen cylinder are provided. For test
4 or 12 volt battery is required.

About 1 gm of the fuel is weighed in the crucible. Then 10 cc of water is taken in the bomb. When solid fuel as
coal is used, then it is ground to a fine powder and then in a hand press this powder is made into a pallet and
while preparing the pallet, a cotton thread will be embedded and connected to the two electrodes. The crucible
is kept in a ring connected to the two electrodes. The lid or a screwed cover is then tightened.

Then bomb is connected to an oxygen cylinder through a pressure gauge and copper tubing. Oxygen at 25-30
bar pressure is filled in the bomb. Then measured quantity of water is taken such that water will not come to

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the electric wire leads, (generally this quantity may be 1500 cc or 2500 cc). Motor of the electrodes are
connected to the main power supply and the electrodes are connected to the battery through a tap-key.

After this arrangement is done, the set-up is ready for the experiment or test:

(1) Preliminary Period:

Start the stirrer so that temperature of water in calorimeter will be same and uniform throughout. Take the
readings after every one minute till the temperature becomes uniform for 2-3 consecutive readings. This
generally requires 5 minutes.

(2) Main Period:

Once the temperature in the calorimeter becomes uniform, then the fuel is ignited by pressing the tap-key so
that current will flow through the fuse wire and it will glow. A cotton thread is connected to the wire so that
fuel pallet will be ignited giving out heat. Continue to take readings of temperature at the interval of 1 minute
till the maximum temperature is reached.

(3) After Period:

After the maximum temperature is reached, the temperature will start decreasing. Continue to take temperature
readings at the interval of one minute. Take 10-15 readings, and then stop the test.

Take the bomb out of the calorimeter and release the pressure by opening the valve. After removing the lid of
the bomb, measure the quantity of water in the bomb. The difference in this water will be the weight of H2O
formed because of the combustion of hydrogen in the fuel. This weight is very much essential to measure or
determine the lower calorific value of the fuel. Ash content of the fuel is also obtained after weighing the
crucible.

Observation Table:

1. Weight of empty crucible — W1 gm

2. Weight of crucible + fuel — W2 gm

3. Weight of the fuel taken — (W2-W1) gm

4. Weight of water in the bomb — 10 gm (generally)

5. Weight of water after test — 10 + x gm

6. Weight of moisture condensed — x gm

7. Weight of water in the calorimeter — mw gm

8. Weight of water equivalent of calorimeter — me gm

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9. Weight of fuse wire — mfw gm

10. Calorific value of fuse-wire — (C.V.) F.W.

11. Weight of crucible + ash

12. Weight of ash — W4 = W3 – W1 gm

13. Weight of ash.

14. Observed temperature rise during main period — Δt = (Tn – T0)

Calculations for Calorific Value of Fuel:

Total heat liberated = Total heat absorbed

Heat released by fuel + Heat released by fuse wire + Heat released by cotton thread = Total heat absorbed by
(Water + Bomb + Calorimeter)

Mechanical Engineering Department. GEC,Surat

For liquid fuels, the same procedure is followed except of making a pallet of a coal powder. One end of the
cotton thread will be connected to the fuse wire and the other end is dipped in the liquid fuel.
****

Answer the following:

1. Define Calorific Value and differentiate between HCV and LCV of fuel.

2. In short explain, how will you find the CV of fuel by using oxygen bomb calorimeter?

Mechanical Engineering Department. GEC,Surat

ASSESSMENT RUBRIC:

Diagrams & Written Understanding Question Total points

Sketches Explanation (3 points) Answer
(2 points) (2 points) (3 points) (10 Points)

Mechanical Engineering Department. GEC,Surat

 PRACTICAL: 11
AIM : To find out calorific value of fuel with the help of Junker’s gas
calorimeter
Introduction:

The junker’s gas calorimeter is a device used to measure the calorific value of the gaseous fuels. The device
is essentially a Bunsen burner with a cooling jacket. The jacket is cylindrical in shape with water in it. The
burner is inside the cylinder. The calorimeter allows the user to measure the temperature of water flowing in
and flowing out. Once steady state is reached, the water flowing through is collected for a specified period of
time. Measuring the mass of the water and the temperature rise in the water, the one can calculate the number
of joules which went into the water to heat it. There is a flow meter on the fuel gas, in order to calculate the
volume of gas that was burned in the same time period. The amount of energy, in J, available per meter cube
(m3) of gas can then be calculated. A Junkers calorimeter is a flow calorimeter, with heat transfer happening
continuously, as opposed to a batch calorimeter.
The device consists of a cylindrical shell and two paths for water are there which have copper coil arranged
in it. One path is the inlet and the other is outlet. Water passes through the copper coils. There is pressure
regulator in the path of water flow which is further connected with gas flow meter. Gas flow meter is used to
measure the flow rate of gas. Temperature sensors are used in the device to measure the inlet and outlet water
temperature and also for the flue gases.

Figure : JUNKER GAS CALORIMETER

Mechanical Engineering Department. GEC,Surat

 The junker’s gas calorimeter works on the principle of burning of a gas whose volume is known. The temperature of water and gas is
measured along with flow rate of gas to measure the calorific value. A measured quantity of gas whose calorific value is required,
supplied to a gas meter which measures the volume of gas and after it the gas pass through the pressure regulator which measures the
pressure of gas using the manometer. When the gas inside the chamber is burned, the products produced in the combustion rise into the
chamber and then move downward where it is extracted as gas flues. After this gas finally escapes to the atmosphere. There is
thermometer at the end of the outlet which measures the temperature of the escaping gas. This temperature should be near room
temperature so that whole heat is absorbed by the water. Cold water enters the calorimeter near the bottom of device and leaves from top.
Water that was formed by condensation is collected in a pot. The quantity of gas in the process is measured accurately and the
temperature of ingoing and outgoing gas is also measured. By using above ccollected data we can measure the calorific value of the gas.

****
Answer the following:
1. In short explain, how will you find the CV of any gas using Junker’s gas calorimeter?

Mechanical Engineering Department. GEC,Surat

2. Give the approximate value of CV of the following fuel in KJ/kg or KJ/m3.

A. Coal:

B. Furnace Oil:

C. Natural Gas:

D. Diesel:

E. Petrol:

ASSESSMENT RUBRIC:

Diagrams & Written Understanding Question Total points

Sketches Explanation (3 points) Answer
(2 points) (2 points) (3 points) (10 Points)

Mechanical Engineering Department. GEC,Surat