sustainability

Article
Critical Reflection in Students’ Critical Thinking Teaching and
Learning Experiences
Valdonė Indrašienė, Violeta Jegelevičienė, Odeta Merfeldaitė, Daiva Penkauskienė , Jolanta Pivorienė ,
Asta Railienė and Justinas Sadauskas *

Institute of Educational Sciences and Social Work, Faculty of Human and Social Studies,
Mykolas Romeris University, Ateities St. 20, LT-08303 Vilnius, Lithuania; v.indrasiene@mruni.eu (V.I.);
violeta.suboc@mruni.eu (V.J.); o.merfeldaite@mruni.eu (O.M.); daiva.penkauskiene@mruni.eu (D.P.);
jolantapiv@mruni.eu (J.P.); asta.railiene@mruni.eu (A.R.)
* Correspondence: justas_sad@mruni.eu

Abstract: This manuscript deals with the problematic question of how students’ critical reflection
is manifested when reflecting on their experiences of learning critical thinking in higher education.
Critical reflection is understood as the fusion of personal experience with new knowledge and study
content, leading to a new understanding and a new sense of the meaning of oneself, one’s learning,
studies, and phenomena in the wider environment. A qualitative research method was chosen to
reveal the extent of critical reflection. Sixteen students participated in the research: aged 19–49 at
the time of the research, from six higher education institutions, representing eight fields of study. A
semi-structured interview was chosen for the research and the qualitative content analysis method for
the research data analysis, allowing for valid conclusions upon an objective and systematic review of
the transcribed interview text. The findings show that in reflections on the critical thinking teaching
and learning experiences, students emphasize the process of interaction with others and interaction
with themselves, focusing not on the external object but rather on the subject—the thinking person—
and their relation to their own thinking. In reflection on teaching and learning, students emphasize
Citation: Indrašienė, V.; Jegelevičienė,
applying theoretical knowledge in practice, modelled by the teacher.
V.; Merfeldaitė, O.; Penkauskienė, D.;
Pivorienė, J.; Railienė, A.; Sadauskas,
Keywords: sustainability; critical thinking; reflection; critical reflection; higher education
J. Critical Reflection in Students’
Critical Thinking Teaching and
Learning Experiences. Sustainability
2023, 15, 13500. https://doi.org/
10.3390/su151813500 1. Introduction

Academic Editors: Grigorios L.

Globalisation, economic competition, technological, labour market and demographic
Kyriakopoulos, Jordi Colomer
changes, exhaustible natural resources, global warming and other similar processes are
Feliu, Dolors Cañabate and placing new demands on the usual pattern of social life [1]. A sustainable existence and the
Remigijus Bubnys survival of our world requires a qualitative change between human needs and economic,
social and environmental development. Therefore, sustainability literacy becomes a critical
Received: 24 July 2023 issue in modern society. This concept encompasses the body of knowledge and skills, the
Revised: 4 September 2023
uptake of which changes our attitudes and behaviour in everyday life, at work and in the
Accepted: 7 September 2023
broader social environment. Sustainability literacy is a personal and global pursuit to create
Published: 8 September 2023
well-being for society and appropriately address and manage challenges that may threaten
human existence [2]. Sustainability is not merely a sounding political postulate or a trendy
socioeconomic slogan. It is one of the components of social responsibility to which we are all
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
committed. To ensure that such vital concepts as ‘sustainability’, ‘social responsibility’ and
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. ‘sustainability literacy’ do not remain plain slogans and/or become tools for manipulation,
This article is an open access article it is necessary to teach and learn to think critically about both one’s attitudes and actions
distributed under the terms and and those of others, as well as about social phenomena and general societal trends. The
conditions of the Creative Commons ability to think critically contributes to developing sustainability skills, which are desirable
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// and seen as a core competency in the same way that reading and writing skills are [3].
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Critical thinkers can learn from their practice, rethink it, and continuously improve their
4.0/). performance to achieve personal progress and success, but also the success of others, which

Sustainability 2023, 15, 13500. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151813500 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, 13500 2 of 14

is crucial in organisations operating in today’s complex and ever-changing environments.

Critical thinking skills allow for managing change and help better understand what is
essential in modern society [4].
In this context, the role of higher education is essential, as it aims to prepare individuals
to become socially responsible citizens whose mindset and behaviour are guided by ethical
standards, personal and shared prosperity, and freedom [5]. The importance of critical
thinking in higher education studies is highlighted in both international organizations’ [6]
and national higher education strategy documents [7], stating that teaching students critical
thinking skills is particularly important, as they are a prerequisite for socially responsible
behaviour and becoming democratic and civil society actors [8–10]. Critical thinking helps
to move beyond traditional views [11]; it is crucial for innovation and R&D activities of
universities, where new products and various solutions are generated to address economic,
social and environmental issues [12]. However, the process of teaching and learning
critical thinking is a tricky business and not just because it is time-consuming [13]. Most
importantly, the process of acquiring critical thinking certainly goes beyond the confines
of a particular discipline, as it is a complex phenomenon that requires a broader and
deeper approach, both for the teacher and the student, as well as for the entire pedagogical
community [14].
A student as a learner plays a decisive role in it because learning is more than a process.
It is also a state of mind when an individual truly experiences learning, i.e., understanding,
thinking, questioning, doubting and seeking. Learning is not about a one-time or finite
acquisition of skills, but rather about continuous, life-long effort. To experience learning
means to relate to others via dialogue and discover the meaning of learning through this
connection [15]. Therefore, a learner must understand what is being learned and why
and become aware of the changes the learning brings [16]. E. Smith [17] notes that critical
reflection is of value for surfacing the influences on, and effects of, thinking and behaviour.
This can only be perceived by thinking, reflecting and rethinking one’s learning in a broader
context and in relationship with others. Critical reflection is essential for reflection not to
remain a metacognitive exercise but lead to practical action and real change. It is illustrated
by rethinking the assumptions underlying one’s mindset and actions, and finding new,
meaningful, effective lines of action [18]. Critical reflection inspires us to explore and
experiment [19], to evaluate our notions of who we are, what our identity is, what we
believe and what we are convinced of [20].
It should be stressed here that the ‘critical’ in ‘critical reflection’ can be understood in
two ways. First, critical thinking skills and attitudes (e.g., curiosity or reasonable doubt,
intellectual stamina or perseverance, etc.) are essential in the reflection process. Second, the
emphasis on being critical in the reflection process relates to issues involving the broader
social context, relationships between various social groups, and value-based attitudes
on fundamental social questions [21]. According to S. Brookfield [22], critical reflection
challenges deeply seated assumptions we embrace as being in our best interests when the
opposite is true. Critical reflection is a multifaceted and complex phenomenon involving
deep knowledge and engagement in reflection processes to deepen self-awareness, better
understand interaction with others, and rethink theoretical claims and their practical
expression [23].
Teachers play an essential role in fostering critical reflection. They must create a safe
space for expressing different views [21]. Moreover, university teachers need to know and
understand which study methods are best suited to develop critical thinking skills and, thus,
critical reflection in the subject they teach to try them out and replace inappropriate methods
with more effective ones. This process, therefore, also requires teachers’ ability to reflect.
The article addresses the problematic question of how students’ critical reflection
is manifested when reflecting on their experiences of learning critical thinking in higher
education. The main focus of the research is students’ critical reflection manifestation
during existing critical thinking learning experiences. Critical reflection is understood here
as the fusion of personal experience with new knowledge and study content, leading to
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13500 3 of 14

a new understanding and a new sense of the meaning of oneself, one’s learning, studies
and phenomena in the wider environment. A new understanding is attained from deep
thinking, considering the broader context of the content and issues under question, and
various approaches and perspectives [24,25].

2. Research Methodology
Type of research. For answering the problematic question, a qualitative research
approach was chosen. As Craswel and Craswell [26] say, it is a process of naturalistic
inquiry that seeks an in-depth understanding of social phenomena within natural context,
helps to explore and understand the phenomenon under study from the perspective of
research participants, and gives a depth and richness of understanding as the participants
are immersed in studied reality. The use of qualitative research gave a depth and richness of
personal experiences of the students in reflecting on their learning experience. The research
was conducted in 2019–2020 (before pandemic restrictions).
Sampling. The participants were selected using the non-probability purposive sam-
pling method. It is a sampling technique that allows for recruiting participants who can
provide in-depth and detailed information about the phenomenon under investigation, in
this case, reflection on learning experience. As Palinkas et al. [27] define, there are several
types of purposeful sampling, and one type of such sampling is “the selection of cases
with maximum variation for the purpose of documenting unique and diverse variations
that have emerged in adapting to different conditions, and to identify important common
patterns that cut across variations” [27]. Following this methodological school, these sam-
ple criteria for students were set: higher education institution, field of study and study
year. Firstly, higher education institutions in the country were identified and approached
selecting the students from the fields of studies, which, at the time of the research, were
listed in the countries’ field of study register. Lastly, the sample was enriched by selecting
the students of different study years.
Unlike in probability sampling, non-probability sampling is not supported by recog-
nized mathematical criteria for predicting the minimum sample size that is necessary for
valid results. The goal of a qualitative study is to obtain such a sample size as could uncover
a variety of opinions [26]. The most important criteria for sample size in qualitative research
is data saturation; therefore, the sample size in this research was not predefined before data
collection. As Patton [28] states: “The validity, meaningfulness, and insights generated
from qualitative inquiry have more to do with the information richness of the cases selected
and the observational/analytical capacity of the researcher than with sample size”.
Research participants. Data saturation was reached after sixteen interviews. Research
participants were from six higher education institutions, representing eight fields of study:
arts, health sciences, social sciences, humanities, informatics, mathematics, technologies,
and physical sciences. In the fields of physical, engineering and social sciences were three
participants each; in the fields of health and informatics sciences were two participants
each; and in the fields of arts, humanities and mathematics was one participant each.
Participants studied at various study levels, and their study year differed too. In terms of
the study level, twelve participants were undergraduate students, including three first-year,
four second-year, three third-year, and two fourth-year students; three participants were
master’s degree students, including two first-year students and one second-year student;
and one participant was a second-year doctoral candidate.
Research data collection method. Qualitative interviews enable the collection of in-
depth, context-specific, open responses from the research participants, expressing their
attitudes, opinions, feelings, knowledge and experiences [29]; therefore, a semi-structured
interview was chosen for the research, which ensured the directivity of the research, allowed
for flexibility in raising key and follow-up questions to the participants and responding to
the actual course of the interview, while focusing on the relationship between the research
participants and the surveyed phenomenon rather than on the phenomenon itself. The
interview consisted of five key questions (Table 1).
 responding to the actual course of the interview, while focusing on the relationship be-
tween the research participants and the surveyed phenomenon rather than on the phe-
nomenon itself. The interview consisted of five key questions (Table 1).

Sustainability 2023, 15, 13500 Table 1. Interview Questions. 4 of 14

Interview Questions for Students

Introductory question: Developing
Table 1.critical thinking
Interview is important in higher education and studies. Critical thinking is
Questions.
also mentioned in the programme/subject you are studying. We would be interested in knowing how you are taught
critical thinking. Tell us, Interview
what does Questions
it look for Students
like?
How do you understand
Introductory question: that you are being
Developing criticaltaught
thinkingtoisthink critically?
important in higher education and studies.
Critical thinking
How do you learn/sense that youis also
have mentioned in the programme/subject
learned/improved you are studying.
your critical thinking skills? We would be
interested in knowing how you are taught critical thinking. Tell us, what does it look like?
What is the most memorable/vivid example of critical thinking learning?
Why How do you
is critical understand
thinking that youtoare
important being taught to think critically?
you?
How do you learn/sense that you have learned/improved your critical thinking skills?
What is the most memorable/vivid example of critical thinking learning?
The interviews lastedWhy
between 15 and
is critical 47 min
thinking and were
important recorded with audio record-
to you?
ing devices (including dictating machines on mobile phones) and subsequently tran-
scribed.
The interviews lasted between 15 and 47 min and were recorded with audio recording
Research
devices data dictating
(including analysis method.
machinesThe on qualitative
mobile phones) content
andanalysis method
subsequently was chosen
transcribed.
for the
Research data analysis method. The qualitative content analysis method wasand
research data analysis, allowing for valid conclusions upon an objective sys-
chosen
tematic review of
for the research theanalysis,
data transcribed interview
allowing textconclusions
for valid [30,31]. Theuponresearch data were
an objective andanalysed
system-
using theoretical
atic review coding [32].interview
of the transcribed The qualitative content
text [30,31]. Theanalysis
researchrelies on sequential
data were analysed steps,
using
thus ensuring
theoretical in-depth
coding [32]. data
The interpretation [33,34].
qualitative content The content
analysis reliesanalysis starts with
on sequential steps,multi-
thus
ple readings
ensuring of the text,
in-depth data highlighting
interpretation the[33,34].
key aspects that break
The content the text
analysis into separate
starts parts
with multiple
(text reduction),
readings then highlighting
of the text, moving on tothe marking of text,that
key aspects presenting
break theit in individual
text statements
into separate parts
(theoretical coding),
(text reduction), thenand finally
moving oncombining
to markingthe individual
of text, statements
presenting into sub-categories,
it in individual statements
and sub-categories
(theoretical coding),into
andcategories.
finally combining the individual statements into sub-categories,
The data analysis
and sub-categories identified four categories: critical thinking learning is reflected
into categories.
through
The peer
data interaction, throughfour
analysis identified student-teacher interaction,
categories: critical by applying
thinking learning istheoretical
reflected
knowledge
through peer in interaction,
practice modelled
through by student-teacher
the teacher, andinteraction,
in relationship with oneself
by applying (Figure
theoretical
knowledge
1). in practice modelled by the teacher, and in relationship with oneself (Figure 1).

Figure 1. The sub-categories and categories combined through the analysis.

Figure 1. The sub-categories and categories combined through the analysis.

The categories combined through the analysis are interpreted based on references
from the scientific literature.
Validity. The research aimed to ensure internal and external validity. The following
methods were applied to ensure the internal validity of qualitative content analysis [30];
Ref. [28,35–37]: the relevance of the research outcomes to the actual situation under survey,
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13500 5 of 14

where questions were continuously raised during the research of whether an authentic
picture of the field of analysis, i.e., critical reflection in the learning process, is depicted,
and whether the findings summaries/conclusions are meaningful to the participants, as
well as the detailed and comprehensive description and interpretation of data. The external
validity of the qualitative data was ensured by researcher triangulation, using the method
of independent data analysis by multiple researchers [38,39], where at each stage of the data
analysis (reduction, coding, sub-categorisation and categorisation), intermediate insights,
planned analytical steps, possible solutions, interpretations, summaries and conclusions
were discussed to reach a conceptually sound and valid solution.
Our research, as all qualitative studies, explores subjective meanings of critical thinking
experiences. The relationship between subjective meanings and language for conveying
meaning is a complex issue. Language is both a reflection of meaning and a tool for
constructing meaning [40]. Giving words to subjective experience is not easy because the
meaning of experiences is often not fully accessible, neither for subjects of experience nor
for researchers of experience, and it is difficult to express it fully in language [41]. In order
to ensure the closest possible distance between the lived experience and its linguistic forms,
we searched for the best possible expression in English. However, it is likely that not all the
nuances of meaning have been conveyed in non-native language.
Another limitation concerns generalization of findings. As qualitative research is
designed to uncover people’s experiences and understand social phenomena, it is not
possible to generalize the findings to the whole student population as it would be done in
quantitative research.
Research ethics. A researcher’s ethical behaviour is an essential indicator of the
research quality [42]; therefore, this research adhered to the basic ethical rules of qualitative
research. Participation in the research was voluntary. The research participants were
introduced to the research design and objectives, the use of the data collected during the
interviews was explained, and confidentiality was guaranteed. They were also informed
about the possibility of stopping their participation in the research at any time or the
option not to answer any of the questions. Research ethics were also followed in the data
processing. Data relating to individual participants are described in detail by anonymising
any personal information that could identify them. As recommended in the literature
on social research methodology [43,44], consent was obtained to use interview quotes
in presenting the research data. The information obtained during the research is stored
securely and can only be accessed by the researchers.

3. Main Findings of the Research

The students’ reflections revealed that they learned critical thinking in multiple ways,
categorised by meaning for the sake of this research. One way of learning is through peer
interaction. The students themselves initiate this interaction, as they are eager to find out
how to select information and communicate it in a more comprehensible manner. Students
thus came together into certain collaborative groups:
‘But again, it was quite difficult to sort out the information, so we had a joint group
discussion where we would all talk and discuss. Critical thinking, I think, was also
quite important later when there were students from several fields in the master’s studies
programme. It was very good to exchange both ideas and knowledge because some were
mere theorists, while others were laser specialists or represented a completely different
field; therefore, such exchange of knowledge and encouragement of joint communication,
I think, contributed significantly to critical thinking, because everybody saw things from
a very different perspective. You seem to be presenting one thing, but a person from
another field asks questions that relate or are close to them; then you have to think how to
communicate in this situation in a way that is understandable and relevant to them.’ D1
Peer discussions involving colleagues with different knowledge of the same phe-
nomena require an effort to communicate the ideas as clearly as possible. Moreover, one
must ensure that the communicated ideas are understood and accepted. Therefore, when
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13500 6 of 14

reflecting on their experiences of teaching and learning critical thinking, students consider
the importance of learning to listen to others:
‘And the other thing is that I hear the other person’s thoughts. Then there are options,
and we are able to learn and complement each other.’ D11
Learning in small groups allows students not only to share knowledge but also to gain
the other colleagues’ experience and achieve the desired outcome:
‘In our group, we rejected those ideas that were unjustified. A leader in the group was a
critical thinker: he could make decisions and explain to others the reasoning behind his
ideas, and we developed some truly amazing menthol pills. We were pleased about having
invented the technology ourselves; all we had to do was patent and sell it. These pills are
mechanically robust and decompose rapidly in the human body.’ D3
In this case, learning with and from others means following the other person’s thinking
and reasoning and choosing the best solution. Critical thought takes the form of leader-
ship the other person assumes to moderate the discussion and guide others along the
decision-making path. At the same time, students learn to evaluate different opinions and
alternatives and come up with multiple solutions to a problem through debate:
‘First, we find various sources, see different options of how things work, and then start
debating how things should be. However, these discussions are between us. This is how I
understand that we are not learning the only way to solve a problem but looking for even
more answers that may turn out completely different. For example, they may confirm the
already known opinion’. D13
The participants’ reflections have revealed that sometimes it is not so much about
finding one way to solve a problem but about opening up the possibility of different
answers, not necessarily looking for what has not yet been discovered but being able to see
the answer in previous experiences.
Students’ reflections identified another way of learning critical thinking, that is,
through student-teacher interaction, when the teacher presents situations or questions
that require justification, evidence or explanation:
‘[...] when your every decision and every achievement is repeatedly questioned: “Why
this? Why not this?”. Then you are forced to think. You cannot just learn it by heart—you
must think about it.’ D1
‘It was not about what factors you had chosen, but how you justified your choice. There
was no single right solution to the problem, but it was crucial that you could explain why
you had chosen it.’ D5
In students’ reflections, learning critical thinking is understood as a conscious ques-
tioning of their opinions, with the teacher encouraging independent and reasoned thinking
while facilitating the expression of individual opinions:
‘[...] but they always ask you to provide reasoning: Why do you think so? What influenced
your decision-making? I think, this is one of the aspects of critical thinking. [...] they
encouraged us to think a lot, express our opinions, they would never criticise, but instead
try to get us to reveal why we thought the way we did or made that specific decision’. D3
According to the participants, learning critical thinking in interaction with the teacher
occurs when the teacher presents multifaceted information and introduces different per-
spectives on a phenomenon or a problem. This encourages students to reconsider the
information presented and make evidence-based decisions:
[...] when they try to show us more than one point of view from several angles. The
teacher has presented information, studies and data that contradict each other, meaning
that this is the case, but there also exists another approach, which may be diametrically
opposed, and there is evidence for it too. Thus, immediately a perception appears that
there is always more than one side to things in life, and where empirical data can be
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13500 7 of 14

obtained to demonstrate this, it makes you wonder whether what is presented on one side
is true. You start to think it could be different, and maybe it is different.’ D14
Students’ reflections on teaching and learning critical thinking revealed the unique
role of the teacher in this process. The critical thinking demonstrated by the teacher
encourages students to follow their example in assessing and selecting arguments, looking
for alternative solutions, and exploring the context:
‘[...] the teacher with a constant “yes-but-no” answer, because even if he does not say
it when answering a question, he evades the question so that he does not answer it, but
rather adds supplementary information. It is very easy to lose the train of thought in this
situation, but on the other hand, his critical thinking is an example for us, a part of his
teaching. Even though we are not being taught directly, he shows that he uses it a lot
[...] his tasks never have a single answer, he always follows how we are looking for the
solution, and then, if our answer does not contradict the logic of the question, it is fine
with him. He does not accept us trusting the first method, the first opinion, and take the
easy way out.’ D13
On the other hand, the teacher encourages students to rely on data, assess other
options, or ‘demonstrate’ how to think, developing students’ thinking habits. According
to a respondent, ‘[...] yes, you get used to assessing... assessing all the facts, the evidence, the
probabilities, finding out for which of them the forecast is favourable and for which it is not.’ D10
Students also are taught and learn critical thinking by applying theoretical knowledge
in practice, modelled by the teacher. The research data showed that the teacher’s creative
or out-of-the-box assignments also develop students’ critical thinking skills. In dealing
with this type of assignment, students analyse, select and interpret information:
‘[...] we had to come up with situations or choose an interviewee and argue why we
had chosen that particular problem or that interviewee, and then it was important to
present the text according to the rules we had been learning. [...] For example, we had an
assignment about emigrants, which we needed to present in an interesting, unusual way,
so I wrote a story based on the fairy tale “Eglė the Queen of Serpents”, where Eglė was
prevented by her employee from going home.’ D15
Students note that tasks with no single right answer, where their opinions are valued,
encourage them to not only select information but also to interpret it:
‘[...] when the tasks are not specific, when they are free in content, and you must choose
the subject matter yourself. [...] then you must find out on your own what matters the
most in that case, you have to choose the things that are important to you, what you want
to present and, of course, you have to accomplish those things from the technical point of
view.’ D1
‘Assume there is a film you must understand, and there are no other requirements. Your
understanding is enough. There is no wrong way to do it. It is just a discussion; you talk
about the specific place in the film you think is more or less significant. There is no final
result that you have to achieve, as in solving a mathematics problem. It is just a broad
subject with no right answer; each person sees it from their point of view.’ D12
Learning critical thinking is perceived in students’ reflections as learning to select
information in the broad context of the study content or subject, and to present one’s
own opinion. The absence of strict limitations gives freedom of choice but also presumes
responsibility for own choices. This is no easy task, especially when the teacher requires
the student to assess the situation in a broader societal and global context:
‘[...] practical tasks where you have to apply logical thinking to a particular global
situation; then it is more of an issue because there are different assumptions that you
have to define or assess, and logic alone is not enough because you must review more
things [...] For example, you have to evaluate a pension scheme in a country through a
mathematical approach, but you also have to consider people, and the social context, thus
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13500 8 of 14

covering more fields. [...] Because you have to consider, think, and assess the situation
from your point of view...’ D7
Such tasks require logical thinking and common literacy and knowledge in a wide
range of fields, not just related to the study subject.
By modelling practical situations and relating them to the context of the practical
activity, students learn to assess options, analyse, draw conclusions and make informed
decisions:
‘[...], we had to software-define the situation and decide which method was better to use
to simulate the situation on the computer. [...] The factors that might be important in
generating a profit from the grain trade were presented, but we had to decide on our own
which factors were important to consider and which could be ignored because there were
many of them. It was a matter of finding the correlations between those factors and their
effect on the profit: which affect profit, and which do not. Then we had to generate those
factors randomly and simulate the development of that company accordingly.’ D5
‘[...] You have to be very clear about what each machine does, and when there are ten
machines, you have to be well aware of what each machine does to understand how to
get the result. [...] so that you do not get lost and can see the overall view of what that
chain can do without getting lost in the individual devices. [...] without getting lost in
the overwhelming amount of information, and to always try to see the final goal.’ D9
While thinking about applying knowledge in practical situations, participants reflect
on the importance of factual information and their ability to select and assess it in making
specific choices to achieve a particular goal.
The students’ reflections have revealed that critical thinking is also learned in relation-
ship with oneself. The emergence of this relationship is inspired either externally—by the
teacher, in the case of this research, or internally—by the students’ internal resources, i.e.,
their experiences, ideas and attitudes. Teachers inspire a rethinking of one’s relationship
with oneself by drawing students’ attention not only to a particular situation or problem
but also to the context surrounding it:
‘[...] I remember the teachers’ encouragement to be aware of our influence as a subject on
how we think about a work of art or a political phenomenon. The acknowledgement and
interpretation of a painting depends on my gender, age, race, and the social and historical
context in which I live. In other words, through lectures and workshops, I understood the
importance of self-reflection. When considering public ideas, I learned to ask questions:
Who is speaking? What does the speaker represent? What institutional affiliations bind
them? What is the purpose of the opinion expressed?’ D16
In this case, the critical look is not focused on the external object but rather on the
subject—the thinking person—and their relation to their thinking: What makes it happen?
On what does it depend? What defines it?
Thus, over time, students get used to reflecting, rethinking and analysing different
situations from their point of view and the perspective of others:
‘[...] I no longer accept any situation from just one point of view [...] Maybe there is
another way after all? And then, perhaps you need to rewind the tape a bit and see the
arguments that have been put forward, or maybe there has been no argument at all, just
some conclusion without any justification.’ D14
‘[...] you somehow make the problem relevant, you look at it from your perspective, from
the time’s perspective, when we view certain problem from the present moment. It could
be a perspective of your opinion, your belief on a problem that has existed for a long
time, and you need critical thinking to be able to pull it out of the plane of the history of
philosophy and into the current plane, to give it a certain fresh touch.’ D4
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13500 9 of 14

These examples show that students seek and find internal inspiration. In the students’
opinion, different reference points and approaches to the same phenomenon help them
better perceive it as a phenomenon of their own time and make it relevant in the present.
Thus, the findings of the research reveal (Figure 1) that in students’ reflections, the
teaching and learning of critical thinking in higher education institutions are associated
with teacher-initiated teaching: by asking questions that stimulate critical thinking, by
presenting tasks that do not require a direct answer but rather a reference to a broader
problem context, by setting a personal example of critical thinking. Critical thinking
learning also occurs through peer interaction—in student-initiated small groups, through
student–teacher interaction, and in relationship with oneself. Essential research findings
relate to the teacher’s role in teaching critical thinking. Reflecting on their teaching and
learning experiences, students see the teacher’s demonstration of critical thinking as a
way to learn critical thinking and point to the conditions necessary to express critical
thinking. They find that they are encouraged to think critically by the creative and out-
of-the-box assignments provided by the teacher, where they have the freedom to make
choices and assume responsibility for them. They emphasise facilitating the expression of
opinions, tolerance, and respect for every individual’s views. According to the research
participants, the constant encouragement by the teacher to analyse, evaluate, argue or use
evidence-based data eventually results in students’ self-reflection.

4. Discussion
The findings show that in students’ reflections on the critical thinking teaching and
learning experiences, they emphasise the process of interaction with others. Learning
critical thinking occurs through peer interaction—in student-initiated small groups, through
student–teacher interaction, and in relationship with oneself. This echoes the findings of
other studies that highlight critical reflection and self-reflection as a way of expressing
critical thinking in an interactive relationship with others [45] and the interpersonal aspect
of critical thinking, which is manifested through teaching and learning critical thinking,
mostly in a group of learners. Studies speak of sharing knowledge and skills in a particular
discipline, research question or area of interest [46–48]. Group interaction aims to develop
critical thinking skills, search for the best solutions to a problem [49–51] and may even
improve higher-level thinking skills [52]. The research data show that students who lacked
the collaborative component in the critical reflection assignment did not learn reflection
as a social process. Researchers point out that critical thinking is not possible without a
collaborative model [53,54]. Thus, the interpersonal aspect of critical thinking is extended
by the holistic need for a human relationship to emerge and be meaningfully present by
sharing thoughts, ideas, doubts, and critical evaluation of self and environment. According
to researchers [55–59], collaborative environments have an impact on critical thinking skills,
as learners who reflect in collaborative groups also develop their critical thinking skills.
The research revealed the teacher’s vital role as a positive role model of critical thinking
in shaping students’ experiences. This echoes research results that place particular emphasis
on the importance of teacher–student interaction in developing critical thinking [50,60,61].
Researchers point out that when it comes to critical reflection, it is up to teachers to create a
safe space for different perspectives to emerge and be expressed [21,60]. The teacher, as
an authority figure, sets an example of what it means to learn critical thinking and how it
can be learned and, at the same time, emphasises the effectiveness of critical thinking [62].
Teachers, too, need to have critical thinking skills [63,64] and be aware of how to develop
them [65]: When to provide information? When to hold the learner accountable? When
to question and challenge? When to purposefully direct? What teaching and learning
methods and strategies to use and when to use them? [66–72]. All of the above have an
impact on the effectiveness of teaching [73]. This process also requires teachers’ ability to
reflect. It is not enough for them to identify what is happening in a process; it is vital to
understand the ‘why’, the ‘how’, and the ‘what if’. This understanding comes through
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13500 10 of 14

consistently practising reflection and self-reflection [74] (p. 1). Educators should constantly
look for innovative ideas and teaching practices [75] (p. 90), [76].
The research has revealed that in their reflections on critical thinking, teaching and
learning, students emphasise applying theoretical knowledge in practice, modelled by
the teacher. This reiterates the ideas of other researchers, namely that critical thinking
is best learned by solving specific problems in individual subjects [77,78]. Two types
of teaching interventions are highlighted in the research as being particularly effective
in developing critical thinking: dialogue, usually initiated by the teacher, and learners’
exposure to authentic or relevant problems and examples, in particular when problem-
solving and role-playing methods are applied [66]. Research [79–81] shows that using
unconventional, experimental teaching methods effectively develops critical thinking. It is
emphasised that providing students with opportunities to apply theoretical knowledge
in practice is essential for developing and improving their critical thinking skills [51], as
critical thinking skills are developed more effectively when students are enabled to apply
their learning [82]. Students must use their acquired knowledge in novel and ambiguous
situations, demonstrating deep thinking and the researcher’s competencies. These tasks, in
particular, give an idea of whether students can think critically. It is emphasised that such
strategies may be effective for encouraging engagement and promoting critical thinking
because they can provoke students to confront stark positionalities and even othering in an
environment of interaction and negotiation [83–87]. The critical reflection relates to issues
involving the broader social context, relationships between various social groups, and
value-based attitudes on fundamental social questions [21]. According to S. Brookfield [22],
critical reflection challenges deeply seated assumptions we embrace as being in our best
interests when the opposite is true.
Our research revealed that students reflect on their critical thinking teaching and learn-
ing experiences through interaction with themselves, focusing not on the external object
but rather on the subject—the thinking person—and their relation to their own thinking:
What makes it happen? On what does it depend? What defines it? Russell [18] points out
that critical reflection occurs in rethinking the assumptions underlying one’s mindset and
actions and finding new, meaningful, effective lines of action. Critical reflection inspires
us to explore and experiment [19], to test our notions of who we are, what our identity
is, what we believe and what we are convinced of [20]. Critical thinking is also defined
as an individual’s ability to think deeply and reflectively, see the diversity and complex-
ity of phenomena, and use this on which to base their judgements and decisions [88–90],
as well as to strive for the improvement of their thinking [91,92]. Critical reflection is a
multifaceted and complex phenomenon involving deep knowledge and engagement in
reflection processes to deepen self-awareness, better understand interaction with others,
and rethink theoretical claims and their practical expression [23].
The analysis of the research results has revealed that students’ critical reflection is
most evident in enhancing their personal experience with new knowledge and study-
related content. New meanings, realization and understanding of phenomena converge
in the learning process. It is important to note that in the students’ experiences, there are
examples where critical reflection goes beyond the boundaries of a specific study subject
and encompasses broader contexts, allowing for a wider view of the phenomenon or
problem in question, using a variety of perspectives, thus broadening personal horizons.
While these examples are limited, they are significant for understanding what causes a
qualitative change in students’ mindsets. As mentioned above, this qualitative change
occurs while interacting intensively with other learners, the teacher and oneself.

5. Conclusions
The findings show that in reflections on the critical thinking teaching and learning
experiences, students emphasize the process of interaction with others and interaction with
themselves, focusing not on the external object but rather on the subject—the thinking
person—and their relation to their own thinking. However, in the research results, there is
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13500 11 of 14

almost no trace of critical reflection, expressed as a deep consideration and evaluation of

one’s assumptions and circumstances that determine one’s thinking. A dedicated study
is likely needed to uncover this missing aspect of critical reflection. In the case of this
particular research, the aim was not to examine individual aspects of critical reflection but
to grasp and reveal critical reflection as such, by exploring the critical thinking learning
experience and assessing its extent.
The research results open pathways for further studies that are essential for effective
and sustainable critical thinking teaching in higher education. As students’ critical reflection
was evident in their individual learning experiences, which particularly revealed the
practical example of the teacher as a role model of critical thinking, it would be meaningful
to further explore the teacher’s role and authority by discussing whether and to what extent
teachers assume this role and explore their ability and ambition to set higher teaching
and learning objectives for themselves and for students. The conclusions underline the
importance of critical reflection in the learning process and invite the academic community
to discuss the purposeful use of learning strategies and methods that promote critical
thought and reflection. It would also be relevant to conduct a quantitative study in order to
reveal the differences in students’ experiences according to the field of study, level of study
and age.

Author Contributions: All authors participated in every stage of the research and equally contributed
to the article. The names of the authors are listed in alphabetic order and do not reflect their respective
contributions. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the
Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Institute of Educational
Sciences and Social Work at Mykolas Romeris University, Lithuania. Permission date: 12 December
2019, No ESDI-12/02.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: Data sharing is not applicable to this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that there are no conflict of interest. The funders had no
role in developing the study, collecting, analysing, or interpreting the data, writing the manuscript,
or deciding to publish the results.

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