J.

Electrical Systems 20-2 (2024): 787-796

1
Yiquan Zou The Application of 3D Printing
2,*
Zexu Wang Formwork Technology in
Concrete Building Materials

Abstract: - Concrete 3D printing technology is a prime example of contemporary digital manufacturing, showcasing its efficiency and
automation in the realm of construction. Compared to traditional construction methods, the characteristics of labor-saving and
formwork-free in 3D printing technology have brought changes to the construction personnel structure and forming process. Enhancing
the flexibility of concrete materials and 3D printing technology are two major areas of concentration, along with promoting the wider
application of 3D printing in the construction industry. An extensive review of the advancements in concrete 3D printing technology
is given in this paper. The mechanical, printable, buildable, and rheological properties of concrete materials that are suitable for 3D
printing are also discussed. The study also shows how 3D printing formwork technology is frequently used in decorative elements and
atypically shaped projects. The goal is to offer informative analysis and practical tools for further research and advancements in 3D
printed concrete technology. The study's overall findings emphasize how important it is to improve 3D printing technology's
compatibility with concrete materials. By tackling essential performance criteria and exploring creative uses, we can unlock the
complete potential of concrete 3D printing, which will result in notable progress within the construction sector.

Keywords: Concrete, Rheological Property, 3D Printing, 3D Printing Formwork, Concrete Building Materials.

I. INTRODUCTION (HEADING 1)
Since its invention, cement-based materials have become the most widely used building materials due to their
superior properties, and continue to evolve with the development of the times [1]. With the progress of technology,
society is gradually welcoming the thriving development of digital construction and smart construction. As a
typical area of rapid prototyping, 3D printing has become an important production technology guiding the third
industrial revolution [2], establishing a new path in architecture with success and encouraging the building sector
to keep moving forward in the direction of automation, digitalization, and green ecology [3].
While additive manufacturing decreases waste generated during production, smart use of 3D printing
technology in the building industry might boost traditional construction's level of automation, boost productivity,
and free up labor force.[4]. Concrete 3D printing is an important component of architectural 3D printing. As
research continues to develop, material rheology, extrudability, buildability, setting time, and mechanical
properties have become the general consensus for evaluating concrete 3D printing material performance [5].
Furthermore, considering the concept of material molding, concrete is a typical molding material, and 3D printing
is a new type of "demolding" additive manufacturing technology [6], which can replace formwork of special-
shaped components. Consequently, creating bespoke 3D-printed formworks for building is one of the finest uses
of 3D printing technology in the field of construction engineering.
Under the era background of promoting green construction and intelligent construction, concrete 3D printing
technology has a good application prospect and huge potential development space. The history of the
advancement of concrete 3D printing technology is first covered in this article. The next two main topics discussed
are the design and use of 3D-printed concrete materials and the utilization of 3D printed formwork technology.
This extensive analysis aims to offer a priceless resource for the research and development of 3D printing in
architecture.

Ⅱ. 3D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY
By layering materials, 3D printing technology uses digital control to turn a digital model into a tangible object.
Towards the end of the 20th century, this idea independently developed in Japan and the United States. Following
this, the United States witnessed the establishment of the world's inaugural 3D printing equipment firm, "3D
Systems." This company embarked on comprehensive technical investigations, offering valuable insights for the
broader exploration of 3D printing technology, thus initiating a phase of rapid advancement in 3D printing
technology.

1School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environment, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China.
2 Schoolof Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environment, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China.
*Corresponding author: Zexu Wang
Copyright © JES 2024 on-line : journal.esrgroups.org

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Construction 3D printing originated from Pegna's [7], proposed method of constructing shaped components
based on layer-by-layer addition of cement-based materials. With the continuous development of related
technologies, construction 3D printing has gradually formed three main construction methods: contour process
[8],
, D-Shape adhesive settlement molding process [9], and "concrete printing" technology [10]. The construction
sector will undergo revolutionary changes as a result of the continuous 3D printing of concrete, which will have
a substantial influence on cost reduction, energy efficiency, and design optimization. Meanwhile, a strong basis
for the advancement of building 3D printing has been established by the maturity of printing material preparation
technology and the intelligentization of printing equipment [11].

Ⅲ. TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF 3D PRINTING IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

A. Research on the Characteristics of Concrete 3D Printing Materials

The foundation of construction 3D printing lies in dependable printing materials, playing a pivotal role in
enabling the harmonious integration of feeding systems, fabric systems, and printing path control systems within
the 3D printing construction process. Extensive study has been conducted on the rheology, extrudability,
constructability, and mechanical characteristics of concrete materials in order to suit the demands of construction
3D printing technology. [12].
One of the secrets of printed concrete is good rheology. As soon as water is added to concrete components,
they begin to hydrate and solidify. While the extruded layer must offer strength support for the successive printing
layers in the formwork-free layer stacking construction method, the printing process necessitates that concrete
materials maintain good workability for a specific amount of time. [13]. According to the findings of Roussel and
colleagues, their research indicates that cementitious materials exhibit rheological behavior similar to that of a
Bingham fluid when undergoing the printing process. In this context, the material will flow solely when subjected
to an applied stress surpassing the critical yield stress threshold. They underscore the significance of an adequate
yield stress, which serves as a defining characteristic setting 3D printed concrete materials apart from
conventional concrete. Furthermore, researchers manipulate the thixotropy of concrete by adding mineral
admixtures, nano powders, and other materials with a higher specific surface area. This enables them to modify
the paste's yield stress, thereby attaining the preferred rheological characteristics of the mixture. In addition to
material proportions, researchers have also utilized techniques such as adjusting the water-cement ratio and
incorporating chemical admixtures to attain good rheological performance in concrete, as reported in previous
studies.
Extrudability in the context of 3D printing concrete is commonly understood to be the capacity to convey new
concrete in a continuous, lengthy thread to the extruder hopper's nozzle and deposit it smoothly via the print head
nozzle [14]. Concrete 3D printing is a coordinated process of multiple systems, requiring coordination between
materials and machinery. For this reason, researchers have extensively explored factors affecting the coordination
of the concrete 3D printing process, such as aggregate particle size [15] and printing rate [16].In traditional concrete
compositions, aggregate occupies the majority of the volume. However, from a materials science perspective, it
is not difficult to conclude that larger aggregate particle size and higher content will increase the dispersion of
printed concrete, thus reducing the controllability of material extrusion. Sufficient amount of slurry will enhance
the lubricity of concrete in the printer [17], but increasing the amount of binder material or reducing the aggregate
particle size in printed concrete will not only increase the printing cost but also increase the risk of matrix
cracking.Malaeb et al. [18] found that when the maximum particle size (Dmax) of the aggregate in the printing
material is less than 1/10 of the nozzle diameter, the printing material can be smoothly extruded through the
nozzle. Subsequently, Cheikh et al. [19] combined numerical simulation with experimental operations to
systematically investigate the collaboration between slurry rheology, aggregate size, and printer nozzle
diameter.Studies have shown that there is a proportional coefficient between the aggregate particle size and the
printing nozzle diameter, which enables concrete to have good adaptability to the printer and achieve satisfactory
extrusion and printing results.Nerella et al. [20] quantitatively characterized the extrudability of materials by
defining a unit energy, which is the energy consumed per unit volume extruded. They found that the extrusion
energy for finer sand was 1.62 times higher than coarser sand. In addition to material properties, research has
shown that the matching degree between the extrusion rate of the printing head and the movement rate of the
printing head during the printing process is critical in influencing the continuity, matrix density, and shape
stability of the printed material [21].

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If the stages of construction 3D printing are divided, rheology and extrudability are the basic foundations of
early technology, while buildability and mechanical properties will be the practical test of this technology.People
have carried out several exploratory research on the constructability of printed materials in accordance with the
requirements for defining buildability, but the standards and testing protocols for assessing the buildability of 3D
printing materials are still in the early stages of development [22]. And they summarized typical construction failure
modes, such as single-layer deformation yield failure, bottom-layer deformation failure, uneven interlayer shape,
and instability at supercritical heights [23]. Figure 1 is atypical form of extrusion breakage and different failure
patterns.

Figure 1: Typical Forms of Extrusion Breakage and Different Failure Patterns

Perrot and colleagues established a criterion for evaluating structural strength failure. They compared the
critical stress responsible for initiating plastic deformation in early-age concrete printing materials to the vertical
stress acting on the previously printed layer. Through practical printing outcomes, they verified that, with a
reasonable construction pace and a robust structural foundation, it is feasible to ensure that the vertical stress
remains below the critical stress threshold, ensuring a stable and dependable construction result.
In a similar vein, Kazemian and associates devised two assessment methods, namely "layer settlement" and
"cylinder stability," with a focus on measuring variations in height to evaluate the structural integrity. Their
objective was to quantitatively characterize the constructability of concrete materials. Figure 2 shows the
experimental setup for these tests. Yuan et al. also considering the deformation of building materials, evaluated
the constructability of concrete 3D printing materials by monitoring the deformation between each printed layer
during the stacking process.

Figure 2: Cylinder Stability Test

With the deepening of research, it has been discovered that optimizing particle gradation can achieve
coordination between material extrusion and material construction. At the same time, good gradation also
provides assurance for the post-service performance of printed components. Weng et al. compared the effects of
FullerThompson gradation, uniform gradation, Gap-Gradations gradation, and natural river sand gradation on the
extrudability and constructability through printing cylindrical layers. Figure 3 shows the experimental process.
The results showed that materials based on FullerThompson gradation exhibited the best performance, allowing
printing of up to 40 layers without collapsing or deforming. This proves that Fuller Thompson gradation is an
effective method for preparing cement-based materials with good constructability for 3D printing.
Currently, many achievements have been made in the research of constructability. However, factors such as
the printing window period, printing regime [24], cycle time between layers , and physical and chemical reactions
of materials are all important factors that affect the constructability of 3D printed concrete in construction.

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Therefore, continuous exploration and accumulation are still needed to obtain scientific and standardized testing
methods and specific evaluation criteria.
Reliable printing materials are the cornerstone of construction 3D printing; they are essential to the smooth
operation of feeding systems, fabric systems, and printing path control systems in the 3D printing construction
process. Among them, the early mechanical properties are closely related to the buildability of concrete 3D
printing materials. The characteristics of formwork-free construction make early-age mechanical properties
particularly critical. Therefore, extensive research has been conducted on the early-age strength, stiffness, stress-
strain curve, deformation characteristics, and other aspects of concrete printing materials [25]. Wolfs et al. used
mathematical modeling to develop a consistent failure criterion for early-stage 3D printed concrete. Through
actual testing that included direct shear tests and uniaxial compression, they were able to verify the model's
efficacy. The study found that during the first 0 to 90 minutes after 3D printing, the concrete's Young's modulus,
compressive strength, and shear strength all exhibited a direct relationship with time, rising in direct proportion
to the concrete's freshness. The Tongji University team systematically conducted experiments on the mechanical
attributes of freshly printed 3D mortar using unconfined compression tests. Additionally, they conducted a
thorough examination of the 3D printed mortar's early-stage stress-strain characteristics, vertical load-
displacement relationship, lateral deformation, and failure mode after 2.5 hours. This offers a wealth of reference
material for investigating the mechanical characteristics of concrete 3D printing materials in early life.

Figure 3: A Method for Evaluating Print Material Buildability by Printing Layer Height
In contrast to conventional concrete structures, 3D printed concrete structures have anisotropic mechanical
characteristics due to the stacking of layers that produces a high number of interface structures [26]. During
experimental investigations, it has been found that a key factor affecting the strength anisotropy is weak interface
bonding. Researchers have conducted a series of explorations from the perspectives of printing regime and
printing materials to address this issue. In terms of printing parameters, researchers have found that the printing
time interval significantly affects the interface. Longer printing time intervals can result in "cold joints" and more
defects, leading to poor interlayer bonding [27]. Panda and colleagues introduced the concept of a "window period"
as an optimal printing interval, which they employed to assess the effect of time intervals on bond strength. Their
findings indicated that when the printing occurs within this window period, the interface exhibits superior
performance. Beyond just printing parameters, Nerella and associates examined how the presence of volcanic ash
minerals influences the interface in relation to printing time intervals. They observed that volcanic ash minerals
could mitigate the impact of printing timing on interlayer bonding at the interface. Currently, one method to
enhance the bonding at interlayer interfaces in 3D printed materials involves the use of admixtures. Another
common method, as shown in Figure 4, is to add additional layers at the interface to optimize the interface effect.

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Figure 4: A Form of Printing with an Intermediate Bonding Layer

Construction 3D printing technology, as an important manifestation of intelligent construction, is always
moving forward in development despite facing huge challenges in complex material and structural design. At
present, the commonly used construction 3D printing material is cement mortar, which is prone to cracking in
actual applications. To improve the status quo and meet the 3D printing construction of large buildings, large
particle size aggregate 3D printing concrete and 3D printing fiber-reinforced concrete are researched and applied.
Ma et al. prepared interface materials using cellulose fibers and limestone as fillers. They conducted interlayer
tensile strength tests, shear bond strength tests (as shown in Figure 5), and microscopic experiments to verify that
the added water-retaining components can reduce early shrinkage caused by water loss and achieve good internal
curing effects, thereby enhancing interface performance. At present, while there are numerous methods to enhance
the mechanical characteristics of construction 3D printing materials, research in the realm of interfacial bond
strength, mechanical properties, durability, and their interconnected aspects remains relatively scarce. Moreover,
there is a lack of standardized evaluation methods, especially regarding standardized procedures or protocols for
early-age compression conditions. Establishing a more systematic experimental exploration and a scientific
standard system will provide better support for construction 3D printing.

Figure 5: Schematic Illustration of Test Setup for Interfacial Mechanics

As an important manifestation of intelligent construction, architectural 3D printing technology continues to
advance despite facing significant challenges in complex material and structural design. Cement mortar is
commonly used as a construction 3D printing material but is prone to cracking in practical applications. To
address this difficulty and meet the needs of large-scale architectural 3D printing construction, research has been
done on materials such as fiber-reinforced 3D printed concrete and large-aggregate 3D printed
concrete.Moreover, in the context of green and ecological development, the material system in architectural 3D
printing is constantly being enriched and innovated. Various types of mineral admixtures, geopolymer materials,
desert sand, tailings [28], and others can be used as excellent architectural 3D printing materials. On the other hand,
materials such as engineered cementitious composites (ECC), ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC), and
novel composite additives have also been applied in architectural 3D printing technology to enhance overall
performance and contribute to the flourishing development of future architecture.

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B. Development of Concrete 3D Printing in Construction Technology

The applications of 3D printing technology in the construction sector are growing as it advances. Due to the
great degree of creative flexibility offered by 3D printing, a diverse range of beautiful landscapes and architectural
miniatures were produced in the early stages of the technology's development. With the advancement of
technology and the maturity of material design, 3D printed structures have evolved from purely artistic creations
to innovative buildings that combine both artistic and practical value. Figure 6 shows an example of 3D printed
concrete. As shown in Figure 6, during the gradual development and deepening of architectural 3D printing,
researchers have added reinforcement and poured concrete into the printed hollow walls to accommodate the
printing of large-scale architectural structures.

Figure 6: Examples of Concrete 3D Printing

Construction 3D printing originated overseas but has achieved a series of developments and achievements in
China in recent years. Several enterprise units such as China Construction Co., Ltd. Technical Center, and
Yingchuang (Shanghai) Construction Technology Co., Ltd. have carried out a large amount of exploration in the
equipment, materials, and developmental applications of construction 3D printing.
Researchers are increasingly focusing on harnessing the benefits of 3D printing technology for intricate
architectural component designs that are challenging to produce using conventional templates.Figure 7 shows 3D
printed reinforced concrete beams and slabs, indicating that architectural 3D printing is gradually being integrated
into various key structures of buildings. Simultaneously, architectural 3D printing technology encompasses the
convergence of materials, programming, and mechanical equipment. To meet construction operations under
different conditions, there is continuous enrichment and development of related supporting software, hardware,
and other components [27].

Figure 7: 3D Printing Reinforced Concrete Beams and Panel.

When compared to traditional construction methods, 3D printing technology offers noteworthy advantages,
including digital construction (industrial advancement), streamlined construction (simplification), sequential
construction (process simplification), expedited construction (enhanced efficiency), additive construction (waste
reduction), and precise construction (improved quality). With continued progress and experience, 3D printing
technology is poised for more extensive adoption within the construction industry.

Ⅳ. APPLICATION OF 3D PRINTING FORMWORKS IN DECORATION AND SPECIAL-SHAPED BUILDINGS

High formwork cost and massive construction waste are two major challenges faced by traditional concrete
construction. Researchers have specifically studied the cost of building formworks, with results indicating that,
in concrete construction projects in the Sydney CBD (Central Business District), formwork costs account for 80%
of total costs. Another local survey in the UK found that garbage generated from construction and dismantling
activities accounts for more than 30% of all waste in the country, with approximately 32% of landfill waste and
25% of used raw materials coming from the construction industry.
The substantial volume of construction waste not only represents a significant resource wastage but also poses
the risk of environmental pollution, which contradicts the contemporary principles of eco-friendly and sustainable

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development. The additive manufacturing characteristic of concrete 3D printing ensures its own formwork-free
construction and can serve as a permanent formwork for traditional concrete. At this time, the entire structure
retains a high degree of freedom in shape design, and the additive manufacturing mode based on computer model
design minimizes material waste. It's this stark advantage that has made 3D printed formworks promising in their
application to architectural decoration and special-shaped building construction.
Depending on the field of application, current formwork-free 3D printing technologies in architecture can be
mainly divided into four aspects.
A. 3D Decorative Modeling Formworks
Concrete materials have excellent plasticity; after hardening, their surface texture, feel, and color are closely
related to the formwork, theoretically creating any shape. And 3D printing formwork technology provides good
technical support for concrete architectural art. 3D decorative modeling formworks can be divided into organic
material-type 3D decorative modeling formworks and inorganic material-type 3D decorative modeling
formworks. As shown in Figure 8, Figures 8(a) and 8(b) are decorative panels manufactured by organic formwork
demolding and direct 3D printing, respectively. Organic material-type 3D decorative modeling formworks usually
have better tensile strength, tear strength, and bond strength, and they are alkali-resistant, oil-resistant, and easy
to demold. At the same time, the organic material-type 3D printed decorative modeling formworks recreate clear
shapes and have a higher service life. The inorganic material-type 3D decorative modeling formwork serves as a
permanent formwork that exhibits excellent artistic effects while demonstrating exceptional structural use.

Figure 8: Concrete Decorative Board

The application of 3D decorative formworks to shape concrete can achieve integration of concrete structure
decoration, including any shapes such as stone-like, wood-like, etc., and concrete can achieve a highly realistic
effect similar to the original object. Figure 9 is a concrete 3D printing decorative formwork. 3D decorative
formworks can also create large curved surfaces, hollows, and other special shapes, satisfying the specific
geometric space shaping needs of concrete, thus elevating the level of concrete decorative art and beautifying
architecture (as shown in Figure 9).

Figure 9: Concrete 3D Printing Decorative Formwork

B. 3D Printed Landscape Miniatures and Public Facilities
Figure 10 shows concrete 3D printing landscape pieces and public facilities. As shown in Figure 10, public
facility buildings in cities have characteristics of being small and diverse; urban landscapes and cultural
propaganda generally have special shapes, which may be difficult or costly to complete through customized
formworks. However, concrete 3D printing technology can meet the rapid manufacturing requirements and realize
the connotation requirements of designers' special shapes and cultural information. In the pursuit of creating
aesthetically pleasing and people-centric cities, the utilization of 3D printing techniques can showcase innovative

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advancements in construction technology. This approach helps curtail the environmental pollution associated with
traditional stone carving, thus fostering the growth of eco-friendly and socially conscious construction practices.

Figure 10: Concrete 3D Printing Landscape Pieces and Public Facilities

C. 3D Printed House Buildings and Building Components
Achieving 3D printing of houses and other large buildings is an important application direction for concrete
3D printing technology. Among them, direct printing of the solid wall with rebar or using 3D printed concrete to
form prefabricated mold shells, and forming assembled 3D printed buildings through combination are several
important concrete displays of 3D printing in architecture. Figure 11 uses 3D printed concrete to form the wall's
outside in accordance with the architectural 3D model. The printed hollow structure serves as a strong formwork
that makes it possible to fill the inside later with insulation or concrete.

Figure 11: Field application of Concrete 3D Printing Formwork

Large-scale construction 3D printing displays are progressively becoming more common, as Figure 12
illustrates, thanks to advancements in technology and shifting public perceptions.In addition, more and more
individuals are utilizing architectural 3D printing technology in their spatial building design plans.
Figure 12 shows the first domestic two-story office building printed based on "contour process". Its extremely
high construction efficiency fully demonstrates the technical advantages of architectural 3D printing.

Figure 12: 3D Printing Buildings

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D. 3D Printed Bridges and Components

Concrete 3D printing has also demonstrated outstanding potential application value in bridge, municipal track,
and other engineering projects.
A few concrete 3D printing application examples for bridges are shown in Figure 13. The prefabricated 3D
printed mold shell is filled with concrete as part of the arch bridge construction process.
In addition, Figure 14 shows potential application forms of concrete 3D printing in special-shaped bridge
piers. While satisfying structural support, the printed pier not only eliminates the cost brought by traditional
formworks but also provides good artistic effects.

Figure 13: 3D Printing Bridges

Figure 14: Comparison between Traditional Bridge Pier and 3D Printing Bridge Pier

Ⅴ. OUTLOOK ON CONCRETE 3D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY

Concrete 3D printing additive manufacturing and its formwork-free process characteristics significantly
reduce the generation of construction waste while increasing construction efficiency, aligning well with the
current direction of construction development. In addition to significantly increasing architectural design freedom
and offering practical solutions for the real construction of intricate concrete structures, the widespread use of 3D
printing technology can also release architectural design from the limitations imposed by conventional formwork
procedures. Under the demand for development and transformation of engineering technology, architectural 3D
printing will move towards a longer future. Meanwhile, architectural 3D printing technology is a multi-
disciplinary cross-border integration involving architectural modeling, structural design, material optimization,
system integration, etc., the complexity. The relationship between 3D printing architectural materials, structures,
and performance needs to be strengthened. The core research topic is how to elevate 3D printed buildings to have
the structural properties of reinforced concrete or fiberglass structures. Ensuring the seismic performance of
buildings is a challenge for 3D printing architecture, materials, processes, and equipment. Only reinforced
concrete structures can effectively guarantee the seismic performance of buildings. At the same time, based on
clarifying the direction of development, the stability of printing materials, the innovativeness of process
equipment, and the normalization of standard system construction are still the important directions that need
attention in the future.

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