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UNIT 5
MEASUREMENT OF FLOW

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, students will be able to:

 Know the importance and uses of measuring flow.

 Know and solve parameters in flow measurement.
 Distinguish the different devices in flow measurement.

Pre-Test

Define the following.

1. Volume

2. Density

3. Fluid

Content

Hydraulic and pneumatic systems are both concerned with the flow of a fluid (liquid or gas)
down a pipe. Flow is a loose term that generally has three distinct meanings:

1. Volumetric flow is used to measure volume of fluid passing a point per unit of
time. Where the fluid is a compressible gas, temperature and pressure must be
specified or flow normalized to some standard temperature and pressure.
Volumetric flow is the most common measurement in process control.

2. Mass flow measures the mass of fluid passing the point in unit time

3. Velocity of flow measures linear speed (in ms-1) past the point of
measurement. Flow velocity is of prime importance in the design of hydraulic and
pneumatic systems.

Types of fluid flow are illustrated in Figure 5.1. At low flow velocities, the flow pattern is
smooth and linear with low velocities at the pipe walls and the highest flow at the center
of the pipe. This is known as laminar or streamline flow.
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As flow velocity increases, eddies start to form until at high flow velocities complete
turbulence results as shown in Figure 5.1 (b). Flow velocity is now virtually uniform across
the pipe.

Figure 5.1 Types of Fluid Flow

Many of the techniques used in flow measurement employ principles also used pressure
and level measurement.

5.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES

Flow meters are generally divided into two fundamental types: quantity meters and rate of
flow meters. The use of the word flow meter generally implies the latter.

Quantity Meters
These devices measure the quantity of fluid that has passed a certain point. No time is
involved. Types are usually classified as positive or semi-positive. A typical positive type
uses the flow to drive a reciprocating piston and a counter is attached. The meter acts like
a conventional engine with fluid pressure supplying motive power. Stroke length and
cylinder dimensions fix the quantity delivered per cycle. Semi-positive types are usually
rotary. A form of gear pump or eccentrically-constrained rotor can be used which is driven
by the fluid. Quantity is measured by the number of rotations (cycles) and fluid per cycle.

Rate of Flow Meters

Measures the velocity of fluid passing a certain point at a given instant. From this, rate of
flow (quantity per unit time) can be determined from velocity multiplied by the area of
passage. They are therefore classified as inferential, i.e., volume inferred from velocity.
There are two fundamental components of the rate of flow meter. The primary element is
that portion of the instrument which converts the quantity being measured into a variable
to operate the secondary element, for instance, an orifice and pressure tappings from a
venturi. The secondary element measures the variable created by the primary element,
for instance, a differential pressure cell.
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Integrators
Quantity meters are more expensive and less suited to deal with large fluid quantities than
rate of flow meters. Rate of flow meters are often used as quantity meters by fitting an
integrator. As a simple example, let us consider variable flow. The rate of flow can be
measured at set time intervals and a graph plotted, the area of which gives quantity over
the time period required. In practice, this is performed mechanically or electrically by an
integrator. One type is based on the planimeter principle and another type (escapement)
utilizes the mid-ordinate techniques from a heart-shaped cam drive. Flat faced cam drive
or worm and wheel designs can be used with a turbine wheel or helix type of primary
element having a counting mechanism as a secondary element, incorporating the
integrator to interpret quantity. The integrator is often included within the receiving unit of
the telemetering systems. Integration is readily performed electrically by the use of
conventional watt-hour meter. It should be understood that integration is a general
instrumentation operation whose use is not restricted only to flow meters.

Square Root Extraction

When inferential devices are used with velocity sensors utilizing differential pressure
techniques, the velocity is not directly proportional to pressure difference or head. Velocity
is related to the square root of pressure or head, i.e., a curve of flow rate plotted against
pressure or head is of parabolic form. This means that if a pressure difference is used in
a sensor device connected to a manometer or pointer through a linear mechanism, the
rate of flow scale on the manometer traversed by the pointer would have to be a square
root function. The scale divisions would increase in square root increments for equal
increments of flow rate. From the aspect of display and continuous recording of flow rate,
the square root characteristic is not an embarrassment. If however, the differential
pressure signal has to be used in a control system, the square root is usually extracted to
give a signal which is directly proportional to the flow rate.

Inferential Rotational
Basically, these can be considered as mechanical or electrical:
1. Mechanical Type Flow Meter
Designs usually are of the "turbine wheel" type with its speed of rotation directly
proportional to linear flow and with area of passage fixed, the volume rate is
inferred. A wheel, fan or helix is inserted in the pipe or duct, mounted vertically or
horizontally, and gear trains are used to interpret the movement. This is the
principle of vane anemometers.

a. Rotormeter
The measuring principle is illustrated in Figure 5.2 where the meter of the duplex
rotor positive displacement type is shown in three specific positions. The rotary
flow meter operates on the displacement principle with the measuring system
consisting of a casing with two rotors. Bearing bushes are provided on either side
of each rotor so that the rotor runs clear of the casing and spindle in the radial
direction. The rotor is located in an axial direction by means of end bearings so
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that it runs clear of the bearing plates. Both the end bearings and the spindle are
fixed to the shaft while the bearing bushes are fixed to the rotor and rotate relative
to the end bearings and the shaft. Each rotor carries a gear wheel at the rear
through which the rotors are coupled together. The rotary movement of the rotors
is transmitted to the outgoing shaft of the meter through a gearwheel fitted at the
front of one of the rotors (see Figure 5.2).

Figure 5.2 Mechanical Flow Meter

In position “A,” the left-hand rotor is fully relieved from load while the liquid pressure
acts on one side of the right-hand rotor causing this rotor to rotate in a clockwise
direction. Since both rotors are coupled together through gears, the left-hand rotor
will rotate in a counter-clockwise direction.

In position “B,” the liquid in the displacement chamber is pressed by the right-hand
rotor to the outlet.

In position “C,” the right-hand rotor is entirely relieved from load while the liquid
pressure now acts on one side of the left-hand rotor so that it takes over the task
of the right-hand rotor.

To reduce leakage losses to a minimum, it is essential to provide for effective

sealing between the inlet and the outlet. To this end, the rotors seal off against the
casing by surface contact.

In the rotormeter, the motion of the rotor is transmitted to the external parts by the
attraction between two permanent magnets. The maximum torque transmitted by
this system is 0.4 N m. This arrangement offers the following practical advantages:

- Perfectly leakproof transmission which means that it is impossible for corrosive

or hazardous liquids to leave the meter.
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- Protection of attached parts or instruments. If the mechanism of external parts

or instruments should be blocked for whatever reason, the permanent
magnetic coupling will slip, thus, avoiding any damage to the instruments.

Although the torque to be transmitted by the magnets may vary with the external
parts or the type of instrument used, it will hardly ever exceed a value of 0.05 N m
with the meter running at constant speed. Hence, at ambient temperature, the
magnetic coupling has an eight-fold safety margin which will, in most instances, be
amply sufficient to take accelerations and decelerations (which are the most
frequent operating conditions) without slipping of the coupling.

Although the torque transmitted by the magnets decreases with rising temperature,
experience has shown that even with a liquid temperature of up to 250°C the
available torque is still amply sufficient.

2. Electrical Type Flowmeter

One type utilizes rotating vanes with a small magnet attached to one vane and a
coil in the pipe wall. The electrical impulse can be mounted on a digital tachometer
calibrated in flow rate. The design now described has no moving parts.

a. Electro-Magnetic Flow Meter

This type is shown in Figure 5.3. The principle utilized is that of a moving conductor
(the liquid) in a magnetic field generating a potential difference. In the simple
arrangement shown, the two electro-magnets are supplied with current (AC is
preferred to DC to reduce polarization of the dielectric). There are two sensor
electrodes. If B is the flux density of the field, v velocity of flow, d pipe diameter,
then in suitable units the emf generated at any instant is given by:

e = Bvd

For constant B and d, e is directly proportional to v.

Figure 5.3 Electrical Flow Meter

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3. Rotameter

This type does not strictly fit into the classification given but a brief description is
appropriate at this stage. A sketch is given in Figure 5.4.

Figure 5.4 Rotameter

This is a variable area meter. A long taper tube is graduated on its vertical axis.
The float moves freely in the tube and by an arrangement of shaped flutes in the
float, it slowly rotates. As flow rate increases, the float rises in the tube, so that the
annular area increases, which means that the differential pressure across the tube
is at constant value. The float can be arranged with a magnet attached and a
follower magnet outside will transmit motion to a pointer via linkage if required.

5.2 INFERENTIAL-DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE

Primary Elements

The orifice and the venturi will be described and these are mainly used although flow
nozzles and special inserts, such as a Dall Tube, are also employed. Figure 5.5 shows
both the orifice plate and venturi sensors using energy conversion to produce a pressure
difference which can be utilized by the secondary element to provide a signal for direct
reading, telemetering or control.
Using the venturi flow sensor as an example, the theory involved is as follows:
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Figure 5.5 Flow Sensors

Assuming unit mass and energy at points 1 and 2 being the same, i.e., neglecting friction
and shock losses as small, then from Bernoulli for incompressible flow of fluid of density
ρ:

KE₁ + PE₁ = KE₂ + PE₂

½ v₁² + õ1/p = 1/2v₂² + õ2/p (a)

Where KE is Kinetic and PE is pressure energy.

The equation for continuity of flow for area A is:

V₁A₁ = V₂A₂ (b)

By substituting for v₂ from (b) in (a) and using mass flow rate m as equal to Àv₁A₁, it can
be shown that:

m = k√𝑝

Where p is the pressure difference (p1 – p2) and k is a meter constant in terms of areas
and density which includes a discharge coefficient factor. Frictional losses are greater for
orifice that for venturi meters.

Secondary Elements
Any differential pressure device can be used as a secondary element including the
manometer, diaphragm and “d/p” cell. The measuring scale will be nonlinear for direct
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recorders due to the square root relation and telemetering, control and integration will be
generally unsatisfactory unless a correcting unit is fitted. When manometers are used,
various compensations can be used. The simple manometer can utilize a curve-measuring
limb and the well type manometer can be arranged with a shaped chamber or may include
a parallel tube and a shaped displacer. Other direct measuring devices utilize a cam
incorporated in the mechanism, an example of which is the ring balance. In the electrical
resistive sensor described in Chapter 4 (see Figure 4.2.), when used for flow
measurement, the electrode tips immersed in mercury are arranged in a parabolic curve
with each other which gives the compensation. Three-flow sensor square root extraction
devices are now considered in more detail.

Square Root Extractors

Figure 5.6 is one type of a square root extractor using a parabola-shaped bell which can
be connected through linkage to mechanical, pneumatic or electrical display and control
systems.
The differential pressure is applied with the high pressure inside and the low pressure
outside the bell.

Figure 5.6 Mechanical Square Root Extractor

With this changing cross-sectional area and buoyancy due to a change in differential
pressure, the bell movement is made to be directly proportional to the square root of the
differential pressure. Hence, the bell movement is directly proportional to the fluid flow
being sensed by the orifice plate or venturi sensor.
This device is often called a Ledoux Bell. For airflow measurement, instead of the bell
being shaped, a shaped displacer is arranged in a separate chamber. The displacer is
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connected to rise with the bell. Such a device is used for measuring steam and airflow,
and for controlling steam/air flow ratio, the characteristic is linear.
Figure 5.7 is a diagrammatic sketch of another type of square root extractor utilizing the
pneumatic flapper nozzle position balance principle.

Figure 5.7 Pneumatic Square Root Extractor

In Figure 5.7 the differential pressure from a flow sensor acts on a horizontal lever B. This
affects the amount of air escaping from the nozzle and hence, the pressure in the bellows.
Pressure alteration in the bellows causes movement of the vertical lever A. The very small
relative motion between levers A and B provides square root extraction. The output air
signal is directed to the measure element (recorder) or controller.
Figure 5.8 allows a square root extraction technique using electrical force balance. The
differential pressure in electrical signal form represented as variable x input, is applied to
the left hand side, With the force balance beam in equilibrium, the output signal is variable
√x. Variation in input signal causing unbalance can be arranged to be re balanced by a
suitable adjustment to output signal. This can be done in various ways; one method could
be to connect the right-hand of the beam to a differential capacitor in the output circuit.
This is a closed loop but without electrical connection between inputs detected signal and
output measured signal. The force balance system is a simple analogue computer —
output can also be easily arranged for squaring, summing, etc. by suitable wiring
combinations.
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Figure 5.8 Electrical Square Root Extractor

Figure 5.9 shows two arrangements of flow sensor/transducer units, each with square root
extraction. For the pneumatic system, the valves marked A, B and C would be used in the
sequence (open B, close A and C) when taking the differential pressure transmitter out of
operation. This valve sequence would also apply to the electric system.
With steam flow measurement; the pressure tappings from the flow sensor are led to
cooling reservoirs wherein the steam condenses. Water only then acts on the square root
eliminator or recorder, thus, preventing damages.
The pneumatic system would utilize square root extraction (as shown in Figure 5.7).
Variation of the position of the soft iron core of the inductor unit governs output signal to
the amplifier. Alternatively, direct signals to the amplifier can be taken from electrical
devices as shown in Figures 4.2 and 5.8.
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Figure 5.9 Flow Sensors/Transducers

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Learning Activity

1. What is the importance of measuring flow?

2. Solve the following problem using the formula: Q = Av, where Q is fluid flow rate,
A is the cross-section area of the pipe or channel and v is the velocity of the liquid.

Water is flowing through a circular pipe that has a radius of 0.0800 m. The velocity
of the water is 3.30 m/s. What is the flow rate of the water in liters per second (L/s)?
Note: 1 m3/s = 1000 L/s

3. A nozzle with a radius of 0.250 cm is attached to a garden hose with a radius of

0.900 cm. The flow rate through hose and nozzle is 0.500 L/s. Calculate the speed
of the water (a) in the hose and (b) in the nozzle.

Assessment

Direction. Identify the correct answer to each statement and indicate your answers in the
blank space provided.

__________ 1. This is a variable area meter. A long taper tube is graduated on its
vertical axis. The float moves freely in the tube and by an arrangement of
shaped flutes in the float, it slowly rotates.

__________ 2. Rate of flow meters are often used as quantity meters by fitting a/an
___________.

__________ 3. The principle utilized in this type is that of a moving conductor (the liquid)
in a magnetic field generating a potential difference. The two electro-
magnets are supplied with current (AC is preferred to DC to reduce
polarization of the dielectric).

__________ 4. Both use energy conversion to produce a pressure difference which can
be utilized by the secondary element to provide a signal for direct reading,
telemetering or control.

__________ 5. Its measuring principle is where the meter of the duplex rotor positive
displacement type is shown in three specific positions.
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__________ 6. Measures the velocity of fluid passing a certain point at a given instant.
From this, rate of flow (quantity per unit time) can be determined from
velocity multiplied by the area of passage.

__________ 7. These devices measure the quantity of fluid that has passed a certain
point.

__________ 8. One type of a square root extractor using a parabola-shaped bell which
can be connected through linkage to mechanical, pneumatic or electrical
display and control systems.

__________ 9. Flow pattern is smooth and linear with low velocities at the pipe walls
and the highest flow at the center of the pipe.

__________ 10. Used to measure volume of fluid passing a point per unit of time. Where
the fluid is a compressible gas, temperature and pressure must be
specified or flow normalized to some standard temperature and
pressure.

Thank you for completing the task. If you have difficulty in

accomplishing the activity, please send me a message to our class
group chat or you may ask clarifications through a text message or
phone call on the contact number indicated.

Congratulations! You are now ready for the next unit.

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