NETWORK DEVICES

-----------------------------
1. SWITCH -
A switch is a device in a computer network that connects other
devices together. multiple data cables are plugged into
a switch to enable communication between different network
devices.
-> Switch allows you to control who has access to various parts of
the network. switches allows you to monitor usage.
-> Switches are networking devices operating at layer 2 or a data
link layer of the OSI model.
-> It supports unicast, multicast, as well as broadcast
communication.

2. ROUTERS -
A router is a networking device that forwards data packets
between computer networks.
-> Routers perform the traffic directing functions between networks
and on the global internate.
-> Router is connected to two or more data lines from different IP
networks.
-> Routers are networking devices operating at layer 3 or a network
layer of the OSI model.
-> router provide protection against broadcast storm.
-> router can be used both in LAN (Local area network) and WAN (wide
area network).

3. BRIDGE -
the bridge is a networking devices in a computer network that is
used to connect multiple LANs to a larger LAN.
-> The bridge is a networking devices that connects the larger LAN
networks with the group of smaller LAN networks.
-> Bridge can increase the physical size of a network.
-> Bridge are used to devide large busy networks into multiple
smaller and interconnected networks to improve performance.
-> Bridge are networking devices operating at layer 2 or a data link
layer of the OSI model.

4. HUB -
-> A hub is a physical layer networking devices which is used to
connect multiple devices in a network. they are generally
used to connect computers in a LAN.
-> Hub are passive devices the dont have any software associated
with it.
-> it primarily broadcasts messages.
-> it is a non-intelligent network devices that sends message to all
ports.
-> the network hub were popular in the past time as they were
cheaper as compare to a switch or router.

5. ACCESS POINT -
-> An access point is a network devices that is similar to a router,
only it has its own built-in antenna, transmitter
and adapter.
-> an access point can be used to connect a variety of network
devices together, including both wired and wireless
devices .
-> access point can be fat or thin.
 -> a fat access point must be manually configured with network and
security settings, whereas a thin access point
can be configured and monitored remotely.

IP ADDRESS and IT's CLASS

---------------------------------------

IP Address -
-> An IP (internate Protocol) address is a numerical label assigned
to the devices connected to a computer network that
uses the ip for communication.
-> ip address acts as a identifier for a specific machine on a
particular network.
-> it also helps you to develop a virtual connection between a
destination and a source.
-> the Ip address is also called IP number or Internet address.
-> it helps you to specify the technical format of the addressing
and packets scheme.
-> IP address works in an IP network like a postal address.
-> the addressing method divides the IP address into five separete
classes based on four address bits.
-> classes A, B, C offers addresses for networks of three distinct
network sizes. Class D is only used for multicast,
and class E reserved exclusively for experimental purposes.

Class A -
-> this Ip address class is used when there are a large number of
hosts.
-> In class A type of network, the first 8 bits (also called the
first octet) identify the network, and the remaining have
24 bits for the host into that network.
-> classA addresses 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 cannot be used and
is reserved for loopback and diagnostic function.
-> Class A address range - 1 to 126
-> Class A subnet mask - 255.0.0.0

Class B -
-> In a B class IP address, the binary addresses start with 10.
-> The number 127 is reserved for loopback, which is used for
internal testing on the local machine.
-> The first 16 bits (known as two octets) help you identify the
network.
-> The other remaining 16 bits indicate the host within the network.
-> Class B address range - 128 to 191.
-> Class B subnet mask - 255.255.0.0

Class C -
-> Class C is a type of IP address that is used for the small
network.
-> In this class, three octets are used to indent the network.
-> In this type of network addressing method, the first two bits are
set to be 1, and the third bit is set to 0,
which makes the first 24 bits of the address them and the
remaining bit as the host address.
-> Mostly local area network used Class C IP address to connect with
the network.
-> Class C address range - 192 to 223
 -> Class C subnet mask - 255.255.255.0

Class D -
-> Class D addresses are only used for multicasting applications.
-> Class D is never used for regular networking operations.
-> This class addresses the first three bits set to “1” and their
fourth bit set to use for “0”.
-> Class D addresses are 32-bit network addresses.
-> All the values within the range are used to identify multicast
groups uniquely.
-> Class D address range - 224 to 239
-> Class D does not have any subnet mask.

Class E -
-> Class E IP address is defined by including the starting four
network address bits as 1, which allows
you two to incorporate addresses from 240.0.0.0 to
255.255.255.255.
-> E class is reserved, and its usage is never defined.
` -> many network implementations discard these addresses as undefined
or illegal.
-> Class E address range - 240 to 254.

SUBNET MASK
---------------------
-> A subnet mask is a 32-bit address that segregates an IP address
into network bits that identify the network
host bits that identify the host device operating on that
network. It encapsulates a range of IP addresses that a subnet
can use, wherein the subnet refers to a smaller network within a
more extensive network.
-> subnet masks are used internally within a network.
-> Routing devices or switches rely on subnet masks to route data
packets to suitable destinations.
-> Subnetting is a process that logically partitions an IP network
into multiple subnets. Such network subdivision allows
better usage of IPv4 addresses and makes the network’s data
routing more secure and efficient.
-> A subnet mask is a number that distinguishes the network address
and the host address within an IP address.
-> Subnet masks break an IP address up into network bits and host
bits.

WILD CARD MASK -

---------------------------
-> A wildcard mask is a sequence of binary bits which helps in
streamlining the routing of packets within a subnet
of a network.
-> It is shown over the subnet number, providing the router
information about which parts of the subnet number to focus on.
-> The use of the wildcard mark helps the router to only focus on
the digits chosen by the mask rather than on the
entire IP address.
-> Wildcard masks are normally used to specify which IP addresses
can be allowed or denied in the access control
lists and with router protocols like the Open Shortest Path
First.
-> A wildcard mask is similar to a subnet mask in bit length, as it
is 32 bits long.
-> Wildcard masks help in specifying the range of network addresses
to be used

SUBNETTING -
-------------------
-> Subnetting is a method of dividing a single physical network into
logical sub-networks (subnets).
-> Subnetting allows a business to expand its network without
requiring a new network number from
its Internet service provider
-> Subnetting helps to reduce the network traffic and also conceals
network complexity.
-> Subnetting is necessary when a single network number must be
assigned to several portions of a local area network (LAN).
-> A subnet, sometimes known as a subnetwork, is a part of a larger
network. Subnets are the logical division of an
IP network into many smaller network parts.
-> Subnets eliminate the need for traffic to pass through extraneous
routs, resulting in faster network speeds.
-> Subnets were created to alleviate the shortage of IP addresses on
the internet.
-> To reduce traffic, a subnet's purpose is to divide a huge network
into a collection of smaller, interconnected networks.
-> The purpose of subnetting is to establish a computer network that
is quick, efficient, and robust.
-> As networks grow in size and complexity, traffic must find more
efficient pathways.
-> Bottlenecks and congestion would arise if all network traffic
travelled across the system at the same time,
utilizing the same path, resulting in slow and wasteful backlogs.

-> By creating a subnet, you can limit the number of routers that
network traffic must pass through.
-> An engineer will effectively establish smaller mini-routes within
a larger network to allow traffic to go
the shortest distance possible.
-> Subnetting is a method of dividing a single physical network into
logical sub-networks (subnets).
-> Subnetting is aimed to achieve the following targets in the
network.
Reallocating IP Addresses
Improving Network Security
Reliving Network Congestion
Improves Network Speed
Efficiency

MAC ADDRESS
----------------------
-> MAC address is the physical address, which uniquely identifies
each device on a given network.
-> To make communication between two networked devices, we need two
addresses: IP address and MAC address.
-> It is assigned to the NIC (Network Interface card) of each device
that can be connected to the internet.
-> It stands for Media Access Control, and also known as Physical
address, hardware address, or BIA (Burned In Address).
 -> It is globally unique; it means two devices cannot have the same
MAC address.
-> It is represented in a hexadecimal format on each device, such as
00:0a:95:9d:67:16.
-> It is 12-digit, and 48 bits long, out of which the first 24 bits
are used for OUI(Organization Unique Identifier),
and 24 bits are for NIC/vendor-specific.
-> It works on the data link layer of the OSI model.
-> It is provided by the device's vendor at the time of
manufacturing and embedded in its NIC,
-> which is ideally cannot be changed.
-> The ARP protocol is used to associate a logical address with a
physical or MAC address.

DHCP SERVER
---------------------
-> Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network
management protocol used to automate
the process of configuring devices on IP networks, thus allowing
them to use network services such
as DNS, NTP, and any communication protocol based on UDP or TCP.
-> A DHCP server dynamically assigns an IP address and other network
configuration parameters
to each device on a network so they can communicate with other IP
networks.
-> DHCP is an enhancement of an older protocol called BOOTP.
-> DHCP is an important part of the DDI solution (DNS-DHCP-IPAM).
-> Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a client/server
protocol that automatically
provides an Internet Protocol (IP) host with its IP address and
other related configuration information
such as the subnet mask and default gateway.
-> RFCs 2131 and 2132 define DHCP as an Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF) standard based
on Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP), a protocol with which DHCP shares
many implementation details.
-> DHCP allows hosts to obtain required TCP/IP configuration
information from a DHCP server.
-> Windows Server 2016 includes DHCP Server, which is an optional
networking server role that
you can deploy on your network to lease IP addresses and other
information to DHCP clients.
-> All Windows-based client operating systems include the DHCP
client as part of TCP/IP, and DHCP
client is enabled by default.
-> Without DHCP, IP addresses for new computers or computers that
are moved from one subnet
to another must be configured manually; IP addresses for
computers that are removed from the
network must be manually reclaimed.
DNS SERVER
-------------------
-> Domain Name System (DNS) is one of the industry-standard suite of
protocols that comprise TCP/IP,
and together the DNS Client and DNS Server provide computer name-
to-IP address mapping name
resolution services to computers and users.
-> In Windows Server 2016, DNS is a server role that you can install
by using Server Manager or Windows
PowerShell commands.
-> If you are installing a new Active Directory forest and domain,
DNS is automatically installed with
Active Directory as the Global Catalogue server for the forest
and domain.
-> Active Directory Domain Services (AD DS) uses DNS as its domain
controller location mechanism.
-> When any of the principal Active Directory operations is
performed, such as authentication, updating,
or searching, computers use DNS to locate Active Directory domain
controllers.
-> In addition, domain controllers use DNS to locate each other.
-> The DNS Client service is included in all client and server
versions of the Windows operating system,
and is running by default upon operating system installation.
-> When you configure a TCP/IP network connection with the IP
address of a DNS server, the DNS Client
queries the DNS server to discover domain controllers, and to
resolve computer names to IP addresses.
-> When the DNS server responds to the query and provides the domain
controller's IP address to the client,
the client contacts the domain controller and the authentication
process can begin.
-> The Windows Server 2016 DNS Server and DNS Client services use
the DNS protocol that is included
in the TCP/IP protocol suite. DNS is part of the application
layer of the TCP/IP reference model,
as shown in the following illustration.

ROUTER INTERNAL COMPONENT

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1. CPU: The CPU in the router executes the commands and processes the
commands in the operating system.
The flow of data on the interface is controlled by the CPU.
2.ROM: Read Only Memory in the router mainly works when the router boots up
or is powered up.
It stores the bootstrap program needed when the router is turned
on.
3.RAM: Random Access Memory in the router contains the executable file and
running file
of the configuration file and the contents are lost when the
router’s power is turned off.
4.Flash Memory: It contains the operating system. The data of the flash
memory remain unchanged
when the router is rebooted or powered off. So,
whenever the router is powered on the OS is
loaded into RAM from flash memory.
5.NVRAM: It stands for Nonvolatile RAM. It is a backup copy of the running
configuration file.
Its functioning basically helps when the router loses power
and the router needs to establish
the configuration and load it again. The content of NVRAM
is changeable. When the router is
powered on it searches the startup-config file in NVRAM
only.
6.Interfaces / Ports: If we want to connect the router with wire or we want a
wired connection there are
multiple interfaces that are used to connect the
network. i.e. Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, and Serial.