SCHOOL OF BIO AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT – I – Biosensors and Measurements – SBMA1301

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 I. Measurement System

Measurement System – Functional elements of an instrumentation system - Static and Dynamic

Characteristics - Errors in Measurements and their statistical analysis – Calibration - Primary
and secondary standards. Bridge Circuits: Wheatstone bridge, Maxwell's bridge, Wein's bridge
and Schering bridge.
1.1 Measurements:
Measurement is defined as the action or act or process of measuring something (any
physical quantity). The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the result of
comparison between the input quantity (whose magnitude is unknown or the physical
parameter is being observed or Measurand) and predefined standard, then the result is
expressed in numerical values.
In fact, measurement is the process by which one can convert any physical parameters
to meaningful numbers. The numerical value is meaningless unless followed by a unit used,
since it (unit) identifies the characteristic or property measured. Figure 1.1 shows the basic
process of measurement.

Figure 1.1: Basic Process of Measurement

Examples: To determine the Length of a piece of paper using ruler, Temperature of water
and pressure of air etc.
1.1.1 Methods of Measurements:
Methods of measurements are broadly classified into two basic categories.
(1) Direct method of measurement and
(2) Indirect method of measurement
1) Direct method of measurement.
In Direct method of measurement, Unknown Quantity (measurand) is directly
compared with predefined standard. The result is expressed as a numerical value and a unit.
Direct methods are common for the measurement of physical quantities like length, mass
and time.
For Example, to measure the length of an iron bar, we compare the length of an iron bar with
a standard ruler. The unit length is metre. An iron bar is so many times long because that
many units on our standard having the same length as the bar. Here we have determined the
length of paper by direct comparison with standard ruler.
➢ Direct methods are not always possible, feasible and practicable.
➢ Most of the cases inaccurate because they involve human factors

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 ➢ Direct methods are also less sensitive.
Hence direct methods are not preferred for accurate measurements and are rarely used.
2) Indirect method of measurement.
In indirect method of measurement, the physical parameters to be measured is
compared with the predefined standard through the use of a calibrated system. (Calibration
is the process of checking the accuracy of instrument by comparing the instrument reading
with a standard or against a similar meter of known accuracy)
➢ Indirect methods are used is industries for accurate measurements.
➢ Example, Temperature measurement using thermocouple in industries.

A measurement system is defined as the system (Group of physical components) which

is used for making measurements. It has as its input the quantity being measured and its
output the value of that quantity. Generally, a measurement system is used to know the
unknown value of a quantity or a variable.
➢ Measurement involves the use of instruments as a physical means of determining
quantities or variable.
➢ In simple measurement, a measuring instrument consists of a single unit which
gives an output reading according to the unknown input quantity applied to it.
➢ In complex measurement, a measuring instrument may be consisting of several
separate elements like sensor/ transducer, signal conditioner and display.
➢ Because of this modular nature of the elements within it, it is common to refer the
measuring instrument as a Measurement system.

1.2 Functions of Measurement systems:

The important three functions of measurement system are i) Indicating Function ii)
Recording Function and iii) Controlling Function.
i) Indicating Function (Indicating measurement system)
Instruments and systems use different kind of methods for obtaining information
concerning the input unknown quantity under measurement. Mostly this information is
obtained as a deflection of pointer of a measuring instrument. In this way the instruments
perform a function which known as indicating function.
Example, the speed of automobile is indicated by deflection of pointer of a
speedometer, Ammeter, Voltmeter and Wattmeter.
ii) Recording Function (Recording measurement system)
In many cases the system makes a written record on the paper according to given input
unknown quantity under measurement against time or against some other variable. Thus,
system or instrument performs a recording function.
Example, Monitoring of instantaneous values of temperature records using
potentiometric strip chart recorder with respect to time, monitoring of pressure and
temperature relationship record for boiler and compressor using X-Y recorder.
iii) Controlling Function (Controlling measurement system)
In this case, the information is used by the instrument or the system to control the
original measured input unknown quantity. This controlling function is one of the most

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important functions used in the field of industrial control processes.

1.3 Elements of a generalized measurement system:

A systematic organization and analysis are more important for measurement systems.
The whole operation system can be described in terms of functional elements. The functional
elements of generalized measurement system are shown in figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Functional elements of generalized measurement system

Most of the measurement system consists of following functional elements.

1. Primary sensing element

2. Variable conversion element
3. Variable manipulation element
4. Data transmission element
5. Data storage and playback element
6. Data presentation element
1. Primary Sensing Element
An element of an instrument which makes first, the contact with the quantity to be
measured is called primary sensing element. Thus, first detection of measurand is done by
the primary sensing element. In most of the cases, a transducer follows primary sensing
element which converts the measurand into a corresponding electrical signal. Transducer is
defined as a device which converts a physical quantity into an electrical quantity. In many
cases the physical quantity is directly converted into an electrical quantity by a transducer.
So, the first stage of a measurement system is known as a detector transducer stage. Example,
Pressure transducer with pressure sensor, Temperature sensor etc.
2. Variable Conversion Element
The output of primary sensing element is electrical signal of any form like a voltage, a
frequency or some other electrical parameter. Sometime this output not suitable for next level
of system. So, it is necessary to convert the output to some other suitable form while
preserving the information content of the original signal to perform the desired function of
the instrument.
Variable conversion element converts the signal from one physical form to another without
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changing the information content of the signal.
For example, the output of primary sensing element is in analog form of signal and
next stage of system accepts only in digital form of signal. So, we have to convert analog
signal into digital form using an A/D converter. Here A/D converter acts as variable
conversion element.

3. Variable Manipulation Element

The function of variable manipulation element is to manipulate the signal presented to
it preserving the original nature of signal. Here manipulation means only change in the
numerical value of signal.
Examples,
1. Voltage amplifier acts as variable manipulation element. Voltage amplifier accepts a
small voltage signal as input and produces the voltage with greater magnitude. Here
numerical value of voltage magnitude is increased.
2. Attenuator acts as variable manipulation element. It accepts a high voltage signal and
produces the voltage or power with lower magnitude. Here numerical value of voltage
magnitude is decreased.
➢ Linear process manipulation elements: Amplification, attenuation, integration,
differentiation, addition and subtraction etc.,
➢ Nonlinear process manipulation elements: Modulation, detection, sampling,
filtering, chopping and clipping etc.
These are performed on the signal to bring it to desired level to be accepted by the next stage
of measurement system. This process of conversion is called signal conditioning. The
combination of variable conversion and variable manipulation elements are called as Signal
Conditioning Element.

4. Data Transmission Element

The elements of measurement system are actually physically separated; it becomes
necessary to transmit the data from one to another. The element which is performs this
function is called as data transmission element.
Example, Control signals are transmitted from earth station to Space-crafts by a telemetry
system using radio signals.
The combination of Signal conditioning and transmission element is known as
Intermediate Stage of measurement system.
5. Data storage and playback element
Some applications require a separate data storage and playback function for easily
to rebuild the stored data based on the command. The data storage is made in the form of
pen/ink and digital recording. Examples, magnetic tape recorder/ reproducer, X-Y
recorder, X-t recorder, Optical Disc recording etc.
6. Data presentation Element
The information about the measured physical quantity is to be presented to a person
handling the instrument in the proper form for monitoring, control and analysis purposes.
This function is done by data presentation element. If the data is to be monitored then visual

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display devices are used as data presentation element.
These devices may be analog or digital instruments like ammeter, voltmeter, camera,
CRT, printers, analog and digital computers. Computers are used for control and analysis of
measured data of measurement system. This Final stage of measurement system is known as
Terminating stage.

Example of generalized measurement system

Example 1. Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge:

The simple pressure measurement system using bourdon tube pressure gauge is shown
in figure 1.3. The detail functional elements of this pressure measurement system is given
below.

Figure 1.3: Bourdon tube pressure gauge

In this measurement system, bourdon tube acts as primary sensing and variable
conversion element. Bourdon tube senses the input pressure and on account of input pressure
the closed end of the tube is displaced. Pressure in converted into small displacement. The
closed end of bourdon tube is connected through mechanical linkage to a gearing
arrangement. The gearing arrangement amplifies the small displacement and makes the
pointer to rotate through large angle. The mechanical linkage acts as a data transmission
element while the gearing arrangement acts as a data manipulation element. The final data
presentation stage consists of pointer & dial arrangement which gives an indication of the
pressure signal applied to the bourdon tube. The schematic diagram of this measurement
system is given in Fig:1.4

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 Figure 1.4: Schematic diagram of a Bourdon tube pressure gauge

1.4 Characteristics of Measuring Instruments:

These performance characteristics of an instrument are very important in their selection.

➢ Static Characteristics: Static characteristics of an instrument are considered for
instruments which are used to measure an unvarying process condition.
Performance criteria based upon static relations represent the static
Characteristics. (The static characteristics are the value or performance given
after the steady state condition has reached).
➢ Dynamic Characteristics: Dynamic characteristics of an instrument are
considered for instruments which are used to measure a varying process
condition. Performance criteria based upon dynamic relations represent the
dynamic Characteristics.

1.4.1 Static Characteristics:

(i)Range and Span

• Range : The region between which the instrument operate is called range. Example:
An ammeter whose scale reads from 0 to 1 mA is said to have a range from 0 to 1m A.
• Span is the algebraic difference between the upper and lower limits of the instrument
range. Example: span :1mA
• For a thermometer calibrated between 200degree centigrade to 500 degree centigrade,
the span is 300 degree centigrade .
(ii) Accuracy
• It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true value of the
quantity to be measured.
• It determines the closeness to true value of instrument reading. The accuracy can be
expressed in following ways:
• a) Point accuracy: This is the accuracy of the instrument only at one point on its scale.
• b)Accuracy as percentage of scale range: When an instrument as uniform scale, its
accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale range.
• Eg: Accuracy of an instrument is specified by ±5% for the range of 0 to 200ºC in the
temperature scale means the reading might be within + or -10ºC of the true reading.
• C) Accuracy as percentage of true value: The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy

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 is to specify it in terms of the true value of the quantity being measured. Eg 5% of true
value
(iii) Precision
Precision is the degree of repeatability of a series of the measurement. Precision
is measures of the degree of closeness of agreement within a group of measurements
are repeatedly made under the prescribed condition.
Precision is used in measurements to describe the stability or reliability or the
reproducibility of results.
• The precision is composed of two characteristics:
• a) Conformity: Consider a resistor having true value as 2385692ohm , which is being
measured by an ohmmeter. But the reader can read consistently, a value as 2.4 M ohm
due to the nonavailability of proper scale.
• b) Number of significant figures: The precision of the measurement is obtained from
the number of significant figures, in which the reading is expressed. The significant
figures convey the actual information about the magnitude & the measurement precision
of the quantity. More significant figures greater is the precision of an instrument.Eg:
210 V, 210.1V,210.04V
Comparison between accuracy and precision.
S.No Accuracy Precision
1. It refers to degree of closeness of the It refers to the degree of agreement
measured value to the true value. among group of readings
2. Accuracy gives the maximum error that Precision of a measuring system
is maximum departure of the final result gives its capability to reproduce a
from its true value. certain reading with a given accuracy

iv) Static Error

It is defined as the difference between the measured value and the true value of the
quantity.
True value:It is the error free value of the measured variable.
True value= Measured value – Static error
v) Sensitivity:
Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of change in output signal (response) to the
change in input signal (measurand). It is the relationship indicating how much output
changes when input changes.
change in output
Sensitivity =
change in input

∆qo
Sensitivity =
∆qi
If the sensitivity is constant then the system is said to be linear system. If the
sensitivity is variable then the system is said to be non linear system.

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 Figure 1.5: Definition of sensitivity for (a) Linear and (b) Non linear instrument

When the calibration curve is linear as in figure 1.5a the sensitivity of the
instrument can be defined as in slope of the calibration curve. In this case sensitivity is
constant over the entire range of instrument. If the curve is not normally straight line
or nonlinear instrument sensitivity varies with the input or varies from on range to
another as in figure 1.5b.
(vi) Linearity
• Linearity is the best characteristics of an instrument or measurement system.
• Linearity of the instrument refers to the output is linearly or directly proportional
to input over the entire range of instrument.
• So the degree of linear (straight line) relationship between the output to input is
called as linearity of an instrument.

Nonlinearity: The maximum difference or deviation of output curve from the Specified
idealized straight line.

(vi) Repeatability
• Repeatability is defined as the ability of an instrument to give the same output for
repeated applications of same input value under same environmental condition.

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 • It is the closeness between successive measurements of the output quantity for the same
value of input under the same operating conditions.
(vii) Reproducibility
• Reproducibility is defined as the ability of an instrument to reproduce the same output
for repeated applications of same input value under different environment condition.
• In case of perfect reproducibility, the instrument satisfies no drift condition
(viii) Drift
• Drift is an undesirable change in output over a period of time that is unrelated to change
in input, operating conditions. (value of input variable, operating conditions does not
change)
• Drift is occurred in instruments due to internal temperature variations, ageing effects
and high stress etc.
• Drift may be classified into three categories:
• A)zero drift
• B)Span drift
• C)Zonal drift

A)zero drift
If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or due to
undue warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in.

B)Span drift
If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale, the drifts is
called span drift or sensitivity drift.
C)Zonal drift
In case the drift occurs only a portion of span of an instrument, it is called zonal
drift.

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 (ix) Hysteresis

• Hysteresis is Non-coincidence of loading and unloading curves on output.

• When input of an instrument is slowly varied from zero to full scale and then back to
zero, its output varies as shown in fig.

• If input is decreases from maximum value and output also decreases but does not follow
the same curve, then there is a residual output when input is zero. This phenomenon is
called Hysteresis. The difference between increasing change and decreasing change of
output values is known as hysteresis error.

(x) Threshold

• The minimum value of input which is necessary to activate an instrument to produce

an output is termed its threshold
• Threshold is the minimum value of the input required to cause the pointer to move
from zero position
• If the input is increased very gradually from zero, there will be some minimum value
below which no output change can be detected.
• This minimum value defines the threshold of an instrument.

(xi) Dead time

• It is the time required by a measurement system to begin to respond to a change in the

measurand.
(xii) Dead zone
• Dead zone or dead band is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which
there is no output the instrument.

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 • The region upto which the instrument does not respond for an input change is called
dead zone.
(xiii) Resolution
Resolution or Discrimination is the smallest change in the input value that is required
to cause an appreciable change in the output. (The smallest increment in input or input
change which can be detected by an instrument is called as resolution or
discrimination). So, if a non-zero quantity is slowly increased, output reading will not
increase until some minimum change in the input takes place. The minimum change
which causes the change in the output is called discrimination.
(xiii) Loading Effect

• Loading effect is the incapability of the system to faith fully measure, record or control
the input signal in accurate form
1.4.2 Dynamic characteristics

• Dynamic characteristics of an instrument are considered for instruments which are used
to measure a varying process condition.

• The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are changes rapidly with time, is
called ‘dynamic characteristics.

• As the input varies from instant to instant, output also varies from instant to instant.
• The dynamic behaviour of an instrument is determined by applying some standard form
of known and predetermined input to its primary element (sensing element) and then
studies the output.

• Generally dynamic behaviour is determined by applying following three types of

inputs.
1. Step Input.
2.Linear Input
3.Sinusoidal input
• Step change in which the primary element is subjected to an instantaneous and finite
change in measured variable and then remains constant

• Linear Input: Linear change, in which the primary element is, follows a measured
variable, changing linearly with time.
• Sinusoidal input: Sinusoidal change, in which the primary element follows a measured
variable, the magnitude of which changes in accordance with a sinusoidal function of
constant amplitude
The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are
• (i) Speed of response

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 • (ii) Lag
• (iii) Fidelity

• (iv) Dynamic error

(i) Speed of response

• It is the rapidity with which an instrument responds to changes in the measured quantity.
• It gives information about how fast the system reacts to the changes in the input.
(ii) Lag

• It is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the measured

variable. The measuring lags are two types:
➢ Retardation type: In this case the response of an instrument begins immediately
after a change in measured variable has occurred.
➢ Time delay type: In this case the response of an instrument begins after a dead
time after the application of the input quantity.
(iii) Fidelity

• It is the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the measured variable
without dynamic error.

• (faithful reproduction or fidelity of an instrument is the ability of reproducing an input

signal faithfully (truly)).
(iv) Dynamic error

• It is the difference between the true values of a quantity changing with time and the
value indicated by the instrument, if no static error is assumed.

• It is also called as Measurement Error.

1.5 Errors in Measurements and their statistical analysis
Errors:
The difference between the measured value of quantity and true value (Reference
Value) of quantity is called as Error.
Error = Measured value - True
Value δA= Am - At

1.5.1 Classification of Errors:

All measurement can be made without perfect accuracy (degree of error must always
be assumed). In reality, no measurement can ever made with 100% accuracy. It is important
to find that actual accuracy and different types of errors can be occurred in measuring
instruments. Errors may arise from different sources and usually classified as follows,
Classification of Error
➢ Gross Errors
➢ Systematic Errors

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 1. Instrumental errors
i. Inherent shortcomings of instruments
ii. Misuse of instruments
iii. Loading effects
2. Environmental errors
3. Observational errors
➢ Random Errors
1.Gross Errors
• These gross errors mainly occur due to carelessness or lack of experience of a human
being.
• The main source of Gross errors is human mistakes in reading or using instruments and
in recording and calculating measured quantity.
• As long as human beings are involved and they may grossly misread the scale reading,
then definitely some gross errors will be occurred in measured value.
• Example, (i)Due to an oversight, Experimenter read the voltage as 31.5 V, While the
actual reading is 21.5 V
• (ii) The reading may be transposed while recording. For example, 25.8 V actual reading
may be recorded as 28.5 V.
• The complete elimination of gross errors is maybe impossible, one should try to predict
and correct them.
• Some gross errors are easily identified while others may be very difficult to detect.
• The complete elimination of gross errors is not possible but one can minimize by the
following ways.
• Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
• Two, three or even more readings should be taken for the quantity being measured by
using different experimenters
• So, it is suitable to take a large number of readings as a close agreement between
readings assures that no gross error has been occurred in measured values.
2.Systematic Errors
Systematic errors are divided into following three categories.
i. Instrumental Errors
ii. Environmental Errors
iii. Observational Errors

i) Instrumental Errors
These errors are arises due to following three reasons (sources of error).
a) Due to inherent shortcoming of instrument
b) Due to misuse of the instruments, and
c) Due to loading effects of instruments
a) Inherent Shortcomings of instruments
➢ These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical
structure due to construction, calibration or operation of the instruments or

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 measuring devices.
➢ These errors may cause the instrument to read too low or too high.
Example, if the spring (used for producing controlling torque) of a permanent
magnet instrument has become weak, so the instrument will always read
high. Errors may be caused because of friction, hysteresis .
Elimination or reduction methods of these errors,
➢ The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.
➢ The procedure of measurement must be carefully planned. Substitution methods or
calibration against standards may be used for the purpose.
➢ Correction factors should be applied after determining the instrumental errors.
(b) Misuse of the Instruments
➢ In some cases the errors are occurred in measurement due to the fault of the operator
than that of the instrument.
➢ A good instrument used in an unintelligent way may give wrong results.
➢ Examples, Misuse of instruments may be failure to do zero adjustment of instrument,
poor initial adjustments, using leads of high resistance and ill practices of instrument
beyond the manufacturer’s instruction and specifications etc.
➢ Such things do not cause the permanent damage to the instruments but definitely cause
errors.

(C) Loading effects of Instruments

• The errors committed by loading effects due to improper use of an instrument for
measurement work.
• In measurement system, loading effects are identified and corrections should be made
or more suitable instruments can be used.

• Example, a well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading (may be false) voltage
reading when connected across a high resistance circuit. The same voltmeter, when
connected across a low resistance circuit may give a more reliable reading (dependable
or steady or true value). In this example, voltmeter has a loading effect on the circuit,
altering the actual circuit conditions by measurement process.

• So errors caused by loading effect of the meters can be avoided by using them
intelligently.

(ii) Environmental Errors

Environmental error occurs due to external environmental conditions of the
instrument, such as effects of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibration or external
magnetic or electrostatic fields.
Elimination or reduction methods of these undesirable errors are
➢ Arrangements should be made to keep the conditions as nearly as constant as
possible. Example, temperature can be kept constant by keeping the instrument in the

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 temperature-controlled region.
➢ The device which is used against these environmental effects.
Example, variations in resistance with temperature can be minimized by using very
low resistance temperature co-efficient of resistive material.
➢ Employing techniques which eliminate the effects of these disturbances. For
example, the effect of humidity dust etc., can be entirely eliminated by tightly sealing
the equipment.
➢ The external or electrostatic effects can be eliminated by using magnetic or
electrostatic shield on the instrument.
➢ Applying computed corrections: Efforts are normally made to avoid the use of
application of computed corrections, but where these corrections are needed and are
necessary, they are incorporated for the computations of the results.

(iii) Observational Errors

There are many sources of observational errors. As an example, the pointer of a
voltmeter rests slightly above the surface of the scale. Thus an error on account of
PARALLAX will be acquired unless the line of vision of the observer is exactly above the
pointer. To minimize parallax errors, highly accurate meters are provided with mirrored
scales as shown in figure 1.6.

Correct reading 250V

Figure 1.6: Errors due to parallax

When the pointer’s image appears hidden by the pointer, observer’s eye is directly in
line with the pointer. Although a mirrored scale minimizes parallax error, an error is
necessarily presented through it may be very small.

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 So we can eliminate this parallax error by having the pointer and scale in the same
plane as shown in figure 1.7

Figure 1.7: Arrangements showing scale and pointer in the same plane

The observational errors are also occurring due to involvement of human factors. For
example, there are observational errors in measurements involving timing of an event
Different observer may produce different results, especially when sound and light
measurement are involved.
The complete elimination of this error can be achieved by using digital display of
output.
3. Random Errors
• These errors are occurred due to unknown causes and are observed when the
magnitude and polarity of a measurement fluctuate in changeable (random) manner.
• The quantity being measure is affected by many happenings or disturbances and
ambient influence about which we are unaware are lumped together and called as
Random or Residual. The errors caused by these disturbances are called Random
Errors. Since the errors remain even after the systematic errors have been taken care,
those errors are called as Residual (Random) Errors
• Random errors cannot normally be predicted or corrected, but they can be minimized
by skilled observer and using a well-maintained quality instrument.
• These errors may be reduced by taking the average of a large number of readings.
1.6 Statistical Analysis:
• Statistical Evaluation of measured data is obtained in two methods of tests as shown
in below.
o Multi Sample Test: In multi sample test, repeated measured data have been
acquired by different instruments, different methods of measurement and
different observers.
o Single Sample Test: measured data have been acquired by identical conditions
(same instrument, methods and observer) excepting time
o Inorder to get the exact value of the quantity under measurement, tests should
be done using many different procedures, techniques and experimenters.
• Statistical Evaluation methods will give the most probable true value of measured
quantity. The mathematical background statistical evaluation methods are Arithmetic
Mean, Deviation Average Deviation, Standard Deviation and variance.

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 1.6.1 Arithmetic Mean
• The most probable value of measured reading is the arithmetic mean of the number
of reading taken.
• The best approximation is made when the number of readings of the same quantity is
very large.
• Arithmetic mean or average of measured variables X is calculated by taking the sum
of all readings and dividing by the number of reading.
• The Average is given by,
X = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛)/ n = Σx /n
Where, X= Arithmetic mean,
x1, x2....... xn = Readings or variable or samples and
n= number of readings

1.6.2 Deviation (Deviation from the Average value)

• The Deviation is departure of the observed reading from the arithmetic mean of the
group of reading.
• Let the deviation of reading x1 be d1 and that of x2 be d2 etc.,
d1= x1- X
d2= x2- X
.. .. ..
dn= xn- X
• The algebraic sum deviation is Zero (d1+ d2+....+ dn= 0)
Algebraic sum of deviations= d1+d2+d3+… +dn
= (x1- X)+ (x2- X )+ ……..+ (xn- X)
= (x1+x2+..+xn)-nX=0
Where (x1+x2+..+xn)= nX

1.6.3 Average Deviation: Average deviation defined as the average of the modulus
(without respect to its sign) of the individual deviations and is given by,
• D = |𝑑1 | + |𝑑2 | + |𝑑3 | + ⋯ + |𝑑𝑛 | n = Σ|d| n
• Where, D= Average Deviation.
• The average deviation is used to identify precision of the instruments which is used
in making measurements. Highly precise instruments will give a low average
deviation between readings.

1.6.4 Standard Deviation :

• Standard deviation is used to analysis random errors occurred in measurement.
• The standard Deviation of an infinite number of data is defined as the square root of
the sum of individual deviations squared, divided by the number of readings (n).

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 1.6.5 Variance
The variance is the mean square deviation, which is the same as S.D except Square
root. Variance is Just the squared standard deviation.

1.6.6 Histogram (Frequency distribution Curve)

• When a number of Multisample observations are taken experimentally there is a
scatter of the data about some central value.
• One graphical method to present test results is called histogram. A histogram is also
called a frequency distribution curve.
• This histogram indicates the number of occurrences of particular value.
• The ordinate indicates the number of observed readings (frequency of occurrence) of
a particular value.
• The steps have smaller increments and we get a smoother curve.

Length (mm) Number of observed readings

(frequency or occurrence)
99.7 1
99.8 4
99.9 12
100.0 19
100.1 10
100.2 3
100.3 1

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 Example: Table shows a set of 50 readings of length measurement. The most
probable or central value of length is 100mm represented as shown in figure 1.8
Histogram.

figure 1.8 Histogram.

1.6.7 Measure of Dispersion from the Mean

The property which denotes the extent to which the values are dispersed about the
central value is termed as dispersion. The other name of dispersion is spread or scatter.
Measure of dispersion from central value is an indication of the degree of consistency
(precision) and regularity of the data.
Example: Figure 1.9 shows the two sets of data and curve 1 vary from x1 to x2 and curve 2
vary from x3 to x4. Curve 1 is having smaller dispersion from central value than the curve
2. Therefore curve 1 is having greater precision than the curve 2.

Figure 1.9: Curves showing different ranges and precision index

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1.6.8 Probable error of finite number of readings

1.6.9 Limiting error

• In most of the instruments the accuracy is guaranteed to be within a certain percentage
of full scale reading.

• The manufacturer has to specify the deviations from the nominal value of a particular
quantity.

• The limits of these deviations from the specified value are called as Limiting Errors
or Guarantee Errors.

1.6.10 Relative limiting error

• The relative limiting error is defined as the ratio of the error to the specified (nominal)
magnitude of the quantity. This is also called fractional error.

21
Example.1: The set of voltage measurement that were recorded by eight different students in
the laboratory as follows: 532V, 548V, 543V, 535V, 546V, 531V, 543V and 536. Calculate
the Arithmetic mean, Deviations from mean, average deviation, the standard deviation,
variance and probable error on recorded voltage data.

22
Example 2

23
1.7 Calibration

Calibration is the process of checking the accuracy of instrument by comparing the

instrument reading with a standard or against a similar meter of known accuracy. So using
calibration is used to find the errors and accuracy of the measurement system or an
instrument.
Calibration is an essential process to be undertaken for each instrument and
measuring system regularly. The instruments which are actually used for measurement work
must be calibrated against some reference instruments in which is having higher accuracy.

24
Reference instruments must be calibrated against instrument of still higher accuracy or
against primary standard or against other standards of known accuracy.
The calibration is better carried out under the predetermined environmental
conditions. All industrial grade instruments can be checked for accuracy in the laboratory by
using the working standard.
Certification of an instrument manufactured by an industry is undertaken by National
Physical Laboratory and other authorizes laboratories where the secondary standards and
working standards are kept.

1.7.1 Process of Calibration

The procedure involved in calibration is called as process of calibration. Calibration
procedure involves the comparison of particular instrument with either
➢ A primary standard,
➢ A secondary standard with higher accuracy than the instrument to be calibrated
➢ An instrument of known accuracy.
Procedure of calibration as follows.
➢ Study the construction of the instrument and identify and list all the possible inputs.
➢ Choose, as best as one can, which of the inputs will be significant in the application
for which the instrument is to be calibrated.
➢ Standard and secure apparatus that will allow all significant inputs to vary over the
ranges considered necessary.
➢ By holding some input constant, varying others and recording the output, develop
the desired static input-output relations.
Theory and Principles of Calibration Methods
Calibration methods are classified into following two types,
1) Primary or Absolute method of calibration
2) Secondary or Comparison method of calibration
i. Direct comparison method of calibration
ii. Indirect comparison method of calibration
1) Primary or Absolute method of calibration
If the particular test instrument (the instrument to be calibrated) is calibrated against
primary standard, then the calibration is called as primary or absolute calibration. After the
primary calibration, the instrument can be used as a secondary calibration instrument.

Test Meter (The instrument Primary

to be calibrated) standar
d meter or
Figure 1.10: Representation of Primary Calibration

2) Secondary or Comparison calibration method

If the instrument is calibrated against secondary standard instrument, then the
calibration is called as secondary calibration. This method is used for further calibration of
other devices of lesser accuracy. Secondary calibration instruments are used in laboratory
practice and also in the industries because they are practical calibration sources.

25
 Test Meter (The instrument Secondary standard
to be calibrated) meter or
instrument
Figure 1.11: Representation of Secondary Calibration

Secondary calibration can be classified further two types,

i) Direct comparison method of Calibration
Direct comparison method of calibration with a known input source with same order
of accuracy as primary calibration. So the instrument which is calibrated directly is also used
as secondary calibration instruments.
Standard instrument Test Instrument (The voltmeter to be
calibrated
Figure 1.12: Representation of Direct method of Calibration

ii) Indirect comparison method of Calibration

The procedure of indirect method of calibration is based on the equivalence of two
different devices with same comparison concept.

Source Reading Test Instrument (Device 1)

Standard instrument (Device 2)

Figure 1.13: Representation of indirect method of Calibration

1.8 Standards of measurement:

• A standard is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. A known accurate
measure of physical quantity is termed as standard. These standards are used to determine the
accuracy of other physical quantities by the comparison method.
• Example, the fundamental unit of mass in the International System is the Kilogram and
defined as the mass of a cubic decimetre of water at its temperature of maximum of density
of 4oC.
• Different standards are developed for checking the other units of measurements and all
these standards are preserved at the International Bureau of Weight and Measures at Serves,
Paris.
1.8.1 Classification of Standards
• Based on the functions and applications, standards are classified into four categories
1)International standards
2) Primary standards
3) Secondary standards

26
4) Working standards

1)International standards
• International standards are defined and established upon internationally.
• They are maintained at the International Bureau of Weights and measures and are not
accessible to ordinary users for measurements and calibration.
• They are periodically evaluated and checked by absolute measurements in terms of
fundamental units of physics.
• International Ohms: It is defined as the resistance offered by a column of mercury
having a mass of 14.4521gms, uniform cross sectional area and length of 106.300cm, to the
flow of constant current at the melting point of ice.
2)Primary Standards
• Primary standards are maintained by the National Standards Laboratories (NSL) in
different parts of the world.
• The principle function of primary standards is the calibration and verification of
secondary standards.
• They are not available outside the National Laboratory for calibration.
• These primary standards are absolute standards of high accuracy that can be used as
ultimate reference standards.
3)Secondary Standards
• These standards are basic reference standards used by measurement and calibration
laboratories in industries.
• These secondary standards are maintained by the particular industry to which they
belong.
• Each industry has its own secondary standard.
• Each laboratory periodically sends its secondary standard to the National Standards
Laboratory for calibration and comparison against the primary standards.
• After comparison and calibration , the National Standards Laboratory returns the
secondary standards to the particular industrial laboratory with a certification of measuring
accuracy in terms of primary standards.
4)Working Standards
• The working standards are used for day-to-day use in measurement laboratories. So this
standard is the principle tools of a measurement laboratory.
• It is used to check and calibrate laboratory instruments for accuracy and performance.

27
• Example, manufacturers of electronic components such as capacitors, resistors etc , use
a standard called working standard for checking the component values being manufactured, a
standard resistor for checking of resistance value manufactured.
1.9 Bridge Circuits
• Bridge circuits are used for measurement of resistance, inductance and capacitance.
• It consists of a network of 4 resistance arms forming a closed circuit.
• A source of current is applied to opposite junctions and the current detector is connected
to other two junctions.
• It uses the comparison measurement methods and operate on null- indication principle.
• Bridge circuit compares the value of unknown component with that of an accurately
known component, so its measurement accuracy is high.
• At balance condition, no current flows through the galvanometer.
• The components to be measured in one branch of the network and the network is
adjusted until the detector indicates no output. At this condition, the bridge is said to be
balanced.
• Then the unknown value can be found from the known values of the circuit.
1.9.1 Types of bridges
• Two types of bridges
• (i) D.C bridges
• (ii) A.C bridges
• (i) D.C bridges- used for the measurement of resistance, use the d.c voltage as the
excitation voltage.
• (ii) A.C bridges- used for the measurement of impedances consisting of inductance
and capacitances, use the alternating voltage as the excitation voltage.
1.9.2 Wheatstone bridge (D.C bridge)

28
1.9.3 A.C bridges
• Bridge arms are replaced by impedances
• Bridge is excited by an AC source.
• Galvanometer is replaced by detectors (Head phones, vibration galvanometers,
tuneable amplifier detectors)

29
1.9.3.1 Maxwells inductance bridge
• The bridge used for the measurement of self-inductance of the circuit is known as the
Maxwell bridge.
• It is the advanced form of the Wheatstone bridge.
• The Maxwell bridge works on the principle of the comparison, i.e., the value of
unknown inductance is determined by comparing it with the known value or standard value.
• Two methods are used for determining the self-inductance of the circuit. They are
• Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
• Maxwell’s inductance Capacitance Bridge

30
Maxwell’s inductance bridge

Figure 1.15 Maxwell’s inductance Bridge

• the value of unknown inductance is determined by comparing it with the known value
of the standard self-inductance.
• Let, L1– unknown inductance of resistance R1.
• L2– Variable inductance of fixed resistance r2 .
• R2 – variable resistance connected in series with inductor L2.
• R3, R4 – known non-inductance resistance

• Impedance of arm ab, Z1 = (R1+jωL1)

• Impedance of arm ad, Z2 = (R2+r2+jωL2)

• Impedance of arm bc, Z3 = R3

• Impedance of arm cd, Z4 = R4

• Hence for balanced bridge,

Z1Z4 =Z2 Z3

• (R1+jωL1) R4=(R2+r2+jωL2) R3

• R1 R4 + jωL1 R4 = R2 R3+r2 R3 +jωL2R3

• R1 R4 + jωL1 R4 = ( R2 +r2 ) R3 +jωL2R3

31
1.9.3.2 Maxwell’s Inductance Capacitance Bridge

Figure 1.16 Maxwell’s inductance Capacitance Bridge

32
1.9.3.3 Schering Bridge

Figure 1.17 Schering Bridge

33
1.9.3.4 Wien’s bridge

Figure 1.18 Wien’s Bridge

34
TEXT / REFERENCE BOOKS

1. A. K. Sawhney, A course in electronic Measurements and Instruments, Dhanpat Rai

Sons, 2014
2. H.S. Kalsi, Electronic Instrumentation & Measurement, Tata McGraw Hill, 2011.

35
 SCHOOL OF BIO AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT – II – Biosensors and Measurements – SBMA1301

1
 II.Passive and Active Transducers

Classification of transducers and characteristics for selection of transducers - Resistive

transducers-Strain Gauge, Capacitive transducer - various arrangements, Inductive transducer,
LVDT, Passive types: RTD materials & range, relative resistance vs. temperature
characteristics, thermistor characteristics, Active type: Thermocouple - characteristics.
Piezoelectric active transducer- Equivalent circuit and its characteristics. photo multiplier tube
(PMT), photovoltaic, photo conductive cells, photo diodes, phototransistor, Optical
displacement sensors and optical encoders.

2.1Transducer
Transducer is defined as a device, which converts energy or information from one form to
another. It is a device which converts a physical quantity into an electrical signal.
2.1.1 Classification of transducers
The transducers may be classified in various ways such as on the basis of electrical principles
involved, methods of application, methods of energy conversion used, nature of output signal
etc
• On the basis of transduction form used
• Primary and Secondary Transducers
• Active and Passive Transducers
• Analog and Digital Transducers
• Transducers and Inverse Transducers
(i)On the basis of transduction form used
• Depending upon how they convert the input quantity into resistance, inductance or
capacitance.
• Resistive, inductive, capacitive etc.
(ii)Primary and Secondary Transducers
• Some transducers consist of mechanical device along with the electrical device.
• In such transducer’s mechanical device acts as a primary transducer and converts
physical quantity into mechanical signal.
• The electrical device that converts mechanical signal produced by primary transducer
into an electrical signal acts as a secondary transducer.

2
 • For example, in case of pressure measurement, bourdon tube is a primary sensor which
converts pressure first into displacement, and then the displacement is converted into
an output voltage by an LVDT. In this case LVDT is secondary transducer.

Figure 2.1 Pressure measurement

(iii)Active and Passive Transducers
• Active transducers- These transducers do not require any external source or power for
their operation. So they are called as self-generating type.eg) Piezo electric crystal.
• Passive transducers- do not generate electrical signals by themselves. To obtain an
electric signal for such transducers an extrernal power source is essential. They are also
known as externally power-driven transducers. Eg. POT, LVDT
(iv)Analog and Digital Transducers
• Transducers, on the basis of nature of output signal, may be classified into analog and
digital transducers.
• Analog transducer converts input signal into output signal, which is a continuous
function of time such as thermistor, strain gauge, LVDT, thermo-couple etc.
• Digital transducer converts input signal into the output signal of the form of pulse e.g.
it gives discrete output.
(v)Transducers and Inverse Transducers
• Transducer, as already defined, is a device that converts a non-electrical quantity into
an electrical quantity.
• An inverse transducer is a device that converts an electrical quantity into a non-
electrical quantity. (e.g) Loudspeaker converts electrical signal to sound signal. An
ammeter or voltmeter converts electric current into mechanical movement.
2.2 Characteristics for selection of transducers
• Operating Range: Choice of transducer depends upon the useful range of input
quantity.
• Type of Input: The type of input, which can be any physical quantity, is generally
determined in advance .

3
 • Loading Effect : The transducer, that is selected for a particular application should
ideally exact NO force, power or energy from the quantity under measurement in order
that is measured accurately
• Response of transducer to environmental influences: It should not be subjected to
any disturbances like stray electromagnetic and electrostatic fields, mechanical shocks
and vibrations temperature changes, pressure and humidity changes, changes in supply
voltage and improper mechanical mountings.
• Accuracy & repeatability :High accuracy ensures that frequent calibration is not
required and errors are less. Repeatability is more important than accuracy
• Type of Electrical Output: The type of output which may be available from the
transducers may be available from the transducers may be a voltage, current ,
impedance or a time function of these amplitudes.
• Sensitivity : The transducers must be sensitive enough to produce detectable output.
• Stability and reliability: The transducer should exhibit a high degree of stability
during its operation and storage life
• ruggedness :The ruggedness both of mechanical and electrical intensities of the
transducer versus its size and weight must be considered. To withstand overloads.
Static characteristics-low hysteresis, low non-linearity, high resolution
2.3 Resistive Transducer
• Resistive transducers are those in which the resistance changes due to a change in some
physical phenomenon.
• In general, the resistance of a metal conductor is given by,
• R = ρ L/A.
• Where L is the length ,
• A is cross sectional area and
• ρ is resistivity of the resistance material.
• resistance can be changed if any of these value ρ,L or A is changed.
Physical phenomenon (i.e) input signal to the transducer causes variation in resistance
by changing anyone of the quantities ρ,L or A.
2.3.1 Potentiometers
• Principle Of Operation
• The resistance of their conductor varies with the variation in their lengths which is used
for the measurement of displacement.
• A resistance potentiometer consists of a wire wound resistive element provided with a
sliding contact.

4
• This sliding contact is called as wiper.
• A wire is generally made up of platinum or nickel alloy and has diameter as small as
0.01 mm. Thus, this wire is wound on insulating former.
• The resistance elements are also made up of cermet, hot moulded carbon,carbon film.
• With the help of potentiometric resistance transducers mechanical displacement is
converted into an electrical output.
• The displacement either linear or angular is applied to the sliding contact and then the
corresponding change in resistance is converted into voltage or current.

Figure 2.2
• POT - It’s a Passive Transducer.
• Linear Pot –Translational Motion
• Rotary Pot-Rotational Motion
• Helipots- Combination of the two motions (translational as well as rotational).
Advantages
• Cost-effective
• Simple design and simple working
• Can be used for measuring even large displacements.
• The device produces a large output and hence can be used for control purposes without
further amplification steps. Thus the whole operation is bounded to a single device.
• Can produce a high electrical efficiency.
Disadvantages
• A huge force may be required for the slider movement.
• Can produce unwanted noise due to alignment problems, wear and tear of the sliding
contact. This may also affect the total life of the device.

5
2.3.2 Strain Gauge
• When an external force is applied to an elastic material, stress is generated, which
Subsequently deforms the material.
• At this time if applied force is a tensile force, the length L of the material extends to
L+DL. The ratio of DL to L, that is DL/L, is called strain.
• (Precisely, this is called normal strain or longitudinal strain.) On the other hand, if a
compressive force is applied, the length L is reduced to L- DL. Strain at this time is (-
DL)/L.
• Strain is usually represented as e.
• Passive transducer
• Uses the variation in electrical resistance in wires to sense the strain produced by a force
on the wires.

Figure 2.3 Strain gauge connected to a wheatstone bridge

2.3.2.1Types of strain gauges

• Wire strain gauges
a. Unbonded resistance wire Strain Gauge

6
 b. Bonded resistance wire Strain Gauge
• Foil strain gauges
• Semiconductor strain gauges
• Wire strain gauges
Unbonded Metal Strain Gauge

Figure:2.4 Unbonded strain gauge and measurement with a wheatstone bridge

• Used almost exclusively in transducer applications.
• At initial preload , the strains and resistances of the four arms are normally equal, with
the result the output voltage of the bridge, e0=0.
• Application of pressure produces a small displacement , the displacement increases
tension in 2 wires and decreasing the resistance of the remaining 2 wires.
• This causes an unbalance of the bridge producing an output voltage which is
proportional to the input displacement and hence to the applied pressure.
Bonded Metal Wire Strain Gauge

Figure:2.5 Bonded metal wire strain gauge

7
It consist of a grid of fine resistance wire of diameter of about 0.025mm.
• The wire is cemented to a base.
• The base – thin sheet of paper or bakelite.
• Wire is covered with a thin sheet of material so that it is not damaged
mechanically.
The spreading of wire permits a uniform distribution of stress over a grid.
Bonded Metal Foil Strain Gauge

Figure 2.6: Bonded metal foil strain gauge

• Extension of the bonded metal wire strain gauge.
• The bonded metal wire strain gauge have been completely superseded by bonded foil
strain gauge.
• Mostly used for the purpose of stress analysis and for many transducers.
• It have a much greater heat dissipation capacity due to larger surface area.
• They can be used for higher operating temperature range.
Semiconductor strain gauges

Figure 2.7: Semiconductor strain gauge

• In order to have a high sensitivity, a high value of gauge factor is desirable.
• A high gauge factor means a relatively higher change in resistance which can be easily
measured with a good degree of accuracy.

8
 • Semiconductor strain gauges are used where a very high gauge factor is required.
• The basic principle of operation of the semiconductor strain gauge is the piezoresistive
effect(i.e) the change in value of resistance due to change in reistivity of the
semiconductor because of strain applied.
• Semi-conducting materials such as silicon and germanium are used as resistive
materials for semi-conductor strain gauges.
• A typical semiconductor strain gauge is formed by the semiconductor technology i.e.,
the semiconducting wafers or filaments of length varying from 2 mm to 10 mm and
thickness of 0.05 mm are bonded on suitable insulating substrates (for example Teflon).
• The gold leads are usually employed for making electrical contacts.
2.4 Capacitive transducer
The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the displacement, pressure and other physical
quantities. It is a passive transducer that means it requires external power for operation. The
capacitive transducer works on the principle of variable capacitances. The capacitive
transducer contains two parallel metal plates. These plates are separated by the dielectric
medium which is either air, material, gas or liquid. In the normal capacitor the distance between
the plates are fixed, but in capacitive transducer the distance between them are varied. In the
instruments using capacitance transducers the value of the capacitance changes due to change
in the value of the input quantity that is to be measured.

Figure 2.8: Capacitive transducer

The capacitance C between the two plates of capacitive transducers is given by:

Where A – overlapping area of plates in m2

d – the distance between two plates in m
ε – permittivity of the medium in F/m
9
εr – relative permittivity
ε0 – the permittivity of free space; 8.854*10-12 F/m.
Thus the capacitance of the variable capacitance transducer can change with the
(i) change in the area of the plates
(ii) change of the dielectric material and
(iii) the distance between the plates.
These changes are caused by physical variables like displacement, force and pressure in most
of the cases. The change in capacitance may be caused by change in dielectric constant as is
the case in measurement of liquid or gas levels.
Depending on the parameter that changes for the capacitive transducers, they are of three types
as mentioned below.
(i)Changing Area of the Plates of Capacitive Transducers
The equation below shows that the capacitance is directly proportional to the area of the plates.
The capacitance changes correspondingly with the change in the position of the plates. The
capacitive transducers are used for measuring the large displacement approximately from 1mm
to several cms.
The capacitance of the parallel plates is given as

where x – the length of overlapping part of plates

ω – the width of overlapping part of plates.

Figure 2.9: Capacitive transducer

10
 Figure 2.10: Changing Area of the Plates of Capacitive transducer
The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the angular displacement. It is measured by
the movable plates shown below. One of the plates of the transducer is fixed, and the other is
movable. The angular movement changes the capacitance of the transducers. The capacitance
between them is maximum when these plates overlap each other.

Figure 2.11: Angular displacement

(ii) Changing Distance between the Plates of Capacitive Transducers
In these capacitive transducers the distance between the plates is variable, while the area of the
plates and the dielectric constant remain constant. A Capacitive Transducer can also be
designed to respond to linear displacement by attaching one of the plates of capacitor to the
moving object and keeping the other plate fixed. When the object moves, the distance between
the plate changes and hence the capacitance changes.

Figure 2.12: Changing Distance between the Plates of Capacitive Transducers

11
The capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance because of which the capacitor shows
the nonlinear response. Such type of transducer is used for measuring the small displacement.

(iii) Changing Dielectric Constant type of Capacitive Transducers

In this capacitive transducer the dielectric material between the two plates changes, due to
which the capacitance of the transducer also changes. When the input quantity to be measured
changes the value of the dielectric constant also changes so the capacitance of the instrument
changes.

Figure 2.13: Changing Dielectric Constant type of Capacitive Transducers

The plates of capacitor are fixed. However, a moving object having some dielectric constant
Ɛr is moving into the plates. We want to measure the displacement of the object. At any
intermediate stage, let the l2 length of object is inside the plates. Therefore, up to l2 length, the
capacitor is filled up with dielectric having dielectric constant Ɛr whereas l1 length have air.
The capacitance in this combination can be found as shown below.

From the above expression, it is clear that, as the object moves into the capacitor, the value of
l2 increases and hence the capacitance C increases. By measuring this capacitance, the linear
displacement can be predicted.
Advantages
• This transducer requires very small force to operate
• They are very sensitive.
• The loading effect is minimum.

12
 • Measurement of Inductive Transducer is affected by the stray magnetic field whereas
a capacitive transducer is not affected.
• The power requirement of capacitive transducer is less as they require less force to
operate.
Disadvantages
• Capacitive Transducer requires its metallic part to be insulated from each other.
• The capacitance may change due to dust, moisture etc.
• They are temperature sensitive and therefore, any change in temperature adversely
affects their performance.

2.4.1 Capacitive pressure transducers

The capacitive pressure transducer is based on the principle that when the distance between the
two parallel plate changes, capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor changes. Here , the
diaphragm acts as one of the plates of a two plate capacitor , while other plate is fixed. The
fixed plate and the diaphragm are separated by a dielectric material. When the force is applied
to the diaphragm, it changes its position from initial static position obtained with no force
applied. Due to this, the distance of separation between the fixed plate and the diaphragm

Figure 2.14 Capacitive pressure transducers

changes, hence the capacitance also changes. The change in capacitance can be measured by
using any simple a.c bridge.

2.5 Inductive transducer

Inductive Transducer is the self-generating type otherwise the passive type transducer. The first
type like self-generating uses the principle of fundamental electrical generator. The electric
generator principle is when a motion between a conductor as well as magnetic field induces a
voltage within the conductor. This motion between the conductor and the field is supplied by
changes in the measurand. An inductive transducer is an electromechanical device used to
convert physical motion into change in inductance.
Transducers of the variable inductance type work upon one of the following principles.
i)Variation of self inductance

13
ii) Variation of mutual inductance
The property of self-inductance is a particular form of electromagnetic induction. Self
inductance is defined as the induction of a voltage in a current-carrying wire when the current
in the wire itself is changing. In the case of self-inductance, the magnetic field created by a
changing current in the circuit itself induces a voltage in the same circuit. Therefore, the voltage
is self-induced.
Mutual Inductance is the interaction of one coils magnetic field on another coil as it induces a
voltage in the adjacent coil. when the emf is induced into an adjacent coil situated within the
same magnetic field, the emf is said to be induced magnetically, inductively or by Mutual
induction, symbol ( M ). Then when two or more coils are magnetically linked together by a
common magnetic flux they are said to have the property of Mutual Inductance.

2.5.1 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

The LVDT converts the displacement into an electrical signal. LVDT consists of one primary
winding (P) and two secondary windings (S1 and S2) with equal number of turns wound on a
hollow cylindrical former. The two secondary windings are connected in series opposition and
are placed identically on either side of primary winding to which an AC excitation voltage is
connected. A movable soft iron core is placed within the cylindrical former. When the
displacement to be measured is applied to the arm of the core, the LVDT converts this
displacement into an electrical signal.

Figure 2.15 Linear Variable Differential transsformer

The operating principle of LVDT:-

The operating principle of LVDT depends on mutual inductance. In the LVDT when the
primary winding is supplied with A.C. supply voltage, it generates alternating magnetic field.
Due to this magnetic field an alternating voltage will be induced in the two secondary windings.
Es1 is the output voltage of secondary winding S1 and Es2 is the output voltage of secondary
winding S2. In order to get single differential output voltage two secondary windings are
connected in series opposition. Thus the differential output voltage is given by,

14
E0=Es1-Es2
When the core is placed symmetrically with respect to two secondary windings an equal
amount of voltage will be induced in both windings. Therefore esl - es2 and the output voltage
is '0'. Hence, this position is known as null position.
Now if the core is moved towards up from null position, more magnetic field links with
secondary winding S1, and small field links with secondary winding S2. Therefore more
voltage will be induced in S1 and less in S2 i .e .,Es1 will be larger than Es2 . Hence the
differential output voltage is E0 = Es1-Es2 and is in phase with primary voltage.
But when the core is moved towards down from null position more magnetic field links with
secondary winding S2 and small field links with secondary winding S1. Therefore, more
voltage will be induced in S2 and less in S1, i.e., Es2 will be larger than Es1. Hence, the
differential output voltage is E0 = Es2 – Es1 and is 180° out of phase with primary voltage.
Thus, the output voltage E0 position of the core and hence the displacement applied to the arm
of the core.
By noting which output is increasing or decreasing, the direction of motion could be
determined. Hence amplitude is a function of distance the core has moved and polarity or phase
indicates the direction of motion.

15
Advantages of LVDT
• High Range: the LVDTs has a very high range for measurement of displacement This
can be used for measurement of displacement ranging from 1.25 mm to 2.50 mm
• Immunity from External Effects
• high sensitivity
• Ruggedness: The transducer can usually tolerate high degree of shock and vibration
• Low Hysteresis
• Low Power consumption
• Linearity
Disadvantages
• They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields (but shielding is possible).
• Many times, the transducer performance is affected by vibrations.
• The efficiency of the device is easily affected by temperature.

2.6 Passive types:

2.6.1 RTD(Resistance Temperature Detector)
• The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed. This property
is used for measurement of temperature.
• The Resistance Thermometer Connected in Bridge Circuit uses the change in electrical
resistance of conductor to determine the temperature.
• Platinum, Nickel and Copper are the metals most commonly used to measure
temperature.
• Almost all, metals have a positive temperature coefficient of resistance so that their
resistance increases with increase in temperature. The carbon and germanium have low
temperature coefficient which shows that their resistance is inversely proportional to
temperature.
• Platinum has the temperature range of 650oC, and then the Copper and Nickel have
120oC and 300oC respectively.

16
Construction of Resistive Thermometer
• The resistance thermometer is placed inside the protective tube for providing the
protection against damage.
• The resistive element is formed by placing the platinum wire on the ceramic bobbin.
• This resistance element is placed inside the tube which is made up of stainless steel or
copper steel.

Figure 2.17 Resistance thermometer

• The lead wire is used for connecting the resistance element with the external lead.
• The lead wire is covered by the insulated tube which protects it from short circuit.
• The ceramic material is used as an insulator for high-temperature material and for low-
temperature fibre or glass is used.
Working
• The tip of the resistance thermometer is placed near the measurand heat source.
• The sheath quickly reaches the temperature of the medium.
• This change in temperature causes the platinum wire inside the sheath to heat or cool,
resulting in a proportional change in the wire’s resistance.
• The RTD is connected by leads to a wheatstone bridge.

Figure 2.18 Resistance thermometer connected in a bridge circuit

17
 • The bridge consisting of a sensing element Rs having high temperature coefficient and
resistance R1, R2, R5 whose values do not alter with change of temperature.
• R3 and R4 are the lead wire resistance of the sensing element.
• At balanced condition

When resistance Rs changes, the wheatstone bridge becomes unbalanced and thus
galvanometer will give deflection which can be calibrated to give suitable temperature
scale.

Figure 2.19 Characteristics of materials used for resistance thermometers

Advantages
1. High accuracy
2. Simplicity
3. Fast in response
4. Suitable for precision applications
5. Good reproducibility
6. Temperature compensation not required
Limitation
High cost
Need for bridge and power source
2.6.2 Thermistor
• Thermistor (Thermally sensitive resistors.)
• All resistors vary with temperature, but thermistors are constructed of semiconductor
material with a resistivity that is especially sensitive to temperature.

18
• Generally, the resistance increases with the temperature for most of the metals but the
thermistors respond negatively i.e. the resistance of the thermistors decrease with the
increase in temperature.
• They are suitable upto 800 degree centigrade.
Types of Thermistor
• The thermistor is classified into types. They are the negative temperature coefficient
and the positive temperature coefficient thermistor.
1. Negative Temperature Coefficient Thermistor – In this type of thermistor the
temperature increases with the decrease of the resistance. The resistance of the
negative temperature coefficient thermistor is very large due to which it detects the
small variation in temperature.
2. Positive Temperature Coefficient Thermistor – The resistance of the thermistor
increases with the increases in temperature.
Construction of Thermistor
• The thermistor is made with the sintered mixture of metallic oxides like manganese,
cobalt, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, uranium, etc. It is available in the form of the
bead, rod and disc. The different types of the thermistor are
• The bead form of the thermistor is smallest in shape, and it is enclosed inside the solid
glass rod to form probes.

• The disc shape is made by pressing material under high pressure with diameter range
from 2.5 mm to 25mm.

Figure 2.20 Thermistors

Figure 2.21 Thermistor connected in bridge circuit

19
 Figure 2.22 Resistance Temperature Characteristic of Thermistor

Advantages
• Small size and fast response
• Cost is low
• Greater sensitivity
• High stability
Disadvantages
• Temperature Vs resistance curve is nonlinear.
• Unsuitable for wide temperature range.
• Applications
• Thermal sensor, Respiration sensor
2.7 Active type: Thermocouple
• Principle-Thermoelectric effect or Seebeck effect
• A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar electrical
conductors forming an electrical junction. A thermocouple produces a temperature-
dependent voltage as a result of the thermoelectric effect, and this voltage can be
interpreted to measure temperature.

Figure 2.23 Thermocouple

20
• A thermocouple is a sensor that measures temperature.
• It consists of two different types of metals, joined together at one end.
• When the junction of the two metals is heated or cooled, a voltage is created that can
be correlated back to the temperature.
A thermocouple is a simple, robust and cost-effective temperature sensor used in a
wide range of temperature measurement processes.

Figure 2.24 Thermocouple characteristics of different metals

Advantages
1.The thermocouple is cheaper than the other temperature measuring devices.
2.The thermocouple has the fast response time.
3.It has a wide temperature range.

21
 4.Good reproducibility.
5. Inexpensive, no need of bridge circuit, good accuracy
Disadvantages
Nonlinear
Reference junction compensation is needed.

2.8 Piezoelectric active transducer

• Piezo electric transducer is a device in which an electric potential is developed when
the dimensions of the piezoelectric crystal are changed by the application of
mechanical force.
• This potential is developed due to displacement of charges.
• This effect is reversible. (ie) if a varying potential is applied to the proper axis of the
crystal, it will change the dimensions of the crystal thereby deforming it. This
phenomenon is known as Piezoelectric effect.
• Piezoelectric materials-Quartz, Rochelle salt, Barium titanate etc.

Figure 2.25 Principle of Piezoelectric transducer

• The piezoelectric effect can be made to respond to mechanical deformations of the
material in many different modes.
• The modes can be
(a) Thickness expansion
(b) transverse expansion
(c) Thickness shear
(d) face shear

22
 Figure 2.26 Different modes of Piezoelectric transducer
Piezoelectric transducer
• Mechanical deformation generates a charge and this charge appears as a voltage
across the electrodes.
• The output voltage Eo= Q/C
• This piezo electric effect is direction sensitive.
• A tensile force produces a voltage of one polarity while a compressive force produces
a voltage of opposite polarity.

Figure 2.27 Piezoelectric transducer

• A crystal is place between a solid base and force summing member.
• An externally applied force, entering the transducer through its pressure port applies
pressure to the top of a crystal.
• Metal electrodes plated on the faces of piezoelectric crystal are taken out to measure
output.
• The electrodes become plate of the parallel plate capacitor.
• Thus it can be considered as charge generator.
• The output voltage is given by

23
 • Eo= Q/C
Equivalent circuit of piezoelectric transducers

Figure 2.28 Equivalent circuit of Piezoelectric transducer

• Here, Q = dF
• Charge generated is across Cp and Rp is the leakage resistance

Advantages
1. Due to its small size, it is easy to handle.
2. It shows high frequency respectively as the parameter changes rapidly.
3. It does not require any external force.
Disadvantges
• Output voltage is affected by temperature variations of the crystal.

• It can be used for dynamic measurements only.

2.9 Photo multiplier tube (PMT)

• It is most widely used photo emissive device having the better characteristics to detect
the very low intensity light.
• The Photomultiplier tube consists of an evacuated glass envelope containing a photo
cathode, an anode and several additional electrodes caller dynodes, each at a higher
voltage.
• The beam of incident light is first made to strike a photoemissive material coated
photocathode. As a result, electrons are emitted.
• Electrons emitted by the cathode are attracted to another electrode called dynode.

24
 Figure 2.29 Photo multiplier tube
• The electrons are subsequently accelerated with a high voltage (hundreds of volts) to a
first dynode (an electrode), where they generate several secondary electrons. Those are
accelerated towards further dynodes, where the number of electrons is getting several
times larger each time.
• Thus at each dynode , the electrons are multiplied in number and finally all are collected
at anode.
• Finally, a strongly amplified photocurrent is collected with an anode near the last
dynode.
It has very rapid response time
2.10 Photo voltaic cell
• An active transducer which converts light energy into electrical energy.
• Generates a voltage proportional to light intensity.

Figure 2.30 Photo voltaic transducers

25
 Figure 2.31 Photo voltaic cell
2.11 Photo conductive cells (or) Photo cells
• The electrical resistance of the material varies with the amount of light.
• Light striking the surface of a material can provide sufficient energy to cause electrons
within the material to break away from their atoms.
• Thus, free electrons and holes (charge carriers) are created within the material, and
consequently its resistance is reduced. This is known as the Photoconductive effect.
• When the photoconductive semiconductor element is subjected to radiations, its
resistance decreases, if decreases). Due to this, the flow of current through the cell
increases.
• Photoconductive materials are calcium sulphide, calcium selenide or calcium
sulphoselenide.
• It is deposited in zigzag pattern, separating two metal coated areas acting as electrodes,
on a insulating base made of ceramic.
• The assembly is enclosed by a metal case and with a glass window.

Figure 2.32 Photo conductive cell construction

26
 • When photocell has appropriate light on it, resistance is low and current is high.
• When light is interrupted on it, resistance is high and current is low.

Figure 2.33 Photo conductive cell illumination characteristics

Figure 2.34Photo conductive cell

2.12 Photo diode
• A special type of PN junction device that generates current when exposed to light is
known as Photodiode.
• It is also known as photodetector or photosensor.
• It operates in reverse biased mode and converts light energy into electrical energy.

• In a normal diode, under reverse biased condition, the reverse current is due to the
minority charge carriers in p-type and n-type regions. This current is limited to few
microamperes.

27
 • Now, the junction of the device is illuminated with light. As the light falls on the
surface of the junction, then the temperature of the junction gets increased. This
causes the electron and hole to get separated from each other.

Figure 2.35 Photo diode

• At the two gets separated then electrons from n side gets attracted towards the positive
potential of the battery. Similarly, holes present in the p side get attracted to the
negative potential of the battery.
• This movement then generates high reverse current through the device.

Figure 2.36 Characteristics curve of Photo diode

Here, the vertical line represents the reverse current flowing through the device and the
horizontal line represents the reverse-biased potential.
The first curve represents the dark current that generates due to minority carriers in the
absence of light.

Figure 2.37 Illumination verses current curve

28
• From the characteristics it is clear that for same increment in luminous flux, there is
same increase in the reverse current.
• Thus the characteristics of current versus luminous flux are linear.
• When operated without reverse voltage, it operates as photo voltaic cell or photo
voltaic diode or solar cell.
2.13 Photo transistor
• The phototransistor is a type of transistor which converts the light energy into an
electric current or voltage.
• It is a special designs transistor which has a light-sensitive base region.
• When the light incident at the base of NPN transistor the base current develops.
• The magnitude of current depends on the intensity of the light incident on it.
• The phototransistor amplifies the input light, and the output current is obtained from
the collector of the transistor.
• The circuit symbol of the photo-transistor is shown in the figure below.
• The arrow shows the light energy incident on their base surface.

• It is usually connected in the common emitter configuration with base open for the
illumination.
• A lens focusses the light on the base collector junction.
• The collector region of the phototransistor is large as compared to the ordinary
transistor because it is made up of heavy diffuse semiconductor material.
• When the base of the phototransistor absorbs light, they release the electron-hole
pairs.
• Because of this hole pair, the depletion layer of the diode decreases and electron starts
moving from the emitter to the collector region.
• For the small amount of light energy, the transistor amplifies the large collector
current.

29
 The graph below shows the magnitude of current increases along with the intensity of
light.
2.14 Optical displacement sensors & Optical encoders
• Digital encoding transducers or digitisers enable a linear or rotary displacement to be
directly converted into digital form. Such digitisers are known as digital encoders.
• By the use of a digital code, it is possible to identify the position of a movable test piece
in terms of a binary number. The position is converted into a train of pulses. This is
achieved by a digital transducer and is also termed as encoder.
• Since the binary system uses only two states, 0 or 1, it can be easily represented by two
different types of systems, optical or electrical. Digital transducers using optical
methods are called Optical encoders, while those using electrical methods are called
resistive electrical encoders.

2.14.1Optical encoders
• A sector may be designed with a pattern of opaque and translucent areas. A photo
sensor and a light source is placed on the two sides of the sector.
• The displacement is applied to the sector and therefore changes the amount of light
falling on the photo electric sensor. The pattern of the illuminated sensor then carries
the information to the location of the sector.

30
 Figure 2.38 Optical encoder

• Figure shows a possible pattern on sector of opaque and translucent areas. The number
of levels in the encoder determines the accuracy with which the device operates.

Figure 2.39 Optical encoder

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Advantages
• 1. They give a true digital readout
• 2. No mechanical contact is involved and therefore problems of wear and tear and
alignment are not present
Disadvantages
• 1. Light sources burn out. (However, the life of the light is about 50,000 hours.)

TEXT / REFERENCE BOOKS

1. A. K. Sawhney, A course in electronic Measurements and Instruments, Dhanpat Rai

Sons, 2014
2. H.S. Kalsi, Electronic Instrumentation & Measurement, Tata McGraw Hill, 2011.

32
 SCHOOL OF BIO AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT – III– Biosensors and Measurements – SBMA1301

1
 III. Biopotential Electrodes and Chemical Sensors
Electrodes Electrolyte Interface, Half-Cell Potential, Polarization, Polarizable and Non
Polarizable, Electrodes, Reference Electrode, Hydrogen Electrode, Electrode Skin-Interface
and Motion Artifact. Surface Electrodes. Oxygen electrodes, CO2 electrodes, enzyme
electrode, construction, ISFET for glucose, urea etc. fiber optic sensors.
3.1 Biopotential Electrodes
• Electrodes that are capable of picking up the electrical signals of the body are called
as biopotential electrodes.
• Signals are developed due to chemical activity in the cells/ biological system.
• Chemical activity is brought about by Na+, K+ and Cl- ions concentration gradient and
unbalanced conditions lead to chemical activity in the human body.
• Current flows in the measuring circuit for at least a fraction of the period of time over
which the measurement is made.
• Bioelectric potential generated in the body are ionic potential.
• Electrode carries out a transducing function, because current is
• carried in the body by ions, whereas it is carried in the electrode
• and its lead wire by electrons.
• A transducer that convert the body ionic current in the body into the traditional
electronic current flowing in the electrode.
• Able to conduct small current across the interface between the body and the electronic
measuring circuit.
3.2 Electrodes-Electrolyte interface

Figure 3.1 Electrodes – Electrolyte interface

2
A net current (I) that crosses the interface passing from the electrode to electrolyte consists of
1. e- moving in opposite to current in electrode
2. Cations c+ moving in same direction of current
3. Anions A- moving in opposite to current in electrolyte
Electrode consists metallic atomC . Electrolyte consists cations C+ & anions A- .
• The electrode is made up of some atoms of the same material as the cations and that
this material in the electrode at the interface can become oxidized to form a cation and
one or more free electrons.
• The cation is discharged into the electrolyte; the electron remains as a charge carrier in
the electrode.
• These ions are reduced when the process occurs in the reverse direction
• an anion coming to the electrode–electrolyte interface can be oxidized to a neutral atom,
giving off one or more free electrons to the electrode.
• Oxidation reaction causes atom to lose electron
• Reduction reaction causes atom to gain electron
• Oxidation is dominant when current flow from electrode to electrolyte and reduction
dominate when the current flow is in the opposite.
3.3 Half cell potential
• Voltage developed at electrode-electrolyte interface is called half cell potential or
electrode potential.
• In the case of a metal solution interface, an electrode potential results from the
difference in rates between two opposing forces
• the passage of ions from the metal into the solution.
• The combination of metallic ions in solution with electrons in the metal to form atoms
of the metal.
• So, when a metal electrode comes into contact with an electrolyte (body fluid), there is
a tendency for the electrode to discharge ions into solution and for ions in the electrolyte
to combine with the electrode.
• The net result is the creation of a charge gradient, the spatial arrangement of which is
called the electrical double layer.
• Electrodes in which no net transfer of charge occurs across the metal electrolyte
interface is called as perfectly polarised electrodes.
• Electrodes in which unhindered exchange of charge is possible across the metal
electrolyte interface are called nonpolarizable electrodes.

3
3.3 Polarizable and non-polarizable electrodes
Perfectly polarizable electrodes
• Electrodes in which no net transfer of charge occurs across the metal electrolyte
interface when a current is applied is called as perfectly polarised electrodes. Example:
Platinum Electrode
• The electrode behaves like a capacitor and overpotential is due to concentration.
Non polarizable electrodes
• Electrodes in which current passes freely across the electrode- electrolyte interface are
called nonpolarizable electrodes.
• Electrodes in which unhindered exchange of charge is possible across the metal
electrolyte interface are called nonpolarizable electrodes.
• Here current flows freely across the interface and energy is not required for it. Example:
Ag/AgCl electrode.
• Thus, for perfectly non-polarizable electrodes there are no over-potentials.
• Electrode interface impedance is represented as a resistor.
3.4 Polarization
Half cell potential is altered when there is current flowing in the electrode due to electrode
polarization. Overpotential is the difference between the observed half-cell potential with
current flow and the equilibrium zero-current half-cell potential.
Mechanism Contributed to overpotential –
Ohmic overpotential: voltage drop along the path of the current, and current changes resistance
of electrolyte and thus, a voltage drop does not follow ohm's law.
Concentration overpotential: Current changes the distribution of ions at the electrode-
electrolyte interface
Activation overpotential: current changes the rate of oxidation and reduction. Since the
activation energy barriers for oxidation and reduction are different, the net activation energy
depends on the direction of current and this difference appear as voltage.
Vp =VR +Vc +VA
These three mechanisms of polarization are additive.
Thus the net over-potential of an electrode is given by
Vp = E° +VR +Vc +VA
where Vp = total potential, or polarization potential, of the electrode
E° = half-cell potential
VR = ohmic overpotential
Vc = concentration overpotential
VA = activation overpotential

4
3.5 Resting potential
• In a cell membrane the outside fluid is extra-cellular fluid and inside fluid is intra-
cellular fluid.
• The extra-cellular fluid has a large concentration of sodium ions and chloride ions but
less concentration of potassium ions.
• The intra-cellular fluid has a high concentration of potassium ions than the sodium ions.
• Cells surrounded by semipermeable membrane permits some substances to pass
through and some kept out.
• Cells surrounded by body fluids containing ions.
• Principal ions are (Na+), (K+) and (Cl-).
• When a cell does not send a signal, it is at "resting state''.
• Membrane permits the entry of potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl-) ions and stops
Sodium ions (Na+).
• sodium ion concentration inside the cell becomes much lower than the outside the cell.
• Inside the cell, potassium and chloride ion concentration is more than the outside the
cell.
• Thus the charge balance is not achieved.
• However, an equilibrium is reached with a potential difference across the membrane
such that the negative potential on the inside and positive on the outside.
• This membrane potential caused by the different concentration of ions is known as
resting potential.
• The cell membrane is negative inside and positive outside.
• The difference in ion concentration results in the Resting Membrane Potential of the
cell.
• The value of resting potential is between - 60mV to - 100mV.
• At the resting state, the cell is polarised.

Figure 3.2 Resting potential

5
3.6 Action potential
• When a section of the cell membrane is excited by some form of applied energy, the
permeability of the membrane changes and begins to allow some of the sodium ions to
enter.
• Movement of sodium ions into the cell constitutes an ionic current and this reduces the
membrane barrier.
• Sodium ions rushes into the cell and try to balance with the ions outside.
• Meanwhile, potassium ions flow outside the cell but unable to move rapidly as sodium
ions.
• Thus, the cell has positive potential inside the cell due to the imbalance of potassium
ions.
• The positive potential of the cell membrane during excitation is called as action
Membrane Potential.
• The value of action potential is 20mV.
• As long as action potential exists, the cell is said to be depolarised.

Figure 3.3 Action potential

• Process of changing from resting state to action potential is called as depolarization.
• Once equilibrium is again reached, membrane gets back to semipermeable state and
stops entry of sodium ions.
• By a process of sodium pump, all sodium ions are transported outside of the cell and
resting potential is attained. This process is called repolarization.

Figure 3.4 Action and resting potential

6
 • All or nothing law- Action potential is always the same for any given cell regardless of
the excitation method or intensity of stimulus.
• Absolute refractory period- A brief period of time during which the cell cannot respond
to any new stimulus.(1msec in nerve cell)
• Relative refractory period- After Absolute refractory period, during which another
action potential can be triggered, but a much more stronger stimulation is required.
• Propagation rate- Rate at which action potential is propagated from cell to
cell(conduction velocity or nerve conduction rate).
3.7 Types of electrodes
1.Micro electrodes
• To measure biopotential signals within a single cell
• Metal microelectrode
• Micropipet
2. Depth and needle electrodes
Electrodes penetrate into the skin to record signals. These electrodes are used to measure bio-
potential at highly localized extracellular region.
3.Surface electrodes
Measures signal from the surface of the skin
• Metal plate
• Suction cup
• Adhesive tape
• Multipoint
• Floating
4.Chemical electrodes
Measures Ph, pO2, pCo2 of blood
Hydrogen electrode
Reference electrode
Ph, pO2, pCo2 electrode
1.Micro electrode
• Used to measure potential near or within a single cell
• Also called intracellular electrode.
• Small in diameter so that they do not damage cells during insertion.

7
 • Microelectrodes are placed within cell and reference electrodes are placed outside cell.
• Tip diameter range from 0.05 to 10 micrometer
• Two types of micro electrodes
• i) metal micro electrodes
• (ii) micropipet or nonmetal micro electrode
(i)Metal micro electrodes
• These electrodes are made of fine tungsten or stainless steel wire.
• They are formed by electrolytically etching the tip of the tungsten or stainless steel wire
to a fine point. This technique is known as electro pointing.
• This etched metal wire is then supported by a larger metallic shaft.
• This metallic shaft acts as a
- Sturdy mechanical support for the microelectrode.
-Means of connecting the micro electrode to its lead wire.
• The micro electrode and the supporting shaft is insulated by a polymer material or
varnish.
• The extreme tip of the micro electrode is left without insulation.
• The bioelectric potential measured is actually the difference in instantaneous potential
of the measuring micro electrode and reference electrode.

Figure 3.5 Metal micro electrodes

8
Bioelectric potential is given by,
E = EA+EB+EC
E – Bio-potential
EA – Metal electrode - electrolyte potential at the micro electrode tip
EB – Reference electrode - electrolyte potential
EC – Variable cell membrane potential
(ii) Micropipet (or) Non metal electrode

Figure 3.6 Non Metal electrodes

• It consists of a glass Micropipet whose tip’s diameter is about 1 micrometer.
• A thin, flexible metal wire made of silver, stainless steel or tungsten is inserted into the
stem of the micropipet.
• One end of the metal wire is mounted to a rigid support and the other free end through
the stem of the micropipet is resting on the cell to pick up bio-electric potential.
• It is filled with an electrolyte(3 M KCl)
• Here bio-electric potential is given as
• E = EA+EB+EC+ED
• E – Bio-electric Potential
• EA – Potential between the metal wire and electrolyte filled in the micropipet.
• EB – Potential between the reference electrode and the extra cellularfluid
• EC – Variable cell membrane potential
• ED – Potential existing at the tip due to different electrolytes present in the pipet and
the cell.

9
2.Depth and needle electrodes
• These type of electrodes are used to measure and record bio-electric events from highly
localized extra cellular regions.
• They are of two types namely,
i. Depth electrode
ii. Needle electrode
(i)Depth electrode
• Used to study electrical activity of neurons in the superficial layers of the brain.
• Also called as implantable electrodes.
• These are made of a bundle of Teflon insulated platinum 90%- iridium 10% alloy wires
• These wires act as individual electrodes and supported by a stainless steel wire.
• This stainless steel supporting wire is rounded off at the tip for easy insertion into the
top layers of the brain.
• The electrode rests on the sub-cortical nerve cells.
• The active area of depth electrode is 0.5 mm2

Figure 3.6 Depth electrodes

• The supporting stainless-steel wire can itself act as an electrode if an appropriate
varnish is used.
• The supporting wire if made in the form of a capillary tube can be used to inject
medicines into the brain.
• Silver sphere cortical surface potential is an example of a implantable depth electrode.
• It has 2mm diameter silver sphere located at tip of cylindrical Teflon insulator through
which lead wire passes.
• Calvarium is exposed through incision in scalp.
• Ag sphere introduced and rests on cerebral cortex.

10
 (ii)Needle electrode:
• The needle electrode is used to measure action potentials of peripheral nerves.
• Used to reduce movement artifacts and interface impedance.
• Here a needle is used to make a lumen through which a short length metal wire is
inserted.
• This short length metal wire is bent at one end and inserted through the lumen into the
muscles.
• This wire picks up the electrical activity of the biological system.
• If one wire is used as a measuring electrode and another separate reference electrode
is used then it is called mono-polar needle electrode.
• If two insulated wires are used one as reference and the other as measuring electrode
through the lumen of the needle then such an electrode system is called bipolarneedle
electrode.

Figure 3.7 Needle electrodes

3.Surface electrodes
• Electrodes used to obtain bioelectric potentials from surface of the body.
• Surface electrodes are used to record ECG, EMG and EEG signals.
• Larger surface area, surface electrodes are used for ECG measurement.
• Smaller surface area, surface electrodes are used for EEG and EMG measurement.
(i)Metal plate surface electrodes (Limb Electrodes)
• Simplest of all surface electrodes and frequently used.
• It consists of a metallic conductor in contact with the skin making use of an electrolyte
gel.
• It is mostly used as limb electrodes in ECG measurement.
• It is made up of a flat metal plate that is bent into a cylindrical segment.
• There is a terminal on the cylindrical segment on its outer surface, to attach the lead
wire to the electrocardiograph.

11
 • There is also a post placed on the same side of the segment near the Centre. This post
is used to connect a rubber strap to the electrode and hold it in place on the arm or leg.
• The electrode is generally made of germanium silver, nickel plated steel, nickel etc.
• There are basically two types of metal plate surface electrodes namely,
• Rectangular
• Circular
• The active surface area of a rectangular surface electrode is normally 3.5 cm* 5 cm.
• The active surface area of the circular surface electrode is 17.6cm2 (4.75 cm – Diameter)
• The inner surface of the electrode is covered with gel or an electrolyte soaked pad is
kept which will maintain the electrode contact with the skin.
• In circular metal disk electrodes the lead wire is soldered to the back surface. The
connection between lead wire and electrode is protected by a layer of insulating material
such as epoxy or polyvinyl chloride.
• Disk electrodes used for ECG measurements are made of silver and has an
electrolytically deposited layer of AgCl on its contacting surface.
• It is also coated with electrolyte gel and placed on the patient’s chest wall.
• Disk electrodes used for EMG recordings are made of stainless steel, platinum or gold
plated disks.

Figure 3.8 Cylindrical metal plate surface electrode

Figure 3.9 Circular metal plate surface electrode

(ii)Suction Cup electrode:
• Suction cup electrodes can be called as modified metal plate electrodes.
• These electrodes do not require straps or adhesives to hold them to a particular location.

12
 • These electrodes are mostly used as chest lead electrodes for ECG measurement.
• They consist of a hollow metallic cylindrical electrode that makes contact with the skin
at its base.
• A terminal is present on the metal cylinder for lead wire attachment.
• A rubber suction bulb is fitted to the other base of the cylinder metal electrode.
• The rubber bulb is squeezed and placed on the body, the bulb releases and applies
suction against the skin, thus holding the electrode to the body.
• This electrode can be used for only short periods of time because the suction and
pressure can cause irritation to the skin.
• These electrodes are generally used as ECG limb electrodes.
• These electrodes are well suited for attachment to flat surfaces of the body.

Figure 3.10 suction cup electrode

(iii)Adhesive tape electrode (Pre-gelled Disposable Electrode)
• When surface electrodes are used, the pressure applied on it across the body squeezes
the gel or electrode paste out.
• Such a problem is avoided with the use of adhesive tape electrode.
• It consists of a large disk of plastic foam material with a silverplated disk on one side
and silverplated snap on the other side.
• The silverplated disk serves as the electrode and may be coated with silver chloride
layer.
• A layer of electrolyte gel covers the disk.
• A lead wire is snapped onto the electrode and connected to the ECG apparatus.
• The electrode side of the foam is covered with an adhesive material, which is covered
with a protective foil material.

13
 • To apply the electrode, the skin is cleaned, the protective material is removed and
pressed against the patient.

Figure 3.11 Adhesive tape electrode

iv)Multipoint electrodes:
• Multipoint electrodes contains nearly 1000 fine active contact points.
• Since the active surface area is very small, a very low resistance contact is established
in these type of surface electrodes.
• These types of electrodes are used on subjects where the region of interest is covered
with hair.
• These electrodes can be used under any environmental conditions.
• The multipoint electrode is a very practical electrode for ECG measurement.

Figure 3.12 Multipoint electrode

4.Chemical Electrodes
• To measure the bioelectric potential, there is a reference electrode with constant
potential and a measuring electrode, difference between them give the biopotential.
• In electrochemical measurements, it is necessary to keep one of the electrodes in the
electrochemical cell at a constant potential.

14
3.8 Reference electrode
• The electrode which has a known potential (constant potential) is called as reference
electrode.
• Reference electrodes are of two types
(i)Primary reference electrodes
(ii)Secondary reference electrodes
(i)Primary reference electrodes
• The reference electrode whose potential is taken as zero is called as primary reference
electrode.
• E.g Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE)
Hydrogen Electrode
• Primary electrode to which all electrochemical measurements are referred to hydrogen
electrode.
• Standard hydrogen electrode consists of a platinum wire sealed in a glass tube and
carrying a platinum foil which is coated with platinum black at one end.
• The electrode is placed in a solution of an acid having 1 Molar concentration of
hydrogen ions.
• Hydrogen gas at 1 atm pressure is continuously bubbled through the solution at 298 K
through the side arm in such a way that the platinum foil is half immersed in Hcl while
upper half is surrounded by H2 gas.
• A redox reaction occurs when the electrode is placed in the solution.
• The oxidation or reduction takes place at the Platinum foil.
• A difference in potential occurs when hydrogen gas moves into the solution and the
concentration of hydrogen concentration increases.

Figure 3.13 Hydrogen electrode

15
It is represented as Pt, H2(latm)/H-(1M)
In a cell when the standard hydrogen electrode acts as anode, the electrode reaction can be
written as

When the standard hydrogen electrode acts as cathode, the electrode reaction can be written as

Based on the electrode potential obtained with reference to hydrogen, electrochemical series is
obtained.
• Platinum is usually used as it readily adsorb hydrogen and is a good conductor.
Limitations
1)It is rather difficult to regulate the pressure of the H2 gas to be at exactly 1atm throughout
the experiment.
2) In such a system, it is difficult to maintain the concentration of HCl at 1M.
3)Platinum foil gets easily poisoned by the impurities present in the gas and HCl
Applications
To measure pH of body fluid.
(ii)Secondary Reference Electrode
• The reference electrode whose potential is not zero but exactly known, and the electrode
potential value depends on the concentration of solution in which it is dipped.
• Two types
❖ Calomel electrode
❖ Silver-Silver chloride electrode
• Secondary Reference (or) Calomel Electrode
• It consists of pure Hg at the bottom of the glass tube and covered by the paste of
Mercury chloride(Calomel) and a known value of kCl.
• One side arm is used to introduce the kCl above the mercury chloride paste
• A platinum wire is sealed into a glass tube serves to make electrical contact of the
electrode with the external circuit
• This act as anode or cathode depending upon the electrode which it is coupled with.
• If the electrode act as cathode

• Increase in concentration of chloride ions.

16
 Figure 3.14 Calomel electrode
• The electrode acts as anode it would liberate electrons and Hg2 2+ ions into solution.
These ions combine with cl- ions forming Hg2 cl2. result is fall in concentration of
chloride ions in the solution.

• The calomel electrode can be represented as

Hg(1) | Hg2 cl2(s)|Kcl(xM)
• Used as reference electrode in Ph measurement.
• Potential of calomel electrode depends on concentration of KCl solution.
• Silver/Silver chloride electrode
• The internal tube is replaced by a silver wire that is coated with silver chloride
• The wire is immersed in a pottassium chloride solution of known concentration usually
of 1.0 M and saturated with silver chloride

Figure 3.15 Silver/silver chloride electrode

17
Advantages
Easy to use, Difficult to repair
3.9 Ph Electrode
• pH of blood and otherbody fluid helps in identifying chemical balance of the body.
❖ pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.
❖ pH = - log (H+)
❖ Two electrodes which are involved in the measurement of pH, are
1. The glass electrode (Indicating Electrode or Sensing Electrode or Measuring Electrode)
2. The reference electrode (Calomel Electrode)
• For pH measurement silver – silver chloride electrode is used as the measuring
electrode.
❖ The bulb provides a thin glass membrane which permits the passage of only hydrogen
ions in the form of H3O+.
❖ This glass bulb has the Ag/ AgCl electrode immersed in chloride buffer solution.
❖ Chloride buffer solution is nothing but KCl in 0.1M HCl.
• A calomel electrode is used as the reference electrode.
❖ The calomel electrode is made of a glass inner tube filled with mercurous chloride
[Hg2Cl2] paste.
❖ This glass tube has a porous plug at the bottom.
❖ A platinum wire is inserted through this which is the lead wire.
❖ On top of the Hg2Cl2 paste an elemental mercury layer is formed.
❖ This whole inner glass set up is now placed in an outer bigger glass tube with the porous
plug at the bottom.
• The porous plug at the bottom of the electrode assembly is used to make contact
between the internal KCl electrolyte and the unknown pH test solution into which the
electrode is immersed.
❖ The potential between this electrode and the glass measurement electrode gives the pH
of the unknown solution.
❖ Since a salt bridge is formed between the KCl in measuring electrode – unknown test
solution – KCl in reference electrode.
❖ It with the internal electrolyte solution, (KCl), makes contact with the sample solution
via a porous glass

18
 Figure 3.16 Measurement of pH
3.10 Carbondioxide electrode
• The blood pCO2 is the partial pressure of carbondioxide of blood taken anaerobically.
It is expressed in mm of Hg.
• pCO2 = Barometric pressure – Water vaporpressure * (% CO2/ 100)
• The pCO2 electrode consists of pH sensitive glass electrode.
• The electrode is enclosed by a permeable rubber membrane.
• A thin film of water surrounds the glass electrode in between the rubber membrane and
separates the membrane from the electrode.
• The whole set up is kept in the solution whose CO2 concentration is to be found out.
• The technique is based on the fact that the dissolved CO2 changes the pH of an aqueous
solution.
• CO2 from the solution diffuses through the rubber membrane and reaches the water
film.
• The CO2 from blood sample defuses through the membrane to form H2CO3, which
dissociates into (H+) and (HCO3-) ions.
• CO2 from the solution diffuses through the rubber membrane and reaches the water
film.
• The pH of the water film which is measured with the help of the silver/ silver chloride
electrode (pH measurement electrode) gets disturbed and changes depending on the
diffused CO2.
• The resultant change in pH is thus a function of the CO2 concentration in the sample.

19
 Figure 3.17 pCO2 electrode
• An alternate modified form of the electrode used for pCO2 measurement includes a thin
film of an aqueous sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) solution instead of the water layer.
• The rubber membrane was also replaced by a thin Teflon membrane, which is
permeable to CO2 but not to any other ions, which might alter the pH of the bicarbonate
solution.
• Co2 diffuses into bicarbonate solution and causes a drop in Ph.
• Hence, the pH change is a linear function of the logarithm of the CO2 tension.
• Twice as sensitive as older version.
• Instead of Silver/ Silverchloride electrode a calomel electrode can also be used.
3.11 Oxygen electrode
• The partial pressure of oxygen in the blood or plasma indicates the extent of oxygen
exchange between the lungs and the blood
• Common Po2 electrode is a clark electrode.
• The cathode is a Pt wire embedded in an insulating glass holder with end exposed into
electrolyte.
• a silver/ silver chloride –anode(ref electrode)
• Electrolyte Kcl
• Permeable membrane a polypropylene membrane, only to oxygen is attached to the
bottom of the cell.

20
 Figure 3.18 pCO2 electrode
• The entire unit is inserted into the solution under measurement. Oxygen diffuses across
the polypropylene membrane into the electrolyte filling solution and is reduced at the
cathode. At the anode silver is oxidized and the magnitude of the resulting current
indicates the partial pressure of oxygen.
• The reactions occurring at the anode and cathode are:
• Cathode Reaction:
• O2 + 2H2O + 4e- à 4 OH-
• Anode Reaction:
• 4Ag à 4Ag+ + 4e-
3.12 Electrode Skin-Interface
• Outer layer of skin is very dry and not conductive.
• An electrode paste/ gel is applied to obtain a good electric contact.
• The skin is cleaned, paste is applied and electrode is held in position with a
rubber strap.
• The electrode paste decreases the impedance and also reduces the artifacts
due to electrode or patients.
• Conductivity of skin is directly proportional to moisture for the skin.
• For eg: for dry skin, contact impedance-100kohm
• With electrode paste , contact impedance- 10kohm
• Transparent electrolyte gel containing Cl- is used to maintain good electric
• Contact between the electrode and the skin.
• For good conductivity, gel must have particular chloride ion concentration
about (1%)

21
 • Electrode jelly can be replaced by a conducting plastic.
3.13 Motion Artifact
• Due to movement of electrodes or patients
• When the electrode moves with respect to the electrolyte, the distribution of the double
layer charge on polarizable electrode interface changes. This changes the half-cell
potential temporarily.
• If a pair of electrodes is in an electrolyte and one moves with respect to the other, a
potential difference appears across the electrodes known as motion artifact.
• This is a source of noise and interference in biopotential measurements.
• Motion artifact is minimal for non-polarizable electrodes.
• Can be reduced by using floating electrodes.
• Distortion is usually reduced by using large surface area electrodes.
3.14 ISFET (Ion sensitive field effect transistor)
An ISFET (Ion sensitive field effect transistor) selectively measures ion activity in an
electrolyte. An ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET) is a field-effect transistor used for
measuring ion concentrations in solution; when the ion concentration (such as H+,) changes,
the current through the transistor will change accordingly. It is a special type of MOSFET
(metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor), and shares the same basic structure, but
with the metal gate replaced by an ion-sensitive membrane, electrolyte solution and reference
electrode. ISFET is produced by removal of the metal gate region that is normally present on a
FET. A MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) is composed of two
diodes separated by a gate region. The gate is a thin insulator usually silicon dioxide upon
which a metallic material is deposited. Voltage applied to the gate controls the electric field in
the dielectric and thus the charge on the silicon surface. High input impedance results from the
gate insulator which is essential for the operation of ISFET. ISFET with the sample under
measurement in contact with an ion selective membrane and a reference electrode.

Figure 3.19 ISFET

22
 • The potential developed across the insulator depends on the electrolyte concentration
of the solution in contact with the ion selective membrane.
• The ISFET measures the potential at the gate.
• This potential is derived through an ion selective process; in which ions passing
through the ion selective membrane modulate the current between the source and the
drain.
• The voltage across the gate region changes and thus the field effect current flows.
Advantages
• Microminiature sensors
• Lowcost
• Small size
• Measurement speed is fast.
3.14.1 ISFET for glucose
• ISFET with an immobilized enzyme membrane has been developed, with the ion
concentration change accompanying the enzymatic reaction detected by the isfet.
• Used for measuring blood glucose in diabetic patients.
• Immobilised enzyme is held between inner and outer membrane .
• Presence of glucose by changing the value of oxygen.

• glucose oxidase, (GOD) is immobilized at the bottom of the biosensor.

• When glucose reacts with glucose oxidase, oxygen is released.
• This oxygen passes through the oxygen permeable membrane and interacts with the
platinum electrode as a result of which electrons will be produced.
• Due to the electron flow in electrodes current will be created
3.14.2 ISFET for Urea
• Immobilized enzyme (gel layer) is attached to the surface of the electrode.
• Urease fixed in the acrylamide gel.
• Enzyme urease reacts with the urea and allows the ammonium ions to pass through it.
• Detected by internal electrode.
• As the pH changes the electrolyte oxide interface potential also change and due to this
the threshold voltage of the ISFET changes. This variation of threshold voltage causes

23
 the change in drain current

3.15 Enzyme electrode

• Enzyme electrodes invariably refer to such devices that sense and analyze biological
informations.
• Enzyme electrode is a miniature chemical transducer which functions by combining
an electrochemical procedure with immobilized enzyme activity.
• Ion selective electrodes used in conjunction with immobilized enzymes can serve as
the basis of electrodes that are selective for specific enzyme substrates.
• Enzymes are proteins that catalyses specific reactions to a high a degree of specificity
• The reactants are the substrates.
• Electrochemical enzyme-based biosensors are widely used because of their practical
advantages, which include their
• low fabrication cost,
• simplicity of operation,
• high selectivity,
• and their ability to perform real-time detection.
• Types
(i) Amperometric enzyme electrode
(ii)Potentiometric enzyme electrode
(iii)Conductimetric enzyme electrode
(i)Amperometric enzyme electrode
• Amperometric biosensors measure the electric current associated with electron flow
resulting from redox reactions.
• They typically rely on an enzyme system that catalytically converts electrochemically
non-active analytes into products that can be oxidized or reduced at a working
electrode.
• This electrode is maintained at a specific potential with respect to a reference electrode.
• The current produced is linearly proportional to the concentration of the electroactive
product, which in turn is proportional to the nonelectroactive enzyme substrate.
• The “substrate” here is any substance on which an enzyme acts.
• Enzymes typically used in amperometric biosensors are oxidases that catalyze the
following class of reactions:

24
• Substrate + O2 → Product + H2O2
• As a result of the enzyme-catalyzed reaction, the substrate (analyte) concentration can
be determined by amperometric detection of oxygen or hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
• An example of this configuration would be an oxygen-consuming enzyme coupled to
an oxygen-sensing electrode.
• The ambient oxygen concentration is then continuously monitored as it diffuses through
a semi-permeable membrane and is reduced at a platinum (Pt) electrode.
• Other common configurations include the use of oxidases specific to various substrates
to produce H2O2.
• During measurement, the working electrode may act as an anode or a cathode,
according to the nature of the analyte.
• For example, a glucose-sensitive biosensor that uses glucose oxidase could detect the
H2O2 produced by the enzymatic reaction by polarising the working electrode to a
positive potential (+0.6V vs. SCE), or by polarising the working electrode to a negative
potential (-0.65V vs. SCE) to monitor oxygen.

Figure 3.20 Glucose Enzyme Electrode

• A potential is applied between the central platinum cathode and the annular silver
anode.
• This generates a current (I) which is carried between the electrodes by means of a
saturated solution of KCl.
• This electrode compartment is separated from the biocatalyst (here shown glucose
oxidase, GOD) by a thin plastic membrane, permeable only to oxygen
• Higher the glucose content higher the oxygen consumption.

25
 • Used to measure glucose content in the blood sample.
• glucose oxidase, (GOD) is immobilized at the bottom of the biosensor.
• When glucose reacts with glucose oxidase , oxygen is released.
• This oxygen passes through the oxygen permeable membrane and interacts with the
platinum electrode as a result of which electrons will be produced.
• Due to the electron flow in electrodes current will be created

(ii)Potentiometric enzyme electrode

• Potentiometric biosensors use ion selective electrodes to determine changes in the
concentration of chosen ions.
• The basic principle behind potentiometric sensor measurements is the development of
a voltage related to the analyte activity (concentration) [A] in the sample through the
Nernst relation:

• where E is the potential measured,

• R is the universal gas constant,
• T is the absolute temperature, n is the valence of the ion,
and a1 and a2 are the activities of the ions on each side of the membrane.
• Potentiometric sensors will generally require a reference electrode as well as the
indicator (working) electrode to be in contact with the test sample solution.

26
• The use of ion-selective membranes can make these sensors sensitive to various ions
(e.g, hydrogen, fluorine, iodine,chlorine ions) in addition to gases such as carbon
dioxide and ammonia.
• Enzyme systems,that change the concentration of any of these ions or gases, can also
be incorporated into the sensor in order to be able to measure enzyme substrate
concentrations, or to detect inhibitors
(e.g., heavy metal ions, insecticides) or modulators of the enzyme.
• Development of voltage related to analyte concentration in sample
• Ideally, the potential difference between the indicator and reference electrode is
proportional to the logarithm of the ion activity

Figure 3.21 A simple potentiometric biosensor

A semi-permeable membrane (a) surrounds the biocatalyst (b) entrapped next to the
active glass membrane (c) of a pH probe (d).
The electrical potential (e) is generated between the internal Ag/AgCl electrode (f)
bathed in dilute HCl (g) and an external reference electrode (h).
• Consider the hydrolysis of substrate urea in the presence of enzyme urease
• A urea electrode can be prepared by immobilizing urease in a gel coating it on the
surface of a cation sensitive type glass electrode ( that respond to monovalent cation )
• when the electrode is dipped in the solution containing urea, the urea diffuses into the
gel layer and the enzyme

27
 • When Co2 reacts with ph electrode, it alters the ph of the solution in the ph electrode
and this causes potential difference.
• These ions diffuse to the surface of the electrode where they are sensed by cation
sensitive glass to give a potential reading .
• After about 30 to 60 second , steady state reading is reached which over a certain
working range is a linear function of the logarithm if the urea concentration .
• By appropriate choice of immobilized enzyme and electrode a number of substrate
selective enzyme electrode have been described
(iii) Conductimetric enzyme electrode
• Measure changes in the conductivity of medium as a result of enzyme reactions that
change its ionic composition.
• Conductance is directly related to the amount of ions in a medium, and since many
enzyme-linked reactions result in a change in ion concentration they are suitable for
conductometric biosensors.
• Enzyme reactions that produce or consume ionic species depend on the total ionic
strength of the medium and changes in its conductance/capacitance can be relatively
small
• Urea sensor
• Sensing enzymes can be immobilised onto the electrodes in a paste or gel form. An
example of this is a urea sensor,using the enzyme urease to catalyze the hydrolysis of
urea and produce ionic species (ammonium, bicarbonate and hydroxyl ions):

3.16 Fiber optics

• Fiber optics (optical fibers) are long, thin strands of very pure glass about the diameter
of a human hair.
• They are arranged in bundles called optical cables and used to transmit light signals
over long distances.
• Core - Thin glass center of the fiber where the light travels
• Cladding - Outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the light back into
the core
• Buffer coating - Plastic coating that protects the fiber from damage and moisture
• Hundreds or thousands of these optical fibers are arranged in bundles in optical cables.
The bundles are protected by the cable's outer covering, called a jacket.
• The light in a fiber-optic cable travels through the core (hallway) by constantly
bouncing from the cladding (mirror-lined walls), a principle called total internal

28
 reflection. Because the cladding does not absorb any light from the core, the light wave
can travel great distances.
• Advantages

• Less expensive , Thinner, Less signal degradation , Low power , Digital signals ,
Non-flammable, Lightweight,flexible

• Applications

• Medical imaging - in bronchoscopes, endoscopes, laparoscopes

• Mechanical imaging - inspecting mechanical welds in pipes and engines (in airplanes,
rockets, space shuttles, cars)

• Plumbing - to inspect sewer lines

• telecommunications and computer networks

• Chemical fibrosensors offer several desirable features.

• They can be made small in size.
• Multiple sensors can be introduced together, through a catheter, for intracranial or
intravascular measurements.
• Because optical measurements are being made, there are no electric hazards to the
patient.
• The measurements are immune to external electric interference, provided that the
electronic instrumentation is properly shielded.
• No reference electrode is necessary.
• 6.high degree of flexibility ,good thermal stability, and low-cost manufacturing

3.16.1 Fiber optic pH sensor

• This pH sensor uses two single-strand optical fibres P and D .
• The distal ends of the fibres are adjacent and parallel and fit inside a cellulose dialysis
hollow fibre (0.25 mm in diameter).
• The proximal end of one fibre (P) is attached to a light source.
• The other fibre (D) is used for detection.
• The cellulose hollow fibre is filled with an indicator dye, phenol red adjacent to the
sealed cut ends of the optic fibre.

29
 Figure 3.22 Fiber optic pH sensor
• The indicator is trapped inside the membrane by bonding it to polyacrylamide gel
microspheres.
• Hydrogen ions diffusing across the cellulose fibre membrane cause the dye to change
colour.
• The absorbance or colour change is quantitatively measured by the intensity of green
light (550 nm) transmitted through the fibre.
• Green and red light is passed into the cell from one optical fibre.
• The green light is partially absorbed by the dye, while the red light that is not absorbed
act as a reference beam.
• A separate optical fibre collects the emitted light and passes it to a photodetector for
processing.
3.16.2 Optical–FiberTemperature sensors
• Temperature sensors, such as thermistor or thermocouples require metallic components
and connecting wires, which disturbs the incident electromagnetic fields and may even
cause localized heating spots and the temperature readings may even be erratic due to
interference.
• This problem is overcome by using temperature sensors, based on fiber-optics.
• These fiber optic devices utilize externally induced changes in transmission
characteristics of the optical fibers and offer typical advantages of optical fibers such
as, flexibility, small dimensions and immunity from electro-magnetic interference.
• Simplest type of temperature sensors consists of a layer of liquid crystal at the end of
optical fibers, giving a variation in light scattering with temperature at a particular
wavelength

30
 • A temperature sensor, which utilizes a silica-core, silicon clad fiber, with an unclad
terminal portion immersed in a liquid which replace the clad.

• Temperature rise causes e reduction in refractive index in liquid, clad fiber section.
• Therefore, light travelling from the silicon clad fiber to liquid clad fiber undergoes an
attenuation, which decreases by increased temperature.
• The light from an 860mm LED is coupled into the fiber.
• The light reflected backwards is sent along the same fibers and light amplitude
modulation, induced by thereto sensitive cladding applied on the distal end of fiber, is
detected and processed.

• One more type of temperature sensor is based on the temperature dependence of band
edge absorption of infrared light in GaAs crystal.

• In this temperature measuring system light is emitted by a LED, transmitted to and

from the crystal via optical fiber and measured by a photo detector.

• No metal parts are used in the temperature probe design, resulting in transparency of
the probe to electromagnetic fields.

TEXT / REFERENCE BOOKS

1.John G. Webster, Medical Instrumentation Application and Design, 4th Edition, Wiley India
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2015.

2.Richard S.C. Cobbold, Transducers for Biomedical Measurements: Principles and

Applications, John Wiley & Sons, 2004.

3.Nandini K. Jog, Electronics in Medicine and Biomedical Instrumentation, PHI, 2nd Edition
2013.

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32
 SCHOOL OF BIO AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT – IV– Biosensors and Measurements – SBMA1301

1
 IV. Biosensors
Biological Sensors: Study of various corpuscles like Pacinian, functions and modelling,
Chemoreceptor, hot and cold receptors, baro- receptors, sensors for smell, sound, vision,
osmolality and taste.
Biosensors: Introduction, Advantages and limitations, various components of Biosensors,
Biocatalysts based biosensors, bio-affinity based biosensors & microorganisms based
biosensors, Types of membranes used in biosensor constructions, Electronic Nose.
4.1 Biological Sensors: Study of various corpuscles like Pacinian, functions and modelling

• Pacinian corpuscle- an encapsulated ending of a sensory nerve that acts as a receptor

for pressure and vibration.
• They are nerve endings in the skin responsible for sensitivity to vibration and pressure.
• They respond only to sudden disturbances and are especially sensitive to vibration.
• Pacinian corpuscles are also found in the pancreas, where they detect vibration and
possibly very low frequency sounds.
• Pacinian corpuscles act as very rapidly adapting mechanoreceptors.
• The human skin is highly sensitive to changes in the external environment.
• These receptors detect the external stimulus and signal the CNS to take necessary
actions to cope with the changing external environment.
• Pacinian corpuscles or lamellar corpuscles
• They are not only found in skin but are also seen in the walls of organs like the pancreas,
urinary bladder, and rectum, etc. here, these corpuscles detect the pressure created by
distortion of the surrounding tissue and make the higher centers aware of it.

Figure 4.1 Pacinian Corpuscle

2
• Pacinian corpuscles are the capsulated endings of sensory neurons. They are large oval
structures that are 0.5 to 1 mm in diameter. These corpuscles are found deep in the skin
within the layers of reticular dermis and hypodermis.
• Pacinian corpuscles have a single axonal fiber at the center surrounded by 15-20 lamella
arranged in a concentric pattern. The entire structure is also surrounded by a connective
tissue capsule. A fluid of certain nature is also present in between the lamella of the
corpuscle.
• The myelinated fiber enters a peripheral sensory nerve.
• Pacinian corpuscles are responsible for detecting pressure and vibration stimuli.
• Any pressure or change in pressure is detected by the change in the position or shape
of the lamella of Pacinian corpuscles.
• When pressure is applied to the skin, the lamella of Pacinian corpuscles gets deformed.
• This causes stress on the membrane of sensory neuron and potential is generated, called
the generator potential or receptor potential.
• The basic reason of receptor potential is the change in the membrane permeability of
different ions caused by the stress on the sensory axon.
• It causes the ions to diffuse into the cell at a different rate, resulting in a change in
transmembrane potential.
4.1.1 Generation of Action Potential
• compressed anywhere, it will result in elongation, bending, or deformation of the
central fiber.
• When a small area of the axonal fiber is compressed due to the deformation of the
corpuscle, certain ion channels open causing the positively charged sodium ions to
diffuse into the axon.
• These positive ions cause depolarization of the fiber creating a potential called receptor
potential.
• This receptor potential also creates local circuits of current flow that spread throughout
the length of the fiber.
• The first node of Ranvier is located inside the capsule.
• When the local current circuits reach this node, the membrane becomes depolarized.
• The action potential now leaves the corpuscle and travels from node to node, along the
sensory nerve.
• The action potential is only generated when the receptor potential is greater than the
threshold potential of the sensory fiber.

3
 • The strength of the receptor potential is related to the intensity of the stimulus
• The increased influx of sodium ions causes a stronger receptor potential.
• The receptor has an extreme range of responses, from very weak to very strong. The
receptor is more sensitive to the weak sensory stimuli.
• If a continuous stimulus is applied to a sensory receptor, it first generates impulses at a
very rapid rate. The response rate progressively decreases finally reaching a level when
only a few or no impulses are generated. This phenomenon is known as adaptation.
• Pacinian corpuscles are a good example of rate receptors or phasic receptors.
• The rapidly adapting receptors cannot be used to send continuous signals as they are
stimulated only when the strength of the stimulus changes.
• As they react only in response to an actual change, they are termed as rate receptors,
phasic receptors, or movement receptors.
• When a sudden pressure is applied to a tissue, it excites the Pacinian corpuscles for a
few milliseconds.
• The excitation is over soon, although the pressure is still there. A signal is transmitted
again when the pressure is released.
• Thus, it keeps the nervous system aware of the changing deformation of tissues but is
useless in the case of the constant deformation state of the body.

4.1.2 Functions of Pacinian Corpuscles

(i) Detection of Pressure and Vibration Changes

• It is the primary function of Pacinian corpuscles.

• They detect any pressure change applied to the skin.
• The changing pressure stimuli create a sense of vibration.
• They have pressure-sensitive sodium channels that are opened in response to the
changing pressure on the skin.
• An action potential is initiated that is carried to the higher centers of the brain via the
ascending pathways in the spinal cord.

(ii) Detection of Pressure in Internal Organs

• Pacinian corpuscles are also present in the walls of some viscera like the rectum and
urinary bladder.
• Here, the detect the pressure created due to the filling of the organ. As a result, a
signal is sent to the CNS that makes us aware of the filled state of the organ.

4
 • The CNS also make necessary arrangements to empty the filled urinary bladder or
rectum. Thus, they have an important role in processes like urination and defecation.

4.2 Chemo receptors

• Chemoreceptors are stimulated by a change in the chemical composition of their
immediate environment.
• There are many types of chemoreceptor spread throughout the body which help to
control different processes including taste, smell and breathing, control the pH, partial
pressure of oxygen (pO2) and partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) within our
blood

4.2.1 Peripheral Chemoreceptors

• Located in both the carotid body and the aortic body, these receptors detect large
changes in pO2 as the arterial blood supply leaves the heart.
• If an abnormally low pO2 is detected, afferent impulses travel to the respiratory centres
in the brainstem.
• A number of responses are then coordinated which aim to increase the pO2 again.
• These include:
• Increasing the respiratory rate and tidal volume, to allow more oxygen to enter the lungs
and subsequently diffuse into the blood
• Directing blood flow towards the kidneys and the brain (as these organs are the most
sensitive to hypoxia)
• Increasing Cardiac Output in order to maintain blood flow, and therefore oxygen supply
to the body’s tissues.

4.2.2 Central Chemoreceptors

• Located in the medulla oblongata of the brainstem, these receptors are more sensitive
and detect smaller changes in arterial pCO2.
• controls our respiratory system
• An increase in pCO2 leads to an increase in ventilation. This results in more CO2 being
blown off and so the pCO2 returns to normal
• A decrease in pCO2 leads to a decrease in ventilation. This results in more CO2 being
retained in our lungs and so the pCO2 returns to normal.
• these receptors actually detect changes in the pH of the Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF).
• The pH of the CSF is established by the ratio of pCO2 : [HCO3–].

5
 • The HCO3– levels remain relatively constant, whereas CO2 freely diffuses across the
blood brain barrier (from the arterial blood supply into the CSF).
• This means, in the short term, the pH of the CSF is approximately inversely proportional
to the arterial pCO2. As described above, a small drop in pCO2¬leads to an increase in
pH of the CSF and subsequently stimulates the respiratory centres to decrease
ventilation and vice versa.
• However, if pCO2 levels stay abnormal over a substantial period of time, e.g. three days
or more, specialised cells (called choroid plexus cells) within the blood brain barrier
allow HCO3– ions to enter the CSF.
• As such the system can be ‘reset’ to a different pCO2 by manipulating the pH – which
can be relevant in certain diseases, such as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
(COPD).

4.3 Hot and Cold receptors

• thermoreceptor: a nerve cell that is sensitive to changes in temperature
• Thermoreceptors can include: Krause end bulbs, which detect cold and are defined by
capsules; Ruffini endings, which detect warmth and are defined by enlarged dendritic
endings; and warm and cold receptors present on free nerve endings which can detect a
range of temperature.
• The cold receptors present on free nerve endings, that can be either lightly-myelinated
or unmyelinated, have a maximum sensitivity at ~ 27°C and will signal temperatures
above 17°C.
• The warm receptors present on free nerve endings are unmyelinated fibers that have a
maximum senstivity of ~45°C and will signal temperature above 30°C.
• Mammals have at least two types of sensors: those that detect heat (i.e., temperatures
above body temperature) and those that detect cold (i.e., temperatures below body
temperature).
• A thermoreceptor is a sensory receptor or, more accurately, the receptive portion of a
sensory neuron that codes absolute and relative changes in temperature, primarily
within the innocuous range.
• The adequate stimulus for a warm receptor is warming, which results in an increase in
their action potential discharge rate; cooling results in a decrease in warm receptor
discharge rate.

6
 • For cold receptors, their firing rate increases during cooling and decreases during
warming. The types of receptors capable of detecting changes in temperature can vary.
• There are thermoreceptors that are located in the dermis, skeletal muscles, liver, and
hypothalamus that are activated by different temperatures.
• These thermoreceptors, which have free nerve endings, include only two types of
thermoreceptors that signal innocuous warmth and cooling respectively in our skin.
• The warm receptors show a maximum sensitivity at ~ 45°C, signal temperatures
between 30 and 45°C, and cannot unambiguously signal temperatures higher than 45°C;
they are unmyelinated.
• The cold receptors have their maximum sensitivity at ~ 27°C, signal temperatures above
17°C, and some consist of lightly-myelinated fibers, while others are unmyelinated.
• Our sense of temperature comes from the comparison of the signals from the warm and
cold receptors. Thermoreceptors are poor indicators of absolute temperature, but are
very sensitive to changes in skin temperature.
• The thermoreceptor pathway in the brain runs from the spinal cord through the thalamus
to the primary somatosensory cortex. Warmth and cold information from the face
travels through one of the cranial nerves to the brain.
• Any stimulus that is too intense can be perceived as pain because temperature
sensations are conducted along the same pathways that carry pain sensations.

4.4 Baroreceptors
The best known of nervous mechanisms for arterial pressure control (baroreceptor
reflex). Baroreceptors are stretch receptors found in the carotid body, aortic body and the wall
of all large arteries of the neck and thorax. Respond progressively at 60-180 mm Hg. Respond
more to a rapidly changing pressure than stationary pressure. Baroreceptors are sensors located
in the blood vessels of the human body. They are a type of mechanoreceptor that detect the
pressure of blood flowing through them, and can send messages to the CNS to increase or
decrease total peripheral resistance and cardiac output. Baroreceptors act immediately as part
of a negative feedback system called the baroreflex, as soon as there is a change from the usual
blood pressure mean arterial blood pressure, returning the pressure to a normal level. In the
walls of the bifurcation region of the carotid arteries in the neck, and also in the arch of the
aorta in the thorax, are many baroreceptors, which are stimulated by stretch of the arterial wall.

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4.4.1 The mechanism

• When the arterial pressure rises too high, the baroreceptors send barrages of nerve
impulses to the medulla of the brain.
• Here these impulses inhibit the vasomotor center, which in turn decreases the number
of impulses transmitted from the vasomotor center through the sympathetic nervous
system to the heart and blood vessels.
• Lack of these impulses causes diminished pumping activity by the heart and also
dilation of the peripheral blood vessels, allowing increased blood flow through the
vessels.
• Both of these effects decrease the arterial pressure back toward normal.
• Conversely, a decrease in arterial pressure below normal relaxes the stretch receptors,
allowing the vasomotor center to become more active than usual, thereby causing
vasoconstriction and increased heart pumping, and raising arterial pressure back toward
normal.

4.4.2 High Pressure Baroreceptors

• Arterial baroreceptors are present in the aortic arch and the carotid sinuses of the left
and right internal carotid arteries.
• Arterial baroreceptors are stimulated by pressure changes in the arteries.
• The baroreceptors can identify the changes in the blood pressure which can increase or
decrease the heart rate.
• A change in the mean arterial pressure induces depolarization of these sensory endings
which results in action potentials.
• These action potentials are conducted to the central nervous system by axons and have
a direct effect on the cardiovascular system through autonomic neurons.
• Hormone secretions which target the heart and blood vessels are affected by the
stimulaton of baroreceptors
• If blood pressure falls, such as in hypovolaemic shock, baroreceptor firing rate
decreases.
• Signals from the carotid baroreceptors are sent via the glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial
nerve IX).
• Signals from the aortic baroreceptors travel through the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X).
If the arterial pressure is severely lowered, the baroreflex is activated.

8
 • Baroreceptors respond very quickly to maintain a stable blood pressure, but they only
respond to short term changes.
• Over a period of 1–2 days they will reset to a new value.
• Thus, in people with essential hypertension the baroreceptors behave as if the elevated
blood pressure is normal and aim to maintain this high blood pressure. The receptors
then become less sensitive to change.
• Low Pressure Baroreceptors The low-pressure baroreceptors, or cardiopulmonary
receptors, are found in large systemic veins, pulmonary vessels, and in the walls of the
right atrium and ventricles of the heart.
• The low pressure baroreceptors are involved with the regulation of blood volume
throughout the system, in particular in the venous side where most of the blood is held.
The blood volume determines the mean pressure .
• The low-pressure baroreceptors have both circulatory and renal effects, they produce
changes in hormone secretion which have profound effects on the retention of salt and
water and also influence intake of salt and water. The renal effects allow the receptors
to change the mean pressure in the system in the long term.

4.5 Sensors for smell

4.5.1 Electronic nose

Electronic noses are engineered to mimic the mammalian olfactory system. Instrument
designed to allow repeatable identifications and classifications of aroma mixtures. Determines
the various characteristics properties of the odour while eliminating operator fatigue. e-sensing
refers to the capability of reproducing human senses using sensor arrays and pattern recognition
systems.

Figure 4.2 Electronic nose

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• Device intended to detect odors or flavors.
• Can be seen as arrays of sensors able to generate electrical signals in response to
either simple or complex volatile compounds present in the gaseous sample.

Figure 4.3 Basic design of an e-nose

• Each and every part of the electronic nose is similar to human nose

Table 4.1 Comparison table

• The human sniffers are costly when compared to electronic nose.
• Speedy, reliable new technology of the gas sensors are used in the electronic nose.
• Detection of hazardous or poisonous gas is not possible with a human sniffer.
• An e-nose also overcomes other problems associated with the human olfactory
system.
• There lies a great chance of difference in the values got by each individual.
• An air sample is pulled by a vacuum pump.
• It is led through a tube into a small chamber consisting of electronic sensor array.
• A transient response is produced as the volatile organic compounds in the sample
interact with the surface of the sensor’s active material.
• A steady state response is reached within few minutes. This response is then sent
to a signal processing unit.

10
 • Electronic noses include three major parts:
I. a sample delivery system
II. a detection system I
II. a computing system

I. Sample delivery system

• Enables the generation of the headspace (volatile compounds) of a sample.

• The system then injects this headspace into the detection system of the e-nose.

II. Detection system

• Consists of a sensor set, is the "reactive" part of the instrument.

• Adsorption of volatile compounds on the sensor surface causes a physical change
of the sensor; they experience a change of electrical properties.
• A specific response is recorded by the electronic interface transforming the signal
into a digital value.
• Recorded data are then computed based on statistical models.

III. Computing system

Works to combine the responses of all the sensors.

• The sensor array is clearly the key element. It forms the primary step in the detection
or identification of an odorant.
• The most commonly used sensors in electronic nose are:

1.Conductivity sensors

(i) Metal oxide sensors(MOS)

(ii)Conducting polymers

(2) Piezoelectric sensors

(3) MOSFET sensors

(4) Optical sensors Sensor technology

1 (i) MOS (Metal oxide sensors)

• Adsorption of gas molecules provoke changes in conductivity .

11
• This conductivity change is the measure of the amount of volatile organic compounds
adsorbed.

(1) (ii) Conducting polymers

• Conducting or conductive polymer gas sensors operate based on changes in electrical

resistance caused by adsorption of gases onto the sensor surface.

(2) Piezoelectric sensors-

• Adsorption of gas onto the surface of the polymer leads to change in mass on the sensor
surface.

• This in turn produces a change in the resonant frequency of the crystal.

• This change in frequency is proportional to the concentration of the test material.

(3) MOSFET (Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistor )sensors-

• A volatile organic compound produces a reaction in the sensing layer(gate).

• This causes the physical property of the gate to change.
• Thereby the threshold voltage is changed and thus the channel conductivity.

4) Optical sensors-

• Optical sensor systems are somewhat more complex than typical sensor- array
systems having transduction mechanisms based on changes in electrical resistance.
• Optical sensors work by means of light modulation measurements.

Performing an analysis with an e-nose

• As a first step, an e-nose needs to be trained with qualified samples so as to build a

database of reference.
• Then the instrument can recognize new samples by comparing volatile compounds
fingerprint to those contained in its database.
• Thus they can perform the analysis.

Applications of e-nose

Respiratory disease diagnosis,Medical diagnosis and health monitoring ,Environmental

monitoring ,Application in food industry ,Detection of explosives.

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4.6 Sensors For Sound

Sound detection sensor works similarly to our Ears, having diaphragm which converts vibration
into signals. However, what's different as that a sound sensor consists of an in-built capacitive
microphone, peak detector and an amplifier (LM386, LM393, etc.) that's highly sensitive to
sound. With these components, it allows for the sensor to work:

1. Sound waves propagate through air molecules

2. Such sound waves cause the diaphragm in the microphone to vibrate, resulting in capacitance
change

3. Capacitance change is then amplified and digitalized for processing of sound intensity

4.6.1 Microphones

These are used to translate wave motion in air into electrical signal. Usual types are: (i) carbon
button which changes resistance with air pressure, (ii) electrodynamic where a voltage is
induced in a coil by its motion relative to a magnet, (iii) condenser where capacitance of a
condenser is varied by the vibration of one of the condenser plates.

• The sound sensor has a thin piece of material called a diaphragm that vibrates when hit
by sound waves (similar to how your eardrum vibrates when hearing sound).

• The vibration of the diaphragm is converted by the sensor into an electrical signal

4.6.2 Dynamic moving coil microphone sound transducer

Figure 4.4 Dynamic moving coil microphone

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 • The construction of a dynamic microphone resembles that of a loudspeaker, but in
reverse.
• It is a moving coil type microphone which uses electromagnetic induction to convert
the sound waves into an electrical signal.
• It has a very small coil of thin wire suspended within the magnetic field of a permanent
magnet.
• As the sound wave hits the flexible diaphragm, the diaphragm moves back and forth in
response to the sound pressure acting upon it causing the attached coil of wire to move
within the magnetic field of the magnet.
• The movement of the coil within the magnetic field causes a voltage to be induced in
the coil as defined by Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic Induction.
• The resultant output voltage signal from the coil is proportional to the pressure of the
sound wave acting upon the diaphragm so the louder or stronger the sound wave the
larger the output signal will be, making this type of microphone design pressure
sensitive.

4.6.3 Electret Microphone

• an electret condenser microphone which consists of a very light diaphragm (moving
plate) and back plate (stationary or static plate) and has a permanent charge implanted
in an electret material to provide polarizing voltage.
• The principle of operation is that sound waves impinging on the diaphragm cause the
capacitance between it and the back plate to change synchronously, this in turn induces
an AC voltage on the back plate.
• The AC signal is amplified in an amplifier which consists of a single JFET transistor,
with the gate connected to the pick-up plate, the source connected to ground, and the
signal appearing on the drain. The JFET in this electret microphone is designed for low-
noise applications.

Figure 4.5 Electret microphone

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4.6.4 Heart sound measurement
• Heart sounds are diagnostically useful Sounds produced by healthy hearts are very
much identical Whereas abnormal sounds always correlate to specific physical
abnormalities.
• The heart sounds may be due to movement of heart wall, closure of walls, flow of blood,
leakage of blood etc.
• The principal instrument used for the clinical detection of heart sounds is the acoustical
stethoscope.
• An improvement over the acoustical stethoscope is the electronic stethoscope
consisting of a microphone, an amplifier and a head set.
• Electronic stethoscopes can detect heart sounds which are too low in intensity or too
high in frequency to he heard in a purely acoustical instrument.
• The phonocardiograph is an instrument used for detecting and recording the sounds
connected with the pumping action (mechanical action) of the heart.
• This helps in indicating heart rate and rhythmicity of heart beat, efficiency of pumping
of blood, valve action etc.
• the phonocardiograph consists of a microphone, an amplifier and the recorder
• There are two types' microphones that are used for recording phonocardiogram, 1)
Crystal and 2) Dynamic.
• The crystal microphone consists of a piezo electric material which generates potentials
when subjected to mechanical stresses due to heart sounds.
• The dynamic type microphone consists of a moving coil having a fixed magnetic core
inside it.
• The coil moves with the heart sounds and produces a voltage because of its interaction
with the magnetic flux.
• The amplifier used fora phonocardiograph has wide bandwidth with a frequency of
range about 20 to 2000 Hz.
• Filters permit selection of suitable frequency bands, so that particular heart sound
frequencies can be recorded.
• The phonocardiogram requires a recording system capable of responding to 2000 Hz.
Galvanometer recorders, direct writing recorders, inkjet recorders, electrostatic
recorders or thermal recorders can be used to record PCG (Phono Cardio Gram) waves.

15
 Figure 4.6 Typical phonocardiogram

• The first sound is due to the closure of mitral and tricuspid valves. This sound
corresponds to the R wave of the ECG.
• Any abnormality in the first sound thus relates to relaxation of atria or contraction of
ventricles.
• The normal sounds are longer in duration, lower in frequency and greater in intensity
than the second sound.
• The frequencies of these sounds range between 30 to 100 Hz and duration range from
50 to 100ms.
• The second sound is higher in pitch with duration 25 to 50 ms and frequency 100 Hz.
• this sound is produced due to the closure of aortic and pulmonary valves.
• The third sound is produced by the inflow of blood to the ventricles.
• The fourth sound is produced due to the contraction of the atria.

4.6.5 Hearing Aid

• A hearing aid or deaf aid is an electro acoustic device which is designed to amplify
sound for the wearer, usually with the aim of making speech more intelligible.
• Microphone: pick up sound and convert to electrical impulses.
• Amplifier: magnifies electrical impulses
• Receivers: convert electrical impulses back to sound
• Microphone
The microphone picks up sounds from the air and convert them into electrical signals.
• Amplifier
The amplifier increases the intensity of the signals from the microphone. Filters modify
the sounds so that only sounds which are relevant for the person are amplified.
• 'Loudspeaker’(Receiver)
The third basic component is the 'loudspeaker' (receiver). It converts electrical signals
into acoustic signals, which the person then hears.
• Smallcomputer(Digital)
These three components exist in all hearing aids. Furthermore, in digital hearing aids a

16
 small computer can be programmed to manipulate the signals to fit the hearing loss of
the individual hearing-impaired person.

Figure 4.7 Hearing aid

4.7 Sensors for Osmolality
• Osmolality is the concentration of particles (solutes) dissolved in a solution.
• osmolality of many solutions, including serum, urine, plasma, and biologics.
• An osmometer is a device for measuring the osmotic strength of a solution, colloid, or
compound.
• Osmometers are useful for determining the total concentration of dissolved salts and
sugars in blood or urine samples.
• There are several different techniques employed in osmometry:
• Vapor pressure osmometers determine the concentration of osmotically active particles
that reduce the vapor pressure of a solution.
• Membrane osmometers measure the osmotic pressure of a solution separated from pure
solvent by a semipermeable membrane.
• Freezing point depression osmometers may also be used to determine the osmotic
strength of a solution, as osmotically active compounds depress the freezing point of a
solution.
4.7.1 Freezing point depression osmometers

Figure 4.8 Freezing point depression osmometers

17
 • Principle : the freezing point of a solution is related to the osmotic concentration of that
solution.
• If concentration of the solute is increased, it will lower its freezing point
• The sample in a small tube is lowered into a chamber with cold refrigerant circulating
from a cooling point.
• A thermistor is immersed in the sample.
• To measure temperature, a wire is used to gently stir the sample until it is cooled to
several degrees below its freezing point.
• It is possible to cool water to as low as -40°C and still have liquid water, provided no
crystals or particulate matter is present—supercooled solution.
• Freezing can also be started by “seeding” a supercooled solution with crystals.
• When the supercooled solution starts to freeze as a result of the rapid stirring, a slush is
formed and the solution actually warms to its freezing point temperature.
• The slush will remain at the freezing point temperature until the sample freezes solid
and drops below its freezing point.
• Most commonly used method for measuring the osmolality of serum or urine in clinical
laboratory.

4.7.2 Vapor Pressure Osmometer

• Measurement related to the decrease in dew point of temp of pure solvent (water)
caused by decrease in vapor pressure of solvent by the solute.
• Drawback: measurement of any of volatile solute in serum not better. (volatile gases if
present will increase the vapor pressure of solvent)
• Hence not recommended for clinical laboratory

Figure 4.9 Vapor pressure osmometers

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4.7.3 Membrane osmometers
• It is a device used to indirectly measure the number average molecular weight of a
polymer sample.
• One chamber contains the pure solvent and other a solution in which the solute polymer
with unknown MW.
• The osmotic pressure of the solvent across the semipermeable is measured.
• solvent is permitted through the membrane, a change in concentration causes the
solvent to diffuse to the solute side of the chamber through the membrane separating it.
• As this occurs, the pressure of the solvent decreases until the pressure difference across
the membrane just counteracts the chemical potential difference caused by the solute.
• Hence, this change in pressure is measured.

4.8 Sensors for vision

• The purpose of image sensors are to convert incoming light (photons) into an electrical
signal that can be viewed, analyzed, or stored.
• Image sensors built into today's digital cameras and mobile phones mostly use either
the CCD (charge coupled device) or CMOS technology.
• digital cameras use solid-state device called image sensor.
• Image sensors contain millions of photosensitive diodes known as photosites.
• When you take a picture, the camera's shutter opens briefly and each photo site on the
image sensor records the brightness of the light that falls on it by accumulating photons.
• The more light that hits a photo site, the more photons it records.

4.8.1Types of Image Sensors

• An image sensor is typically of two types:

• (i) Charged Coupled Device (CCD)
• (ii) Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS)

(i)Charged Coupled Device (CCD)

• Charge-coupled devices (CCDs) are silicon-based integrated circuits consisting of a

dense matrix of photodiodes that operate by converting light energy in the form of photons
into an electronic charge.

19
• Electrons generated by the interaction of photons with silicon atoms are stored in a
potential well and can subsequently be transferred across the chip through registers and
output to an amplifier.

• In a CCD for capturing images, there is a photoactive region, and a transmission region
made out of a shift register.

• An image is projected by a lens on the capacitor array (the photoactive region), causing
each capacitor to accumulate an electric charge proportional to the light intensity at that
location

• The CCD sensor is itself an analog device, but the output is immediately converted to
a digital signal by means of an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) in digital cameras, either
on or off chip.

• Once the array has been exposed to the image, a control circuit causes each capacitor
to transfer its contents to its neighbour.

• The last capacitor in the array dumps its charge into a charge amplifier, which converts
the charge into a voltage.

• By repeating this process, the controlling circuit converts the entire semiconductor
contents of the array to a sequence of voltages, which it samples, digitizes and stores in
some form of memory.

Figure 4.10 charged coupled device

20
(ii) Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS)
• CMOS" refers to both a particular style of digital circuitry design, and the family of
processes used to implement that circuitry on integrated circuits (chips)
• CMOS circuits use a combination of p-type and n-type metal–oxide–semiconductor
field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) to implement logic gates and other digital circuits
found in computers, telecommunications equipment, and signal processing equipment
• In most CMOS devices, there are several transistors at each pixel that amplify and move
the charge using wires.
• The CMOS approach is more flexible because each pixel can be read individually.
• In a CMOS sensor, each pixel has its own charge-to-voltage conversion, and the sensor
often also includes amplifiers, noise-correction, and digitization circuits, so that the
chip outputs digital bits.
• With each pixel doing its own conversion, uniformity is lower.

Figure 4.11 Complementary metal oxide semiconductor

• The CMOS image sensor consists of a large pixel matrix that takes care of the
registration of incoming light.
• The electrical voltages that this matrix produces are buffered by column-amplifiers and
sent to the on-chip ADC.
• So, in case of the CMOS sensor, the charge to voltage conversion as well as the voltage
amplification is carried out in the pixel itself.

21
 • So, the processing speed of the CMOS sensor will be much higher than the CCD sensor.
• CMOS image sensors can incorporate other circuits on the same chip, eliminating the
many separate chips required for a CCD.
• The overall power consumption of this CCD sensor will be high.
• While in case of this CMOS sensor, it requires the single power supply.
• Overall size of CCD sensor is high.
• Hence CMOS sensor are preferred over CCD sensors.

4.8.2 Electronic EYE system

• a prosthesis which is used to replace a missing or damaged eye.

• In order to accomplish the goal of creating a visual prosthesis, scientists had to develop
a camera which could interact with the brain by stimulating the optic nerve.
• In damaged or dysfunctional retina, the photoreceptors stop working, causing
blindness.
❖ What happens when we look at an object?
• Scattered light from the object enters through the cornea.
• The light is projected onto the retina.
• The retina sends messages to the brain through the optic nerve.
• The brain interprets what the object is.
❖ how brain works after seeing an image?
• After seeing an image, the brain takes information from the outside world and encodes
it in patterns of electrical activity.
• After the creating pattern the brain gets an visualization of an image. That can we
actually seeing the image from our eyes.
4.8.2.1 ARGUS-II device
• The Argus II Retinal Prosthesis System (“Argus II”) is the world’s first approved device
intended to restore some functional vision for people suffering from blindness.
• transmits images from a small, eye-glass- mounted camera wirelessly to a
microelectrode array implanted on a patient’s damaged retina.
• The System has three parts:
• a small electronic device implanted in and around the eye,
• a tiny video camera attached to a pair of glasses,
and a video processing unit that is worn or carried by the patient

22
 Figure 4.12 Electronic eye system

• The camera used for this is the CMOS image sensor.

• This camera is placed on the goggles.
• The battery required for this is provided from the video processing unit.
• Video Processing Unit acts as a optogenic transducer unit which simplifies the image
as spots of light and then reduces the image to the number of photodiodes.

Figure 4.13 Block diagram of Electronic eye system

• The patient wears glasses with an attached video camera that captures images of the
surrounding area.
• These images become an electrical signal which is processed by the video processing
unit.
• The signal is then wirelessly delivered to the eye stimulating the retina.
• This electrical stimulation of the retina is recognized by the brain as spots of light.
• The camera captures images and sends to retina implant.
• It stimulates neurons.
• The stimulated neurons send information to brain via optic nerves.
• identify the location or movement of objects and people;
• recognize large letters, words, or Sentences.
• and helped in other activities of daily life.

23
 4.9 Sensors for taste

4.9.1 Electronic tongue

• The electronic tongue is an instrument that measures and compares tastes.

• It is an analytical instrument comprising an array of non-specific, low selective
chemical sensors with cross-sensitivity to different components in solution, and an
appropriate method of pattern recognition and/or multivariate calibration for the data
processing.
• Chemical compounds responsible for taste are detected by human taste receptors, and
the seven sensors of electronic instruments detect the same dissolved organic and
inorganic compounds.
• Like human receptors, each sensor has a spectrum of reactions different from the other.
• The information given by each sensor is complementary and the combination of all
sensors' results generates a unique fingerprint.
• Most of the detection thresholds of sensors are similar to or better than those of human
receptors.
• In the biological mechanism, taste signals are transducted by nerves in the brain into
electric signals.
• E-tongue sensors process is similar: they generate electric signals as potentiometric
variations.
• Taste quality perception and recognition is based on building or recognition of
activated sensory nerve patterns by the brain and on the taste fingerprint of the product.
• This step is achieved by the etongue’s statistical software which interprets the sensor
data into taste patterns.
• Liquid samples are directly analyzed without any preparation, whereas solids require a
preliminary dissolution before measurement. Reference electrode and sensors are
dipped in a beaker containing a test solution.
• A voltage is applied between each sensor and a reference electrode, and a measurable
current response results that is consistent with the Cottrell equation.
• This current response is a result of oxidizing reactions that take place in the solution
due to the voltage difference, and can be amplified through catalytic surface treatments.
• The response is measured and recorded by the e-tongue's software. These data represent
the input for mathematical treatment that will deliver results.

24
 Figure 4.14Block diagram of Electronic tongue

• Chemical sensors are small devices that perform transformation of chemical or

biochemical information of a qualitative or quantitative type into an analytical useful
signal by the process of chemical interaction between sample and sensors.
• Currently these technologies are based on electrochemical sensors(potentiometric).
• The detecting sensor part consist of lipid/polymer membranes and act as the working
electrodes.
• The reference electrodes -Ag/AgCI.
• Electrode charge density of the lipid/polymer membrane-surface and ion distribution
near the surface of the membrane is changed due to sample.
• Therefore, the total electric charge on the lipid membrane gives the response membrane
electric potential for the substances.
• The acquisition system establishes the communication between the sensor array and
data processing system.
• Converts the electrical signals from sensor array to digital signals with less distortion.
• Amplifier must be present as the electrical signals from the sensors are always small.
• Electronic tongues have several applications in various industrial areas: the
pharmaceutical industry, food and beverage sector, etc. It can be used to:
• analyze flavor ageing in beverages (for instance fruit juice, alcoholic or non alcoholic
drinks, flavored milks...)
• quantify bitterness or “spicy level” of drinks or dissolved compounds (e.g. bitterness
measurement and prediction of teas)
• quantify taste masking efficiency of formulations (tablets, syrups, powders, capsules,
lozenges...)
• analyze medicines stability in terms of taste, monitor biological and biochemical
processes.

25
 • The electronic tongue uses taste sensors to receive information from chemicals on the
tongue and send it to a pattern recognition system.
• The result is the detection of the tastes that compose the human palate.
• The types of taste that is generated is divided into five categories sourness, saltiness,
bitterness, sweetness, and umami (savoriness).
• Sourness, which includes hydrogen chloride, acetic acid, and citric acid, is created by
hydrogen ions.
• Saltiness is registered as sodium chloride, sweetness by sugars, bitterness, which
includes chemicals such as quinine and caffeine is detected through magnesium
chloride, and umami by monosodium glutamate from seaweed, or disodium guanylate
in meat/fish/mushrooms.

4.10 Biosensors

• A biosensor is an analytical device which converts the biological signal into a

measurable electrical signal.
• Professor Leland C Clark is the father of Biosenor.
• It detects, records and transmits information regarding a physiological change or
process.
• It determines the presence and concentration of a specific substance in any test solution.
• Biosensor is a special type of bioelectronic device commonly used in bio-analysis.
• A sensor can be viewed as the "primary element of a measurement chain, which
converts the input variable into a signal suitable for measurement.
• Biosensor is an analytical device for the detection of an analyte that combines a
biological component with a physiochemical detector.
• A device incorporating a biological sensing element connected to a transducer.
• Two fundamental operating principles of a biosensor are "biological recognition" and
"sensing."
• Therefore, a biosensor can be generally defined as a device that consists of three basic
components connected in series:
• (1) a biological recognition system, often called a bioreceptor, (2) a transducer, and
(3) microelectronics.
• The basic principle of a biosensor is to detect this molecular recognition and to
transform it into another type of signal using a transducer.

26
4.10.1 Basic Principle of Biosensor

• Basic priciple of biosensor involved in three element :-

• First biological recognization element which highly specific towards the biological
material analytes produces.
• Second transducers detect and transduces signal from biological target -receptor
molecule to electrical signal which is due to reaction occur.
• Third after transduction signal from biological to electrical signal where its
amplification is necessary and takes place and read out in detector after processing the
values are displayed for monitor and controlling the system.

Figure 4.15Basic principle of Biosensor

• The term biosensor is short for biological sensor and is a device made up of a transducer
and a biological element that may be an enzyme, an antibody, or a nucleic acid.

• The biological element or bioelement interacts with the analyte being tested and the
biological response is converted into an electrical signal by the transducer.

• Every biosensor has a biological component that acts as the sensor and an electronic
component that detects and transmits the signal.

• In other words, the biological material is immobilized and a contact is made between
the immobilized biological material and the transducer.

• The analyte binds to the biological material to form a bound analyte, which in turn
produces the electronic response that can be measured.

27
• Sometimes the analyte is converted to a product that could be associated with the
release of heat, gas (oxygen), electrons, or hydrogen ions.

• The transducer then converts the product-linked changes into electrical signals, which
can be amplified and measured.

Figure 4.16 Block diagram of Biosensor

4.10.2 Components of Biosensor

• A biosensor consists of three main elements:

• a bioreceptor, a transducer, and a signal pro-cessing .
• Biosensors can be classified by their bioreceptor or their transducer types.
• Analyte: A substance of interest that needs detection. A substance whose chemical
constituents are being identified and measured. For instance, glucose is an ‘analyte’ in
a biosensor designed to detect glucose.
• Bioreceptor: A molecule that specifically recognises the analyte is known as a
bioreceptor. Enzymes, cells, nucleic acid, antibodies are some examples of
bioreceptors.
• The process of signal generation (in the form of light, heat, pH, charge or mass change,
etc.) upon interaction of the bioreceptor with the analyte is termed bio-recognition.

• Transducer or detector element:

• It transforms the signal resulting from the interaction of the analyte with biological
element into another signal that can be more easily measured or quantified.
• Biosensor reader device:
• It associates with electronics or signal processor that are responsible for the display of
the results.

28
 Figure 4.17 Components of Biosensor

• Analyte diffuses from the solution to the surface of the Biosensor.

• Analyte reacts specifically & efficiently with the Biological Component of the
Biosensor.
• This reaction changes the physicochemical properties of the Transducer surface.
• This leads to a change in the optical/electronic properties of the Transducer Surface.
• The change in the optical/electronic properties is measured/converted into electrical
signal, which is detected.
• These are the major selective element in biosensors. These substances attach
themselves to one particular substrate but not to others. There are four main biological
elements namely
a)Enzymes
b)Antibodies
c)Nucleic Acid
d)Receptors
a)Enzymes

(a) Enzymes
• It is used in purified form and it is present in microorganisms.
• It is also present in slice of intact tissues.
• They are biological catalyst for particular reaction.
• Catalysts are those which will speed up the reaction and do not undergo any change
itself.
• This catalytic action is made use in the biosensor.
• They can bind themselves to specific substrate.

29
 ❖ Advantage:
• They bind to the subject.
• They are highly selective.
• They have catalytic activity thus improving selectivity.
• They are fairly fast acting.
• They are the most commonly used biological component
• Disadvantages:
• They are expensive because of cost extracting, isolating and purifying is high
• There is loss of activity when they are immobilized to a transducer.
• They tend to lose activity after a short period of time.
(b) Anitbodies
• Antibodies bind specifically with the corresponding antigen.
• They have no catalytic effect.
• They involve with the substrate directly and provide a signal for the transducer.
• Advantages:
• They are very selective.
• They are very sensitive.
• They bind very powerfully. Disadvantage:
• There is no catalytic effect
❖ Advantages
• Can be integrated on one chip and are useful for measuring various substances in small
amounts of sample solution simultaneously.
• Since semiconductor fabrication technology is applied to micro-biosensors, it is
possible to develop disposable transducers for biosensors through mass production.
• Rapid and convenient detection
• Direct measurement of real sample
• Very specific detection

c)Nuclei acids
• Nucleic acids are the main information-carrying molecules of the cell, and, by directing
the process of protein synthesis, they determine the inherited characteristics of every

30
 living thing. The two main classes of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
and ribonucleic acid (RNA).

• These operate selectively because of their base-pairing characteristics. They are used
in identifying genetic disorder in children.

d) Receptors
• Receptors are proteins, usually cell surface receptors, which bind to ligands and cause
responses in the immune system, including cytokine receptors, growth factor receptors
and Fc receptor.
• Receptors can be found in various immune cells like B cells, T cells, NK cells,
monocytes and stem cells.
• Receptors are proteins present inside the lipid bilayer plasma membrane surrounding a
cell.
• They traverse the full breadth of the membrane and have molecular recognition
property.
• They bind solutes with a degree of affinity and specificity matching antibodies.
• The biological component has to be properly attached to the transducer to make a good
biosensor. This process of attaching the biological component with the transducer is
known as Immobilisation.
4.11 Advantages of Biosensors
• The purpose of a biosensor is to provide rapid, real-time, accurate, and reliable
information about the analyte of interrogation.
• Ideally, it is a device that is capable of responding continuously, reversibly, and does
not perturb the sample.
• Easy to use, linear response
• High sensitivity, high specificity, bind to analyte, low sample requirements
• Portable, inexpensive
4.12 Limitations of Biosensors
• Ph parameter , temperature parameter influences the performance of biosensor
sensitivity .
• Tedious measurement conditions
• Requirement for sample preparation
• Requires the identification of analyte

31
4.13 Applications of biosensors

Figure 4.18 Applications of Biosensor

4.14 Types of membranes used in biosensor constructions
• A variety of membranes can be used in the construction of biosensors depending on the
need. The membranes are constructed from a variety of sources/materials; hydrophilic,
hydrophobic, conducting, non-conducting and so on.
• Various types of membranes used in the construction of biosensors include :
• Membranes made from synthetic polymers with high water regaining capacity. eg:
hydrogels like Polyacrylamides
• Hydrophobic Membranes that are impermeable to high molecular weight watersoluble
compounds, but are permeable to ions and gases. Polytetrafluoroethylene,
Polyvinylchloride membranes are used in the making of Ion Selective Electodes
(ISE’s).
• Membranes constructed from biologically derived materials such as cellulose, collagen
etc. Membranes derived from these materilas posses good properties for immobilizing
biological materilas (such as porosity).
• Non-Conducting Polymer Films such as Polyphenol are used as membranes for
biosensors.
• Conducting Polymer Films such as Polypyrrole and Polyaniline are also used as
membranes in biosensors.
• Heterogenous multilayer membranes are used in certain cases. They contain multiple
membranes. Each membrane has a different biological material and thus a different
function.
• Microfiltrarion membranes such as Polycarbonate membranes are also used in
Biosensors.
• The choice of the membrane used for a biosensor is made taking into consideration, the
analyte, the method of detection of the reaction/signal at/from the biological element.
32
 • For example :Ion selective membranes are used in the making of Potentiometric
biosensors.
• PolyTetraFluoroEthylene and Teflon membranes are used in the glucose biosensor for
seperating the electrode from the bulk reaction mixture.
• PolyVinylAlcohol membrane for Glucose and Lactate Biosensors.
4.14 Types of biosensors
(i) On The Basis of Transducing Element
1. Calorimetric biosensor: They measure change in temperature due to either release
(exothermic) or absorption (endothermic) of heat. ex. Temperature biosensors.

2. Potentiometric biosensors: They measure potential difference arising during a redox

reaction. ex. Urea biosensor.

3. Amperometric biosensor: They measure current (flow of electrons) arising during a

reaction. ex. Glucose biosensor.

4. Conductometric biosensors: These measure changes in electrical conductivity arising

during a reaction. Ex. urea biosensor.

5. Acoustic wave biosensor: they measure electric field developed by piezoelectric effects.
Ex. Cocaine biosensor.

6. Optical biosensors: They measure light arising from the action of enzyme luciferase
(firefly). ex. Detection of bacteria

(ii) Classification based on biorecognition element

(a) Biocatalysts based biosensors

(b) Bio-affinity based biosensors

(c) Microorganisms based biosensors

4.14.1Biocatalysts based biosensors

• These are also known as metabolism sensors and are kinetic devices based on the
achievement of a steady state concentration of a transducer detectable species.

• The progress of the biocatalyzed reaction is related to the concentration of the analyte,
which can be measured by monitoring the rate of formation of product, the
disappearance of a reactant, or the inhibition of the reaction.

33
• The biocatalyst can be an isolated enzyme, a microorganism, a sub cellular organelle,
or a tissue slice.

• Catalysts are substances that speed up chemical reactions. Organic/bio-catalysts are

called enzymes.

• Reactions with enzymes are up to 10 billion times faster than those without enzymes

• Enzymatic (or metabolism) biosensors employ immobilized enzymes as receptors.

Enzymes are catalysts, substances that enable biochemical processes to proceed. The
enzymatic reaction makes it possible for a signal to be produced by the transducer.

• Enzymatic sensors are based on the catalytic chemical reaction of the enzyme and
substrate. The reaction products, the charge exchange, or the heat generation may be
the bases for the indirect transduction.

• The enzyme-based biosensor is a chemical sensor in which the catalytic property of an

enzyme is utilized.

• In biosensors, immobilized enzymes are generally used.

• Enzyme-based biosensors can be formed by different sensing principles, such as

electrochemical, electromagnetic, optical, thermal, and gravimetric ones.

• The amperometric principle has been widely used in enzyme electrodes. For example,
glucose can be measured selectively by detecting the consumption of oxygen or the
formation of hydrogen peroxide produced by the enzymatic reaction of glucose oxidase
(GOx).

• Enzyme based biosensors are used in different analysers for quantification of glucose
(PO2 electrode) ,urea, creatinine etc where the enzyme is immobilized on the sensor.
• ISFET
• In a potentiometric enzyme electrode, the product of the enzymatic reaction is
measured by the potentiometric method.
• For example the hydrolysation of urea is catalysed by urease as

34
4.14.2 Bio-affinity based biosensors
• In these, the receptor molecule binds the analyte “irreversibly” and non-catalytically.

• .Receptor molecules are Antibodies,Nucleic acids,Hormone receptors

• Affinity biosensors are based on specific chemical binding.

• In immunosensors, this means the antigen-antibody reaction.

• They employ the phenomenon that the immunosystem of living things produces
specific antigens against foreign objects (bacteria, viruses, molecules, etc.) that are able
to form stable complexes for biological recognition.

• In DNA sensors (also called DNA chips), the selective chemical binding is the
hybridization of molecule clusters with DNA molecules to form a double structure.

• The immunosensor is a type of chemical sensor in which the antigen—antibody reaction

is utilized so as to realize highly specific and sensitive measurements

• The antigen, Ag, and the antibody, Ab, form an antigen—antibody complex, AgAb.

• When Ag is introduced, but the amount of Ab remains unchanged, the amount of

introduced Ag can be determined by the increment of AgAb.

• If the antibody Ab is immobilized and fixed on the sensor surface, formation of AgAb
will cause some change in the sensing element, which can be measured by many
different ways such as electrochemical, acoustic, gravimetric, and optical techniques.

• Highly sensitive immunosensors can be formed by utilizing an enzymatic reaction, in

which a sample with a fixed amount of enzyme-labeled antigen is introduced onto the
sensing element with immobilized antibody to which labeled or unlabeled antigens can
be bound.

• After removing the free antigen, enzyme activity is measured by introducing a

substrate and detecting the change of the product by an appropriate technique such as
the electrochemical, gravimetric, or optical method. The binding reactions of labeled
and unlabeled antigens are competitive: When the concentration of unlabeled antigen

35
 is increased, more antibodies are occupied by unlabeled antigens so that the amount of
antibodies bound by labelled antigens decrease and consequently, after separating the
free antigen, the resulting enzyme activity will decrease.

• This leads to the formation of a sandwich complex (Ab:Ag:Ab). After washing out
unbound labeled antibody, the amount of labeled antibody remaining is proportional to
that of the antigen in the sample.

• The DNA sensor is a device for detecting DNA molecules having specific base
sequence.

• To recognize the specific base sequence among the sample DNA, the hybridization
technique is employed.

• A single strand DNA segment is hybridized to another single strand DNA segment
forming a double strand structure when the base sequence is matched.

• In order to detect DNA segment having a spe-cific base sequence (target), another DNA
segment having a complementary base sequence (probe) is used so that the target is
hybridized with the probe and forms a hybrid. Hybridization is a conse-quence of a
reaction given by

• Probe + Target —> Hybrid

• The concentration of target can be predicted by measuring the amount of hybrid.

• To detect the result of hybridization, different sensing principles have been used such
as amperometric, potentiometric,electrochemical, acoustic, gravimetric,.

4.14.3 Microorganisms based biosensors

• microbial sensor is a type of chemical sensor in which immobilized microorganisms
are incorporated so that microbe-catalyzed reactions can occur.

• Living bacterial cells was fixed in place of isolated enzymes on the surface of
electrochemical sensor to form a microbial electrode.

• While the selectivity of a microbial sensor for substrates is realized by the enzymes in
incorporated microorganisms, there are particular advantages in using microorganisms
versus using isolated enzymes;

36
• (1) microbial sensors are less sensitive to inhibition by solutes and are more tolerant of
suboptimal pH,

• (2) they have a longer lifetime than enzyme electrodes, and

• (3) they are cheaper because an active enzyme does not need to be isolated

• On the other hand, there are disadvantages; (1) some microbial sensors have a longer
response time than enzyme electrodes, (2) they need more time to return to the base line
level after use, and (3) microorganisms contain many enzymes and care must be taken
to ensure selectivity

• Most microbial sensors are classified into two types; the respiration-measuring type and
the metabolite-measuring type. The respiration-measuring types of microbial sensors
consist of immobilized aerobic microorganisms and an oxygen electrode. When a
substrate, which can be metabolized by the microorganism, is contained in a solution
saturated by oxygen, a metabolic reaction occurs by consuming dissolved oxygen, and
thus the substrate can be measured from the decrease in oxygen tension.

• By means of respiration-measuring types of microbial sensors, many substances such

as glucose, assimilable sugars, acetic acid, ammonia, and alcohols are measured
selectively by using different microorganisms

• The metabolite-measurement type of microbial sensor consists of immobilized

microorganisms and a sensor, which detects the metabolite that is produced by the
reaction catalysed by that microorganism.

• Using different types of gas and ion sensors, many kinds of substances can be measured
by detecting different metabolites. For example, the fuel cell electrode is used to detect
H2 for measuring formic acid, the CO, electrode for glutamic acid or lysine, and the pH
electrode for cephalosporin and nicotinic acid

• Some bacteria, called luminous bacteria, exhibit luminescence. If luminous bacteria are
immobilized and combined with a photo detector, substances that affect the
bioluminescence can be measured by detecting the change in luminescence.

• Such a type of sensor is called the photo microbial sensor. While some substances,
such as glucose, may increase luminescence, many toxic substances such as
benzalkonium chloride, sodium dodecyl sulphate, chromium, and mercury decrease

37
 luminescence, and thus the photomicrobial sensors are applicable to environmental
monitoring

• The combination of a microbial sensor and an immobilized enzyme membrane is

effective in some cases, and such a sensor is called a hybrid biosensor.

• For example, a urea sensor can be formed by combining an immobilized urease

membrane and a microbial NH3 sensor using nitrifying bacteria.

• In this sensor, higher selectivity is realized by using an immobilized enzyme.

• The microbial NH3 sensor is superior to the potentiometric ammonium electrode in the
sense that interference from ions or volatile compounds such as amines is less common.

TEXT / REFERENCE BOOKS

1. John G. Webster, Medical Instrumentation Application and Design, 4th Edition, Wiley
India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2015.
2. Richard S.C. Cobbold, Transducers for Biomedical Measurements: Principles and
Applications, John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
3. Nandini K. Jog, Electronics in Medicine and Biomedical Instrumentation, PHI, 2nd Edition
2013.
4. Harry N, Norton, Biomedical sensors – Fundamentals and Application, 2001.
5. Tatsuo Togawa, Toshiyo Tamma and P. Ake Öberg, Biomedical Transducers and
Instruments, 2018.

38
 SCHOOL OF BIO AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT – V– Biosensors and Measurements – SBMA1301

1
 V. Display and recording devices
Digital Display System and Indicators: Classification of display devices, DOT Matrix display,
Digital voltmeter, Multimeter, Digital storage oscilloscope, LCD monitor, PMMC writing
systems. Recorders: Graphic recorders, strip chart recorders, Galvanometer type recorders and
self-balancing type potentiometric recorders, Magnetic tape recorders and Disc recorders.

5.1 Digital Display System and Indicators

• The display devices are output devices to display the information in visual form by
means of various types of display systems.
• In digital instruments, the output device of the instrument indicates the value of
measured quantity using the digital display device.
• Display devices provide a visual display of numbers, letters, and symbols in response
to electrical input, and serve as constituents of an electronic display system.

5.2 Classification of display devices

• Cathode ray tube

• Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
• Nixie Tube or Cold Cathode Displays
• Incandescent Displays
• Electroluminescent displays
• Liquid Vapour Display
• Electrophoretic image Displays (EPID)
• In general, displays are classified in a number of ways, as follows.
❖ On methods of conversion of electrical data into visible light
• (a) Active displays
• Light emitters – Incandescent, i.e. due to temperature, lumines-cence, i.e. due to non-
thermal means or physio-thermal, and gas discharge-glow of light around the
cathode.) CRTs, Gas discharge plasma, LEDs, etc.
• (b) Passive displays
• Light controllers, LCDs, EPIDs, etc.
❖ On the applications

2
 • (a) Analog displays — Bar graph displays (CRT)
• (b) Digital displays — Nixies, Alphanumeric, LEDs, etc.
❖ According to the display size and physical dimensions

• (a) Symbolic displays — Alphanumeric, Nixie tubes, LEDs, etc.

• (b) Console displays — CRTs, LEDs, etc.

• (c) Large screen display— Enlarged projection system

❖ According to the display format

• (a) Direct view type (Flat panel planar) — Segmental, dotmatrix —CRTs

• (b) Stacked electrode non-planar type — Nixie

❖ In terms of resolution and legibility of characters

• (a) Simple single element indicator

• (b) Multi-element displays

5.3 DOT Matrix display

A dot matrix display is a display device used to display information on machines,

clocks,railway departure indicators and many and other devices requiring a simple display
device of limited resolution. The display consists of a matrix of lights or mechanical indicators
arranged in a rectangular configuration. The rectangular arrangements are called arrays of
LEDs. By switching ON or OFF the selected LEDs, text or Graphics can be displayed. A matrix
driver or controller converts the instructions from a processor into signals which turns ON or
OFF LEDs in the matrix, so as to obtain the required display. A dot matrix controller converts
instructions from a processor into signals which turns on or off lights in the matrix so that the
required display is produced. The common sizes of dot matrix displays are 128 × 16 (Two
lined), 128 × 32 (Four Lined) and 192 × 64 (Eight Lined). While a common size for a character
is 5 × 7 pixels. This is seen on most of the graphic calculators. The dot matrix displays are used
in Varity of applications such as rolling advertisement boards, railway timing, reservation
charts, temperature indication outside observatory digital clocks, calculators, digital diaries,
microwave oven etc.

3
 Figure 5.1 Display of alphabetic character

• 5 × 7 Dot Matrix Display

• In a 5 × 7 dot matrix display, 5 columns and 7 rows of LEDs. The dot matrix may be in
round or square shape .

Figure 5.2 Round shape and square shape dot matrix display

• Depending upon the required character, the corresponding LEDs switched ON, in
this display.

Figure 5.3 Circuit connection Figure 5.4 display of character “Y”.

of 5 × 7 dot matrix display

4
5.4 Digital voltmeter

The digital voltmeter systems are measuring instruments that convert analog voltage
signals into a digital or numeric readout. A digital voltmeter is also called digital electronic
voltmeter, it measures and displays dc or ac voltages as discrete number instead of a pointer
deflection on a continuous scale. Such a voltmeter displays measurements of dc or ac voltages
as discrete numerals instead of pointer deflections on a continuous scale as in analog
instruments.

5.4.1 Types of Digital Voltmeter

1. Ramp type DVM

2. Dual-slope integrating type DVM.

3. Successive-approximation DVM

4. Potentiometer type DVM

Advantages of Digital Voltmeter

Although there are several advantages of DVMs yet the following are important from the
subject point of view:

1. Due to digital display the human errors like parallax are removed

2. The accuracy is upto ± 0.005 % of the reading.

3. The reading speed is high due to digital display.

4. Compatibility with other digital equipment for further processing and recording.

5. Due to small size, portable.

1. Ramp type DVM

It consists of voltage-to-time conversion unit and a time measurement unit.The

operating principle of the ramp type DVM is based on the measurement of the time taken by
the DVM for a linear ramp voltage to rise from 0 V to the level of the input voltage, or to
decrease from level of the input voltage to zero. This time period is measured with an electronic
time-interval counter, and the count is displayed as a number of digits on digital display.

5
 Figure 5.5 Ramp type DVM

Figure 5.6 Voltage to time conversion

At the start of measurement a ramp voltage is initiated. The ramp voltage can be negative
or positive. with a negative going ramp, this ramp is continuously compared with the
unknown input voltage. At the instant that the ramp voltage equals to the unknown voltage
to be measured, a coincidence circuit or comparator generates a pulse to open the gate. The
ramp voltage continues to decrease with time until it finally reaches 0 V. At this instant the
ground comparator generate an output pulse to close the gate. The time between opening
and closing of the gate is ∆t. During this time interval pulses from a clock pulse generator
pass through the gate and are counted and displayed. An oscillator generates clock pulses
which are allowed to pass through the gate to a number of counting units which totalize the
number of pulses passed through the gate. The sampling rate multivibrator determines the
rate at which the measurement cycles are initiated. The sample-rate circuit provides an
initiating pulse for the ramp generator to start its next ramp voltage.

6
 Advantages of Ramp-Type
1. Circuit is easy to design and low in cost.
2. Output pulse can be transmitted over long distance.
Disadvantages of Ramp-Type DVM
1. Single ramp requires excellent characteristics regarding linearity of ramp and time
measurement.
2. Large errors are possible when noise is superimposed on the input signal.
3. Input filter are required for this type of converter.

2. Dual-slope integrating type DVM.

In ramp techniques, superimposed noise can cause large errors. In the dual ramp technique,
noise is averaged out by the positive and negative ramps using the process of integration.
Principle of Dual Slope Type DVM

The input voltage ‘ei ’ is integrated, with the slope of the integrator output proportional to the
test input voltage. After a fixed time, equal to t1, the input voltage is disconnected and the
integrator input is connected to a negative voltage –er. The integrator output will have a
negative slope which is constant and proportional to the magnitude of the input voltage.

Figure 5.7 Basic principle of dual slope type DVM

At the start a pulse resets the counter and the F/F output to logic level ‘0’. Si is closed and
Sr is open. The capacitor begins to charge. As soon as the integrator output exceeds zero,
the comparator output voltage changes state, which opens the gate so that the oscillator
clock pulses are fed to the counter. (When the ramp voltage starts, the comparator goes to
state 1, the gate opens and clock pulse drives the counter.) When the counter reaches
maximum count, i.e. the counter is made to run for a time ‘t1’ in this case 9999, on the next
clock pulse all digits go to 0000 and the counter activates the F/F to logic level ‘1’. This

7
 activates the switch drive, ei is disconnected and –er is connected to the integrator. The
integrator output will have a negative slope which is constant, i.e. integrator output now
decreases linearly to 0 volts. Comparator output state changes again and locks the gate. The
discharge time t2 is now proportional to the input voltage. The counter indicates the count
during time t2. When the negative slope of the integrator reaches zero, the comparator
switches to state 0 and the gate closes, i.e. the capacitor C is now discharged with a constant
slope. As soon as the comparator input (zero detector) finds that eo is zero, the counter is
stopped. The pulses counted by the counter thus have a direct relation with the input
voltage.

Figure 5.8 Block diagram of dual slope integrating type DVM

Advantages
1. Excellent noise rejection as noise and superimposed ac are averaged out during the
process of integration.
2. The RC time constant does not affect the input voltage measurement.
3. Sample and hold circuit is not necessary.
4. The accuracy is high and can be readily varied according to the specific requirements.
Disadvantage
The speed of DVM is very slow, as compare to other DVMs.

3. Successive-approximation DVM

The output of the DAC is compared with the unknown voltage by the comparator. The output
of the comparator is applied to the control circuit. The control circuit generates the sequence
of code which is applied to DAC. Conversion time is fixed (not depend on the signal
magnitude) and relatively fast. The operation is similar to the example of determination of
weight of the object. The object is placed on one side of the balance and approximate weight
on the other side of the balance to determine the weight of the unknown object.

8
 Figure 5.9 Block diagram of successive approximation type DVM
If the weight placed is more than the unknown weight, the weight is removed and another
weight of smaller value is placed and again the measurement is performed. Now if it is
found that the weight placed is less than that of the object, another weight of smaller value
is added to the weight already present, and the measurement is performed. If it is found to
be greater than the unknown weight, the added weight is removed and another weight of
smaller value is added. By such procedure of adding and removing the appropriate weight,
the weight of the unknown object is determined. In successive approximation type DVM,
the comparator compares the output of digital to analog converter with the unknown
voltage. The comparator provides logic high or low signals. The digital to analog converter
successively generates the set of pattern signals. The procedure continues till the output of
the digital to analog converter becomes equal to the unknown voltage.
Advantages:
1. Very high speed of the order of 100 readings per second possible.
2. Resolution upto 5 significant digits is possible.
3. Accuracy is high.
Disadvantages
1. Circuit is complex.
2. Digital to Analog is required.
3. Input impedence is variable.
4. Noise can be cause error.
5.5 Digital Multimeter
A digital multimeter (DMM) displays the quantity measured as a number, its eliminates
parallax errors. The information from analog input signal passes through the various analog

9
signal conversion circuits which convert the measured quantity to a dc voltage equivalent.
Then the A/D converts the dc value to digital form and display unit display the value. The
DMM is made up of following three basic elements: (a) Signal conditioning (b) Analog-to-
digital (A/D) conversation (c) Numeric digital display
5.5.1 Features of Basic Digital Multimeter
The main features of any digital multimeter is the types of measurement and the ranges
over which it will operate. Most DMMs will offer a variety of measurements.
The basic measurements will include:
(a) Current (DC)
(b) Current (AC)
(c) Voltage (DC)
(d) Voltage (AC)
(e) Resistance
The digital multimeter can measure ac voltage, dc voltage, ac current, dc current and
resistance over several ranges.

Figure 5.10 Digital multimeter

For D.C. voltage measurement
For DC voltage measurement by DMM, a wide range of DC voltage inputs is scaled to the
limited range of the A/D Converter. A resistive divider and switching are generally used
for this function.
For A.C. voltage measurement
The signal is converted to a DC equivalent before sending it to the A/D Converter.
For D.C. and AC current measurement
It is necessary to convert the current at the input to a voltage. This is done through a series
of switched resistors, called shunts. AC current is converted into DC by rectifiers and filters
circuit.

10
For resistance measurement
It is necessary to create a voltage proportional to the resistance because A/D Converter
measures only DC volts. The DMM input circuit must provide a DC current flowing
through the resistor and then measure the resulting voltage.
To measure the unknown current with DMM we have to first convert the current to the
voltage with current to voltage converter. The current to voltage circuit is implemented in
DMM. The known current is applied at the input of the op-amp. When the input current of
op-amp is zero, the current IR is almost same as I1. This current IR causes the voltage drop,
which is proportional to the current to be measured. This voltage drop is the analog input
to the analog to digital converter.

Figure 5.11 Current to voltage converter

Advantage of Digital Multimeter (DMM)
1. DMM offer high measurement accuracy.
2. These instruments have a high input impedance.
3. They are smaller in size.
4. These meters eliminate observational, parallax and approximation errors.
5. The output of these instruments can be directly feed to a computer for further analysis and
use.
5.6 Digital Storage Oscilloscope
The digital storage oscilloscope is an instrument which gives the storage of a digital
waveform or the digital copy of the waveform. It allows us to store the signal or the
waveform in the digital format, and in the digital memory also it allows us to do the digital
signal processing techniques over that signal. The maximum frequency measured on the
digital signal oscilloscope depends upon two things they are: sampling rate of the scope
and the nature of the converter. The traces in DSO are bright, highly defined, and displayed
within seconds.

11
The block diagram of the digital storage oscilloscope consists of an amplifier, digitizer,
memory, analyzer circuitry. Waveform reconstruction, vertical plates, horizontal plates,
cathode ray tube (CRT), horizontal amplifier, time base circuitry, trigger, and clock.
at first digital storage oscilloscope digitizes the analog input signal, then the analog input
signal is amplified by amplifier if it has any weak signal. After amplification, the signal is
digitized by the digitizer and that digitized signal stores in memory. The analyzer circuit
process the digital signal after that the waveform is reconstructed (again the digital signal
is converted into an analog form) and then that signal is applied to vertical plates of the
cathode ray tube (CRT).
The cathode ray tube has two inputs they are vertical input and horizontal input. The vertical
input signal is the ‘Y’ axis and the horizontal input signal is the ‘X’ axis. The time base
circuit is triggered by the trigger and clock input signal, so it is going to generate the time
base signal which is a ramp signal. Then the ramp signal is amplified by the horizontal
amplifier, and this horizontal amplifier will provide input to the horizontal plate. On the
CRT screen, we will get the waveform of the input signal versus time.

Figure 5.12 Block diagram of digital storage oscilloscope

The digitizing occurs by taking a sample of the input waveform at periodic intervals. At the
periodic time interval means, when half of the time cycle is completed then we are taking
the samples of the signal. The process of digitizing or sampling should follow the sampling
theorem. The sampling theorem says that the rate at which the samples are taken should be
greater than twice the highest frequency present in the input signal. When the analog signal
is not properly converted into digital then there occurs an aliasing effect.
When the analog signal is properly converted into digital then the resolution of the A/D
converter will be decreased. When the input signals stored in analog store registers can be
read out at a much slower rate by the A/D converter, then the digital output of the A/D
converter stored in the digital store, and it allows operation up to 100 mega samples per
second. This is the working principle of a digital storage oscilloscope.

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 The digital storage oscilloscope works in three modes of operations they are roll mode,
store mode, and hold or save mode.
Roll Mode: In roll mode, very fast varying signals are displayed on the display screen.
Store Mode: In the store mode the signals stores in memory.
Hold or Save Mode: In hold or save mode, some part of the signal will hold for some time
and then they will be stored in memory.
Advantages:
1. Since the DSO uses digital memory, it can store the waveforms for longer time. But in the normal
CRO this cannot happen.
2. In the DSO, we can store and view the part or full waveforms before the actual trigger happens.
But this is not possible in the conventional CRO.
3. In the DSO, the stored waveform can be positioned anywhere in the screen. We can actually
adjust the vertical and horizontal scales of the waveform. This is not possible in the normal CRO.
Applications
• It checks faulty components in circuits
• Used in the medical field
• Used to measure capacitor, inductance, time interval between signals, frequency
and time period
• Used to observe transistors and diodes V-I characteristics
• Used to analyze TV waveforms
• Used in video and audio recording equipment’s

5.7 LCD monitors

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) monitors use liquid crystal, instead of a cathode ray tube,
to display information on the screen. LCD monitors and LCD displays are a type of flat-panel
display. A flat-panel display has a lightweight, compact screen that consumes less than one-
third of the power as compare to CRT monitor. This feature makes the LCD monitors and
displays ideal for mobile users. LCD monitors typically are more expensive than CRT
monitors. LCD monitors are also available in a variety of sizes, the most common being 15,
17, 18 and 20 inches. LCD monitors typically are more expensive than CRT monitors.
Notebook and handheld computers often use LCD displays. LCD monitors and displays
produce colour using either passive matrix or active matrix technology. An active-matrix
display, also known as a thin-film transistor (TFT) display, can display high-quality colour that
is viewable from all angles because it uses separate transistor for each colour pixel. Active-

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matrix displays require more power than passive-matrix displays because they use many
transistors. A passive-matrix display, often called a dual-scan display, uses fewer transistors
and requires less power than an active-matrix display. The colour on a passive-matrix display
is often not as bright as an active-matrix display. You can best view images on a passive-matrix
display, when working directly in front of the display. Passive-matrix displays are less
expensive than active-matrix displays.

The Liquid Crystal Display ( LCD) has been one of the enabling technologies of the
current electronic revolution. It is an essential part of every mobile phone, every laptop and
every personal organiser. Liquid crystal is an organic compound that polarises any light that
passes through it. A liquid crystal also responds to an applied electric field by changing the
alignment of its molecules, and in so doing changing the direction of the light polarisation that
it introduces. Liquid crystals can be trapped between two parallel sheets of glass, with a
matching pattern of transparent electrode on each sheet. When a voltage is applied to the
electrodes, the optical character of the crystal changes and the electrode pattern appears in the
crystal. A huge range of LCDs has been developed, including those based on sevensegment
digits or dot matrix formats, as well as a variety of graphical forms. Many general-purpose
displays are available commercially.

Figure 5.13 Different layers of a typical lcd display

The liquid crystal fluid is the active medium that is used to create an image. It consists
of a very large number of elongated crystals suspended in a fluid. This reservoir is sandwiched
between two thin sheets of glass. Each piece of glass has a transparent conductive pattern
bonded to it. The crystals are aligned in a spiral pattern until an electric field is impressed on
the conductors. A sheet of polarising material is bonded to the outside surfaces of both the front
and rear glass covers. As incident light of random polarisation enters the top polarizer, it is
stopped except for that which is polarised in the proper direction. With no electric field applied,
the light is twisted or its polarisation is changed by the spiral pattern of the crystals. The bottom

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polariser is aligned opposite of the top one but the “twisted” light is now aligned with the
bottom polariser and passes through. The display is now transparent and appears light.

Recorder

A recorder is an instrument to record the electrical and non-electrical quantities as a function

of time. The record shows how a variable varies with respect to another with time. The
electrical quantities such as voltage and current are measured directly. A recorder is a device
whose function is to record the value of a quantity as it is being measured. Recording preserves
the experimental data in a manageable and usable form. A recording system is very useful in
industries as (i) it preserves information which could be obtained at an instant from indicating
instruments and (ii) it gives information about waveforms and transient behavior or phase
relations in different parts of a circuit. A recorder records both electrical and non-electrical
quantities as a function of time or relates two signals to each other. Electrical quantities, such
as current voltage etc can be recorded directly while non-electrical quantities, such as pressure,
temperature, speed etc are recorded indirectly by first converting them into the form of
electrical signal with the help of sensors and transducers. When working with the analog system
the analog recording techniques should be used while working with a digital system, digital
recording devices should be used.

There are many ways for classifying recorders; the popular one is according to the type of
signal to be recorded, which is as follows:

1. Analog recorders
a. Graphic recorder
i. Strip chart recorder
• Galvanometer type
• Null type
• Potentiometric recorders
• Bridge recorders
• LVDT recorders
ii. Circular chart recorders
iii. X-Y Recorders
b. Magnetic tape recorders
c. Oscillographic recorders

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d. Others [hybrid, paperless, ultraviolet and thermal dot matrix recorder]
2. Digital recorders
5.8 Graphic Recorder
The graphic instrument displays and stores the physical quantity being measured. It uses basic
elements as chart paper for displaying and storing the quantity and pen for marking the
variation in physical quantity. The pen is also called stylus.

There are three types of graphic recorders:

1. Strip Chart Recorder
2. Circular Chart Recorder
3. X-Y Tape recorder
5.8.1. Strip Chart Recorder
A chart recorder is an electromechanical device that records an electrical or mechanical
input trend onto a piece of paper (the chart). Chart recorders may record several inputs using
different color pens and may record onto strip charts or circular charts. Chart recorders may
be entirely mechanical with clockwork mechanisms or electro-mechanical with an electrical
clockwork mechanism for driving the chart (with mechanical or pressure inputs) or entirely
electronic with no mechanical components at all (a virtual chart recorder). The strip chart
recorder often used for the application which require monitoring the quantity. A roll of paper
is continuously moved under the pen and a continuous record is maintained. Strip chart
recorders are generally multirange voltmeter with a speed range selector to control the paper
feed. A strip-chart recorder plots one or more parameters as a function of time. A strip is a
ribbon of paper moved through the instrument at uniform speed by an electric motor.

Figure 5.14 Strip chart recorder

The basic element of this recorder is pen for making and chart paper for recording data.
The quantity to be measured is given as to the input to the range selector. The range selector

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switch keeps data within the limit. The stylus moved along the calibrated scale in accordance
with input data. To get proper record of input data signal conditioning block is used which
gives proper input signal along calibrated scale. The chart paper moves vertically at a uniform
speed. The speed selector selects the required speed of the chart paper movement.

• Mechanism for Marking

There are many mechanisms for marking the marks on the chart paper. These are explained
below:

(a) Pen and Ink Stylus: The ink is filled in the stylus using gravity of capillary action. Any
color is used to record data as per color coding. There are several types of pens, including the
bucket pen, the V-pen, the fiber-tipped pen, and the ballpoint pen. Various types of capillary
feeding systems, both pressurized and gravimetric, are mostly used. For ordinary chart speed
ranges, V-pen, fountain pen, large-reservoir capillary-fed recording tips are common.

(b) Impact Printing: In this a carbon ribbon is placed between the paper and pointer
mechanism. The carbon provides ink for recording data. The marking is done by pressing
pointer on the paper.

(c) Chopper Bar Printing: The marking is done with chopper bar. This chopper bar applies
pressure on the special purpose pressure sensitive paper.

(d) Thermal Writing: In this method, the recording is done by marking on a special paper with
heated stylus. The special movable pen is heated by passing an eclectic current through it.
During marking the color on the special paper changes as heated stylus moves. In some
systems a black paper with white wax coating is used. During recording the heated stylus
melts thin white coating wax. Because of this we get high contrast marking on the special
paper.

(e) Electrical Writing: In this method, a paper base with a layer of colored dye and thin surface
of aluminum coating is used. The stylus consists of a conducting wire moving over aluminum
surface. As the paper is current sensitive, when the current is conducted from stylus, we get
traces on the paper with removal of aluminum and keeping color dye at those traces.

(f) Optical Writing: In this method, a photosensitive paper is used. A beam of ultraviolet is
used to record data on the paper. We can have higher resolution with higher frequencies and
large paper rolling speeds.

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The strip chart recorder has a number of advantages.:

1. Relatively large amount of paper can be inserted at one time.

2. Data conversion is easier with rectangular coordinates system
3. The rate of movement of the chart can be easily changed.
4. More than one separate variable can be recorded on a strip chart.
Strip Chart recorder has some disadvantages also.
1. Mechanism is more complicated than is required to drive a circular chart.
2. Observing behavior several hours or days back is not as easy as picking out one circular
chart which covers the desired period of time.

Application of Strip Chart Recorder

• In temperature recorder
• Sound level recording
• Recording amplifier drift

5.8.2 Galvanometer Type Strip Chart Recorder

This is a type of strip chart recorder. It operates on the deflection principle. The
deflection is produced by a galvanometer (D’Arsonval). It produces a torque on account of a
current passing through its coil. The current is proportion to the quantity to be measured. The
moving coil pointer is in strong magnetic field. The pen-ink system is fitted to the pointer for
recording the input signal. The pen-ink system consists of a recording pen at one end while
ink reservoir is at other end. Both are connected to each other through bore tube. Ink flow
from reservoir to pen by gravity action. The paper is pulled from the roll and the signal is
traced on the paper as the paper moves across the pen, when pen is deflected.

Figure 5.15 Galvanometer type Strip chart recorder

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 The pointer deflects according to the current flow through the coil. The magnetic field
is varying according to the input current. This change in magnetic field interacts with magnetic
field produced by the permanent magnet used. This causes the moving coil to move in angular
direction. As this coil is moving as per variation in the signal current, the pen is
correspondingly deflected across the paper. Thus, the input signal gets recorded. The grater
the amplitude of the input signal, the greater will be deflection.

Advantages

1. The system is comparatively inexpensive.

2. It records very low frequency a.c. signals.
3. We can change the speed of paper as per requirement.

Disadvantages
1. It cannot record fast varying signals such as current, voltage or power.
2. The performance is affected by fraction losses due to moving coil and stylus.
5.8.3 Self-Balancing Potentiometer Type Strip Chart Recorder
When the input signal given by sensor or transducer is applied to the measuring unit of
the recorder, the balanced condition of the instrument gets disturbed. This unbalanced signal
produces error signal. Error signal is the difference of input signal and reference potentiometer
voltage. The error signal is amplified and subsequently the field coil of DC motor is energized.
The error current either flows in clockwise or in anticlockwise direction depending on the
value of the voltage. The motor turn in such direction that it reduces the error signal to achieve
balanced condition. As the error signal reduces, the motor slows down and stops completely.
When error becomes zero, the balance condition is achieved.

Figure 5.16 Self balancing type Strip chart recorder

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 Notice that the pen is mechanically coupled to a wiper, which is turn is mechanically
coupled to the armature of the DC motor. Thus the wiper moves according to the error signal,
so the pen also moves in the same direction. The pen records the input signal variations
moving across the paper.

The main application of potentiometer recorder is for recording and control of process
temperatures. It is automatic and eliminates the constant operation of an operator. The
recorder draw the curve of the quantity of being measured with the help of recording
mechanism.

5.9 Magnetic tape recorders

The major advantage of using a magnetic tape recorder is that once the data is recorded, it can
be replayed an almost indefinite number of times. The recording period may vary from a few
minutes to several days. Speed translation of the data captured can be provided, i.e. fast data
can be slowed down and slow data speeded up by using different record and reproduce speeds.
The recorders described earlier have a poor high frequency response. Magnetic tape recorder,
on the other hand, have a good response to high frequency, i.e. they can be used to record high
frequency signals. Hence, magnetic tape recorders are widely used in instrumentation systems.

Basic Components of a Tape Recorder

A magnetic tape recorder consists of the following basic components.

1. Recording Head

2. Magnetic Head

3. Reproducing Head

4. Tape transport mechanism

5. Conditioning devices

Magnetic Recording

The magnetic tape is made of a thin sheet of tough, dimensionally stable plastic, one side of
which is coated with a magnetic material. Some form of fi nely powdered iron oxide is usually
cemented on the plastic tape with a suitable binder. As the tape is transferred from one reel, it
passes across a magnetising head that impresses a residual magnetic pattern upon it in response
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to an amplified input signal. The methods employed in recording data on to the magnetic tape
include direct recording, frequency modulation (FM) and pulse code modulation (PCM).
Modulation of the current in the recording head by the signal to be recorded linearly modulates
the magneticflux in the recording gap.

Figure 5.17 Elementary magnetic tape recorder

As the tape moves under the recording head, the magnetic particles retain a state of permanent
magnetisation proportional to the flux in the gap. The input signal is thus converted to a spatial
variation of the magnetisation of the particles on the tape. The reproduce head detects these
changes as changes in the reluctance of its magnetic circuit which induce a voltage in its
winding. This voltage is proportional to the rate of change of flux. The reproduce head
amplifier integrates the signal to provide a fl at frequency characteristics. Since the reproduce
head generates a signal which is proportional to the rate of change of flux, the direct recording
method cannot be used down to dc. The lower limit is around 100 Hz and the upper limit for
direct recording, around 2 MHz. The upper frequency limit occurs when the induced variation
in magnetisation varies over a distance smaller than the gap in the reproduce head.

Figure 5.18 Magnetisation of tape

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The signal on an exposed tape can be retrieved and played out at any time by pulling the tape
across the magnetic head, in which a voltage is induced. It is possible to magnetise the tape
longitudinally or along either of the other two main axis, but longitudinal magnetisation is the
best choice. If a magnetic fi eld is applied to any one of the iron oxide particles in a tape and
removed, a residual flux remains. The relationship between the residual flux and the recording
fi eld is determined by the previous state of magnetisation and by the magnetisation curves of
the particular magnetic recording medium.

A simple magnetic particle on the tape might have the B – H curve where H is the magnetising
force and B the flux density in the particle. Consider the material with no flux at all, i.e. the
condition at point 0. Now if the current in the coil of the recording head is increased from 0 in
a direction that gives positive values of H, the flux density increases along the path 0 – 1– 2,
until the material is eventually saturated. If the operating point is brought from 0 only as far as
1, and H is brought back to 0, B follows a minor hysteresis loop back to point 6. A greater
value of coil current would leave a higher residual flux, and a lower current a lower residual; a
very simple recording process results.

Figure 5.19 Magnetisation curve

However, the linearity between residual flux and recording current is very poor. Hence to
obtain linearity in direct recording, FM is used. In all systems, the signal is reproduced by
passing the magnetised tape over a magnetic head similar to the recording head. The
magnetisation of the particles on the tape induces a varying flux in the reproducing head
and a voltage is induced in the coil, proportional to the rate of change of flux.
Methods of Recording
There are three methods of magnetic tape recording which are used for instrumentation
purposes.
1. Direct recording

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2. FM recording
3. Pulse Duration Modulation recording (PDM)
FM recorders are generally used for instrumentation purposes. PDM recording is used in
instrumentation for special applications where a large number of slowly changing variables
have to be recorded simultaneously.
5.10 Disc recorders
Although there are many different types of optical disks, they can be grouped into three
main categories.
I. Read-only memory (ROM) disks, like the audio CD, are used for the distribution of
standard program and data files. These are mass-produced by mechanical pressing from a
master die. The information is actually stored as physical indentations on the surface of the
CD. Recently low-cost equipment has been introduced in the market to make one-off CD-
ROMs, putting them into the next category.
2. Write-once read-many (WORM disks: Some optical disks can be recorded once. The
information stored on the disk cannot be changed or erased. Generally, the disk has a thin
reflective film deposited on the surface. A strong laser beam is focused on selected spots
on the surface and pulsed. The energy melts the film at that point, producing a non-
reflective void. In the read mode, a low power laser is directed at the disk. and the bit
information is recovered by sensing the presence or absence of a reflected beam from the
disk.
3. Re-writeable, write-many read-many (WMRM) disks, just like the magnetic storage
disks, allows information to be recorded and erased many times. Usually, there is a separate
erase cycle although this may be transparent to the user. Some modem devices have this
accomplished with one over-write cycle. These devices are also called direct-read-after-
write (DRAW) disks.
The CD-ROM, together with the audio compact disk are examples of technologically
advanced products that have been mass-produced and made readily available to the general
public. For the computer industry, the read-only CD-ROM is gaining importance as a
delivery medium for software. The large storage capacity and low cost of manufacture
makes it a very attractive means of distributing software which is getting larger all the time.
Also machine-readable documentation can be included on the same disk or on a separate
disk. Software available on CD-ROMs now include many games which have large graphics
and audio files, graphics software with clip-art, and operating systems like Unix and OS/2.

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TEXT / REFERENCE BOOKS

1.A. K. Sawhney, A course in electronic Measurements and Instruments, Dhanpat Rai Sons,
2014

2.H.S. Kalsi, Electronic Instrumentation & Measurement, Tata McGraw Hill, 2011.

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