Pearson Edexcel GCSE (9–1)

History
Superpower relations and the
Cold War, 1941–91

Revision Guide & Workbook + App

Series Consultant: Harry Smith

Author: Brian Dowse

A note from the publisher

In order to ensure that this resource offers high-quality is accurate, the official specification and associated
support for the associated Pearson qualification, it has assessment guidance materials are the only authoritative
been through a review process by the awarding body. source of information and should always be referred to
This process confirms that this resource fully covers for definitive guidance.
the teaching and learning content of the specification
Pearson examiners have not contributed to any sections
or part of a specification at which it is aimed. It also
in this resource relevant to examination papers for which
confirms that it demonstrates an appropriate balance
they have responsibility.
between the development of subject skills, knowledge
and understanding, in addition to preparation Examiners will not use endorsed resources as a source
for assessment. of material for any assessment set by Pearson.
Endorsement does not cover any guidance on Endorsement of a resource does not mean that the
assessment activities or processes (e.g. practise resource is required to achieve this Pearson qualification,
questions or advice on how to answer assessment nor does it mean that it is the only suitable material
questions), included in the resource nor does it available to support the qualification, and any resource
prescribe any particular approach to the teaching or lists produced by the awarding body shall include this
delivery of a related course. and other appropriate resources.
While the publishers have made every attempt to ensure
that advice on the qualification and its assessment

For the full range of Pearson revision titles across KS2, 11+,
KS3, GCSE, Functional Skills, AS/A Level and BTEC visit:
www.pearsonschools.co.uk/revise

A01_ED_GCSE_RGRW_HISTORY_SUPERPOWERS_9750_TP.indd 1 29/06/2020 13:39

 Contents
SUBJECT CONTENT Flashpoints
The origins of the Cold War, 1941-58 24 The significance of the Soviet invasion
Early tension of Afghanistan
   1 The beginning of the Cold War 25 The consequences of the Soviet invasion
2 The end of the Grand Alliance of Afghanistan
3 The breakdown of trust 26 Reagan and the ‘Second Cold War’
4 Satellite states
The collapse of Soviet control
27 The loosening Soviet grip on Eastern Europe
The Cold War develops
28 The fall of the Berlin Wall
5 The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan
29 The end of the Cold War
6 Cominform, Comecon and NATO
30 The significance of the fall of the Soviet Union
7 Germany and the Cold War
SKILLS
The Cold War intensifies
3 1 Exam overview
8 The arms race and the Warsaw Pact
32 Question 1: Explaining consequences 1
9 Soviet control in Hungary
33 Question 1: Explaining consequences 2
10 The Soviet invasion of Hungary, 1956
34 Question 1: Explaining consequences 3
Cold War crises, 1958-70 35 Question 2: Writing analytical narrative 1
Increased tension 36 Question 2: Writing analytical narrative 2
1 1 A divided Berlin 37 Question 2: Writing analytical narrative 3
12 The Cuban Missile Crisis: origins 38 Question 3: Explaining importance 1
13 Czechoslovakia and the Prague Spring 39 Question 3: Explaining importance 2
40 Question 3: Explaining importance 3
Cold War crises
14 The construction of the Berlin Wall 4 1 Practice
15 The events of the Cuban Missile Crisis
16 The Brezhnev Doctrine and Soviet control 5 1 Answers
in Czechoslovakia

Reaction to crisis
A small bit of small print
17 The Berlin Wall and US–Soviet relations
Pearson Edexcel publishes Sample Assessment
18 The consequences of the Cuban Missile Crisis
Material and the Specification on its website.
19 International reaction to Soviet measures
This is the official content and this book should be
in Czechoslovakia
used in conjunction with it. The questions in
The end of the Cold War, 1970-91 Now try this have been written to help you
Attempts to reduce tension practise every topic in the book. Remember:
20 Détente in the 1970s the real exam questions may not look like this.
2 1 SALT 2 and the failure of détente
22 Changing attitudes
23 New thinking and the INF Treaty
 Had a look Nearly there Nailed it! Early tension

The beginning of the Cold War

Before the Cold War Britain, the USA and the Soviet Union worked together as members of the
Grand Alliance, which was created in 1941 to defeat Nazi Germany. The leaders of these countries
met three times: at Tehran (1943), Yalta (1945) and Potsdam (1945).
Britain – a democracy The USA – a democracy The Soviet Union – a
led by Churchill – had led by Roosevelt – had commun ist one-party
been at war with Germany been at war with Germany and state led by Stalin – had been at
since 1939. Japan since December 1941. war with Germany since 1941.

The Grand Alliance therefore was a ‘marriage of convenience’, in which three

countries shared the aim of defeating their common enemy – Nazi Germany.

The Tehran Conference The Yalta Conference

(November–December 1943) (February 1945)
 he USA and Britain agreed to
T  ermany, when defeated, would
G
open up a second front by invading be reduced in size, divided
Nazi-occupied Europe. and demilitarised. It would have to
The Soviet Union would declare war on pay reparations.
Japan once Germany was defeated. Europe would be rebuilt along the lines
The boundaries of Poland would be of the Atlantic Charter. Countries would
moved westwards; Poland would gain have democratic elections.
territory from Germany and lose it to The UN (United Nations) would be
the Soviet Union. set up.
It was also agreed that an international The Soviet Union would declare war
body would be set up to settle future on Japan once Germany was defeated.
disputes between countries. This set Poland would be in the ‘Soviet sphere
the scene for the establishment of the of influence’ but run on a broader
United Nations. democratic basis.

The Potsdam Conference The outcomes of the conferences

(July–August 1945) Remember: while Britain, the USA and the
 Council of Foreign Ministers was set
A Soviet Union were able to work together to
up to organise the rebuilding of Europe. defeat Germany, who had surrendered in
The Nazi Party was banned and war May 1945, tension was increasing between
criminals were to be prosecuted. the wartime allies. Differences were beginning
Germany was to be reduced in to emerge over the future of Germany and
size and divided into four zones of Eastern Europe. Moreover, Roosevelt’s
occupation run by Britain, France, the death had led to Truman becoming president
USA and the Soviet Union. and he was much more distrustful of the
Berlin was also to be divided up into Soviet Union.
zones of occupation.
The Soviet Union was to receive 25%
what happened at
of the output from the other three Students often confuse
ke sure you know the
occupied zones. these conferences. Ma .
ilarities between them
differences and the sim

Now try this

1 Explain what was agreed at the Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam Conferences.
2 Draw up a timeline of the key events involving the Grand Remember to get the
Alliance between November 1943 and July 1945. events in
the right order and to
use detail.
1
 Early tension Had a look Nearly there Nailed it!

The end of the Grand Alliance

Truman, Stalin and Churchill were the leaders of the USA, the Soviet Union and Britain when the
war against Germany ended in 1945.
Stalin
Churchill, Roosevelt and
Europe should be democratic – a capitalist democracy. ta in 19 45 .
meeting in Yal
Roosevelt believed that democracy meant different
political parties working to win voters’ support in
free elections. What should happen to Germany?
Germany should have to pay
reparations, ensuring that it is
What should happen never strong enough to start
to Germany? Germany another war.
should be rebuilt.
Europe should be democratic – a
communist democracy.
Stalin believed that because only
communism truly represented
the workers, democracies
could only be communist.

The USA was the first to build an atomic bomb, The Soviet Union didn’t do what it said it would do in Poland:
which gave it an unbeatable advantage (until 1949, the government was supposed to include multiple political
when the Soviet Union caught up). parties, but actually was only a communist democracy.

After Germany surrendered in May 1945, the Grand Alliance started to come to an end.
Roosevelt was the key figure in holding the Alliance together. He believed that the United States
could work with the Soviet Union after the war came to an end through the United Nations.
His successor, Truman, was, like Churchill, more suspicious of the Soviet Union and this increased
tension between the Allies.

The end of the Grand Alliance

The USA dropped atomic bombs on Japan Roosevelt was prepared to work with Stalin
in August 1945. This gave them a huge but he died in April 1945 and was replaced
military advantage over other countries. by Truman.
Truman trusted Stalin much less, as he had
broken the promises he made over Poland
Stalin disliked the way in which Truman at Yalta. He felt that, thanks to the atomic
had tried to push him around at Potsdam bomb, he could push Stalin around at the
in 1945. Potsdam Conference.

Increased tension between the superpowers and the

start of the cold war.

Britain had finished on the winning side in 1945 but was economically exhausted by
the war. It was therefore unable to stand up to the Soviet Union on its own and became
only an ally of the United States. The Cold War therefore became increasingly about the
relationship between the two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union.

Now try this

1 Explain how Roosevelt’s death increased tension between the USA and the Soviet Union.
2 The Soviet Union said communism could be democratic, too. What was the Western criticism of
communist democracy?

2
 Had a look Nearly there Nailed it! Early tension

The breakdown of trust

Without a common enemy to fight, tensions between the USA and the Soviet Union intensified.
Neither side trusted the other due to ideological differences and the fact that the USA, unlike the
Soviet Union, possessed nuclear weapons.

Ideology
Understanding ideology – a set of political ideas about how society should be run – is key to
understanding the Cold War. The USA and the Soviet Union had opposing ideologies.

The USA, Britain and other The Soviet Union and other
capitalist countries communist countries
Said communism enslaved people to Said capitalism exploited the workers to make
the state. Capitalism was based on freedom the rich even richer. Communism was based
and democracy: on fairness:
• Everyone should be free to • Capitalism only makes some people rich by
make money for themselves. exploiting everyone else.

• Individuals are better at deciding • Individuals are not as strong as everyone

what to make / sell than the state. working together for the same aim.
• Trade between countries makes • The state should take control of the
everyone richer. economy and run it to benefit everyone.

The Long Telegram (1946) Novikov’s Telegram (1946)

A secret report from the US ambassador A report from Novikov, Soviet ambassador to
Kennan in Moscow to President Truman said: the USA, told Stalin that:
• the Soviet Union saw capitalism as a threat • the USA wanted world domination and was
to communism that had to be destroyed building up its military strength
• the Soviet Union was building its • the Soviet Union was the only country left
military power after the war that could stand up to the USA
• peace between a communist Soviet Union • the USA was preparing its people for war
and a capitalist USA was not possible. with the Soviet Union.
Ideological differences and the atomic bomb had made relations between the superpowers worse.
The USA saw the Soviet Union as a threat to its economic interests in Europe. The Soviet Union
feared and resented the USA’s nuclear monopoly, which did not end until 1949.

Now try this Creating lists like this

will enable you
s and topics
to understand key term
about them.
1 Create a table with two columns, one for capitalism and draw conclusions
and the other for communism. Then, insert any words
that relate to either, matching words by their opposing term
(e.g. capitalism: individual / communism: collective).
2 Now answer the following questions in the light of the table you have just created:
(a) What was communism’s main criticism of capitalism?
(b) What was capitalism’s main criticism of communism?
3 Why did trust between the USA and the Soviet Union decrease between 1945 and 1947?

3
 Early tension Had a look Nearly there Nailed it!

Satellite states
Between 1947 and 1949, the Soviet Union spread its sphere of influence to neighbouring countries.
Countries like Poland and Hungary became ‘satellite states’ under the control of the Soviet Union.

Communism and ‘free’ elections ESTONIA T E

S
A
T
• At the Yalta and Potsdam conferences, the Soviet C
S
I LATVIA
LT
Union agreed to free elections in the countries in B
A
LITHUANIA
its sphere of influence. Berlin SOVIET UNION

• However, elections were fixed to make sure the EAST

GERMANY
POLAND

Communist Party won and non-communists were

removed from government. CZECH N

400 km
AUSTRIA
• Once in control, the communists shut down HUNGARY

the opposition parties and each country ROMANIA

became a single-party state. YUGOSLAVIA

BULGARIA

sition
en shutting down oppo
Fixing elections and th
ALBANIA

‘salami tactics’.
parties was known as Land taken by Soviet Union at the end of the Second World War
Soviet-controlled communist countries
Non Soviet-controlled communist countries

ope, 1945–48.
Soviet expansion in Eur
The growing Soviet influence in Eastern Europe
Country How it became communist
Bulgaria A communist government was elected in 1945, and all elected non-communists
were executed.
Romania A communist-led coalition took power. However, by 1947 the communists had
taken over and Romania became a one-party state.
Poland At Yalta Stalin promised to set up a joint communist/non-communist government.
He then invited 16 non-communist leaders to Moscow and arrested them. Thousands
of non-communists were arrested. The communists then ‘won’ the 1947 election.
Hungary The communists lost the 1945 election but the communist leader Rakosi took
control of the secret police, executed and imprisoned his opponents and
turned Hungary into a communist state.
Czechoslovakia Edward Benes set up a coalition government. However, the communists retained
control of the army, the radio and the secret police. In 1948 they seized power
completely, turning the country into a communist state.
East Germany The original Soviet zone of occupation in Germany, it became a communist state
in October 1949.

The impact of the Soviet occupation of Eastern Europe on superpower relations

• The USA saw the Soviet takeover of Eastern • The USA was determined to contain communism
Europe as a betrayal of the Yalta agreement, through military and economic assistance:
in which Stalin had made promises about the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Aid.
holding democratic elections. • The Soviet Union argued it needed to control
• Others saw it as evidence of Soviet expansion: Eastern Europe as a buffer zone, protecting
Eastern Europe was a stepping-stone to a it from attack by the West. The US response
Soviet takeover of Western Europe. was unnecessary and unreasonable.

Now try this

Describe how Stalin was able to gain control of Eastern Europe between 1945 and 1950.

4
 The Cold
Had a look Nearly there Nailed it! War develops

The Truman Doctrine and

the Marshall Plan
In response to the spread of Soviet control in Eastern Europe, the USA stepped up its
involvement in Europe, and the Soviet Union was determined to defend itself against any threats
from the West. The USA was determined to stop the spread of communism, and the Soviet Union
was determined to defend itself against Western attack. Europe was the centre of this
ideological ‘battleground’. The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan thus increased tension
between the United States and the Soviet Union.
Truman’s concerns
• Europe was devastated after the war.
• In many countries people had no money, no
jobs and were feeling hopeless.
• Communism was attractive to these people,
especially in France and Italy: it made sure
everyone had enough.
• Many in Eastern Europe had been liberated
from Nazi rule by the Soviets.
• Countries like Poland, Romania and Bulgaria
had already had communist governments
forced on them and Truman feared this could
happen in other countries too.
• Some governments (e.g. Greece and
Turkey) were too poor to combat communist
revolutions in their own countries. Post-war Berlin. Much
of Europe had been
destroyed during the
• If Greece and Turkey became communist, were homeless and sta
war. Many people
then other countries across Europe and the rving. Truman feared
that this could lead to
people electing
Middle East would follow. This was known as communist governmen
ts.
the Domino Theory.

The Truman Doctrine (1947) The Marshall Plan (1947)

In a speech in 1947, US President Truman  bout $13 billion from USA to help
A
set out why the USA should get involved: rebuild Europe.
Countries faced a choice between Communism appealed most to people
either capitalism or communism. with nothing to lose, so the Marshall
Communism was bad because it meant Plan hoped to stop communism by
people could not be free. giving people a stake in the
The USA must try to contain (hold back) capitalist system.
this spread of communism. Countries must trade with the USA to
The USA should provide money and troops get the money.
(if necessary) to help free governments to Sixteen Western European countries
combat communist takeovers. took the money including Britain,
France and West Germany.
s all about stopping
The Truman Doctrine wa The Soviet Union criticised the Marshall
ism. The USA was
the spread of commun Plan as an attack on them because it
military and economic
prepared to use both threatened communist control in
is from happening.
methods to prevent th Eastern Europe.

Now try this

1 Explain two consequences of the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan.
2 Explain why the USA hoped that the Marshall Plan would combat the spread of communism.
5
 The Cold
War develops Had a look Nearly there Nailed it!

Cominform, Comecon and NATO

The establishment of NATO in Western Europe matched the setting up of Cominform and Comecon
in Eastern Europe.
Cominform Comecon
Cominform stood for the Communist Comecon stood for the Council for Mutual
Information Bureau. Stalin set it up in 1947. Economic Assistance. Stalin set it up in 1949.
The bureau organised all the communist It was the Soviet Union’s alternative to the
parties in Europe and arranged their Marshall Plan.
leadership so they would do what Moscow Key points:
told them to. It built up trade links between
Key points: Comecon countries.
Cominform got rid of any opposition It also prevented Comecon countries
to the Soviet Union’s control in signing up to the Marshall Plan.
satellite states. Comecon included the Soviet Union,
It encouraged communist parties in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary,
Western countries to block Marshall Poland, Romania, Albania and, from 1950,
Plan assistance. the German Democratic Republic
(East Germany).

Consequences
Western Europe was now in one camp. Eastern Europe was now in one camp.
It was linked to the USA through the It was tied to the Soviet Union as satellite
Marshall Plan and the US policy of states and the Soviet Union believed
containment of communism. socialist revolution would spread worldwide.

o-American)
inf lue nc e: We st er n Eu rope (capitalist and pr
d into two spheres of divided these two
Europe was now divide nt ro lle d by th e So vie t Union). The line that
mmunist and co
and Eastern Europe (co rtain.
s known as the Iron Cu
spheres of influence wa

The North Atlantic Treaty The significance of NATO

Organisation (NATO) NATO showed that, after the Berlin
 ATO was set up in 1949. It was a
N Blockade and the Soviet Union’s own
military alliance made up of the United development of the atomic bomb,
States, Britain, Canada, Holland, neither the United States nor Western
Belgium, France, Denmark and Norway. European governments were prepared
West Germany joined in 1955. to accept future Soviet aggression.
NATO was a military alliance based The Soviet Union therefore turned to
around the principle of collective strengthening its control over Eastern
security; if one country was attacked Europe, resulting in the formation of the
other countries had to assist it. Warsaw Pact in 1955.
NATO was directed against a possible There were now two military alliances,
military attack from the Soviet Union on NATO and the Warsaw Pact, facing each
Western Europe. other across the Iron Curtain.

Now try this

Why was Stalin so keen to prevent satellite countries getting money from the Marshall Plan?

6
 The Cold
Had a look Nearly there Nailed it! War develops

Germany and the Cold War

The Allies were unable to agree about Germany’s future. A short-term solution, agreed at Potsdam
in July 1945, was to divide the country and its capital, Berlin, into zones of military occupation.
The United States, Britain and France were given Western Germany and West Berlin. The Soviet
Union was given Eastern Germany and East Berlin. The Soviet Union felt threatened by the USA’s
rebuilding of Western Germany and West Berlin.
Reunification Division
The USA wanted a united, capitalist Germany The Soviet Union wanted Germany to be weak,
that it could trade with and would help prevent communist and divided, so that it would never
the spread of communism. be able to attack the Soviet Union again.

Bizonia and Western Germany Eastern Germany and the

It made sense for British and US Berlin Blockade
zones to join together, as it would
be easier to administer. The area The Soviet Union had 1.5 million troops in its
zone, whereas the Western countries had sent
was called Bizonia and was included
most of their troops home.
in the Marshall Plan. Later on the
Eastern Germany grew almost all the food that
French zone of occupation was
West Berlin ate.
added to create ‘West Germany’.
Berlin was deep in Soviet-controlled Germany,
This was not popular with the Soviet
and divided into US, British, French and
Union, as Stalin was not consulted.
Soviet zones.
He thought Bizonia went against
In June 1948 the Soviet Union closed all road,
the agreements made at the
rail and canal links into West Berlin to force
Potsdam Conference, and he
British, French and US troops to leave their
suspected the USA was aiming
zone in the city.
to permanently divide richer
The Soviet Union blocked all supplies into
Western Germany from poorer
Berlin to show it had the power to stop a
Eastern Germany. divided Germany working.

The Berlin Airlift

West Berlin couldn’t last for many days without supplies. It looked like the Western powers
would have to pull out of Berlin. That would look weak, undermining the USA’s image
in particular. So Western powers responded with an airlift – between 26 June 1948 and 30
September 1949 thousands of tonnes of supplies were flown daily into Berlin.

West Germany East Germany

• The Berlin Airlift made the USA appear • The Berlin Blockade made the Soviet
peaceful and generous. Union appear aggressive and threatening.
• In September 1949, West Germany (FRG) • In October 1949, East Germany (GDR)
was officially formed, with US support. was officially formed.
• In April 1949, Western European countries • In May 1955, the Soviet Union formed
and the USA formed NATO to counter the the Warsaw Pact to counter the military
Soviet military threat. threat from NATO.

Now try this

1 What were the FRG, GDR and NATO?
2 Explain what happened during the Berlin Blockade and Airlift, 1948–49.

7
 The Cold War
intensifies Had a look Nearly there Nailed it!

The arms race and the

Warsaw Pact
The United States initially had a monopoly of nuclear weapons, but the emergence of the Soviet
Union as a nuclear power in 1949 led to the start of the nuclear arms race. The formation of the
Warsaw Pact in 1955 further added to Cold War tensions in Europe.

Timeline Both superpowers

The nuclear 1949 Soviet Union tests 1953 Soviet Union having nuclear weapon
s
arms race its first atomic bomb. develops H-bomb. was a powerful reason
why a cold war did no
1945 USA drops two atomic t
1952 USA develops H-bomb become a hot war!
bombs on Japanese cities. (hydrogen bomb).

The significance of the nuclear arms race

1. Up to 1949, the United States thought it could use its
monopoly of nuclear weapons to deter Soviet attack.

2. This meant that US military figures, such as Curtis LeMay and

Douglas MacArthur, decided that the best strategy in the event
of war with the Soviet Union was to use nuclear weapons.

3. However, by the mid 1950s the development of nuclear weapons

to include bigger warheads and missile delivery systems meant
that any nuclear war would destroy both sides resulting in
Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD).

4. This meant any military confrontation between both sides could

rapidly escalate to nuclear war.

The characteristic mushroom

5. This meant that the USA and the Soviet Union had to find ways cloud of a nuclear weapons test
.
of stopping disputes between them turning into dangerous wars
that involved nuclear weapons.

Significance of the Warsaw Pact

Formation of the Warsaw Pact
• The formation of the Warsaw Pact meant there
 he Warsaw Pact was a collective
T were now two opposing alliances in Europe
defence treaty involving the Soviet separated by the Iron Curtain.
Union, Poland, Hungary, East Germany, • Both alliances planned for military action against
Czechoslovakia, Romania, Albania the other, including the use of nuclear and
and Bulgaria. conventional weapons.
It was set up on 14 May 1955 • The Warsaw Pact gave the Soviet Union direct
following West Germany’s entry into control over the armed forces of its satellite
NATO on 9 May 1955. states, thus strengthening its grip on
Eastern Europe.

Now try this

Explain why both the nuclear arms race and the formation of the Warsaw Pact were significant developments
during the Cold War.
8
 The Cold War
Had a look Nearly there Nailed it! intensifies

Soviet control in Hungary

After Stalin died, Soviet leader Khrushchev indicated Soviet control would relax. But when
Hungary started to move away from Soviet influence, the Soviet Union tightened its control for
fear that if Hungary left the Warsaw Pact, other countries would follow.

Impact of Soviet rule

 Hungary suffered a lot under
Stalin’s control.
 Food and industrial products were shipped
off to Russia.
 Any opposition in Hungary was ruthlessly
wiped out.
 Matyas Rakosi was a brutal ruler. He called
himself ‘Stalin’s best pupil’ but was known
as the ‘Bald Butcher’.
 Communist rule became very unpopular.
The Hungarian uprising
in 1956, showing a sta
of Stalin that had been tue
pulled down.

Destalinisation
When Stalin died, Khrushchev took over
as Soviet leader. In 1956, in his ‘secret at the Soviet
Destalinisation meant th
speech’, Khrushchev hinted that Soviet elf as
control would relax. Union no longer saw its
ad it became a
a dictatorship. Inste
In October 1956, poor harvests and bread rned by the
one-party state, gove
shortages meant that Hungarians started v as its leader.
Politburo with Khrushche
demonstrating against communist control enly believed that
with statues of Stalin pulled down and local Many Hungarians mistak
would bring an
communists attacked. Khrushchev appointed the end of Stalin’s rule
ngary, especially
a more liberal Prime Minister for end to communism in Hu
already withdrawn
Hungary – Imre Nagy – in the hope that the as Soviet troops had
ria.
situation would calm down. from neighbouring Aust

Nagy as prime minister

Nagy wanted the following reforms for Hungary.
However this was a pr
• Leave the Warsaw Pact and become a oblem for the
Soviet Union because
neutral country. if Nagy succeeded
in Hungary other coun
• Hold free elections leading to no more tries in Eastern
Europe would follow an
single-party communist government. d the Warsaw Pact
would collapse.
• UN protection from the Soviet Union.

Now try this

1 Why were many Hungarians prepared to protest against the government in October 1956?
2 Why was Khrushchev reluctant to support Nagy’s reforms of October 1956?

9
 The Cold War
intensifies Had a look Nearly there Nailed it!

The Soviet invasion of

Hungary, 1956
Khrushchev disapproved of Nagy’s reforms and in 1956 Soviet troops invaded Hungary.
This provoked a strong reaction in the West and in neutral countries condemning the invasion.
The Soviet invasion of Hungary
• Khrushchev disapproved of Nagy’s reforms • On 4 November 1956, Khrushchev sent
and proposals. If Hungary left the Warsaw 200 000 Soviet troops into Hungary to
Pact, other countries would soon follow. depose Nagy and restore order.
• Khrushchev worried that Nagy’s actions
threatened communist rule. He claimed
communists were being slaughtered
in Hungary. This may have been propaganda,
but a number of Hungarian communists
had been killed and members of the state
security forces, the AVH, attacked in the
violence of October 1956, which took place
in Budapest and other Hungarian towns
and cities. Khrushchev feared the unrest sed by Soviet troops
Damage in Budapest cau 1956.
Hungary, 4 November
would spread to other satellite states. during the invasion of

The consequences of the Soviet invasion of Hungary

 ver 5000 Hungarians were killed as a result of the invasion, including around 1000
O
Soviet troops. Many Hungarian soldiers loyal to Nagy and the revolution fought against
Soviet troops.
Nagy and his government were deposed.
Imre Nagy was arrested, tried and executed. Khrushchev wanted to prevent rebellions
in other communist countries, such as Poland, and hoped he could do so by making an
example of Nagy.
A new leader, Janos Kadar, was appointed. He introduced the Fifteen Point Programme,
which aimed to re-establish communist rule in Hungary. Kadar’s policies were more
moderate than those of other Soviet satellite states and resulted in Hungary having better
living standards than other East European states. Hungarians, aware that the United States
was not prepared to help them, grudgingly accepted this modified form of communist rule.

International reaction and consequences

The United Nations
The USA supported Satellite states saw
condemned Soviet
Hungary’s uprising – But the USA Hungary was on that the USA would
actions.
with money, medical couldn’t send its own against not defend them
Some countries
aid and words. troops: would the Soviet against the Soviet
boycotted the 1956
The USA accepted risk nuclear Union: they had Union. Soviet control
Olympics in protest.
80 000 refugees war. to give in. retightened across
But stronger actions
from Hungary. Eastern Europe.
did not happen.

out Khrushchev's
For question 2, think ab
asion, and
concerns, the Soviet inv
Now try this its consequences.
1 Explain two consequences of the Hungarian Uprising in 1956.
2 Explain how Khrushchev responded to the Hungarian uprising of 1956.

10
 Increased
Had a look Nearly there Nailed it! tension

A divided Berlin
After the war, Germany was divided into four zones and its capital city, Berlin, was also divided
into four. The divided city became a focus for the Cold War.
West Berlin American zone DENMARK B a l t i c
• West Berlin was deep inside British zone N o r t h S e a

Soviet-controlled East Germany. French zone S e a

• Divided Berlin gave the USA a foothold Soviet zone

inside the Soviet Eastern bloc. Hamburg

• Some Germans in East Germany did not like Berlin

having a communist government. NETHERLANDS
Hanover
POLAND
• There were also better jobs with higher EAST
wages in the West. WEST GERMANY
GERMANY
• It was easy to get to West Germany once BELGIUM Bonn
you had reached the western zones in Berlin.
LUX Frankfurt
C Z E C HO S L OVA K I A

The refugee problem in Berlin

FRANCE
 etween 1949 and 1961, 2.7 million
B
East Germans crossed from the East
to the West in Berlin. The population AUSTRIA

of West Germany increased while the

economy benefitted from an influx of I T A L Y
skilled workers. Many left for the West,
leaving the East with a skills shortage.

A d
ri
This looked bad for the Soviets: people The division of

a
ti
clearly preferred West Germany. Germany in 1945.

c
Division of Berlin

S
e
a
Khrushchev’s Berlin ultimatum (November 1958)
• This stated that all Berlin belonged to East Germany and that occupying troops must leave in
six months.
• The Soviet Union knew that if it tried to push the West out of Berlin by force, a war would start
that it could not win, as the US had more nuclear weapons. So, a series of summit meetings
took place between the leaders of the USA and the Soviet Union.

Summit meetings 1959–61 between the USA and the Soviet Union
Summit Outcome
Geneva (May 1959), involving No solution agreed but a further summit organised for
foreign representatives only Camp David in the USA.
Camp David (Sept 1959), involving No solution agreed but a further meeting arranged
Eisenhower and Khrushchev in Paris.
Paris Summit (May 1960), involving A disaster. Khrushchev stormed out because the Soviet
Eisenhower and Khrushchev Union had shot down a US spy plane over Russia.
Vienna Conference (June 1961), Neither was willing to back down. Khrushchev saw
involving Kennedy and Khrushchev Kennedy’s inexperience as a weakness and reissued his
ultimatum for the USA to remove its troops from Berlin.

Now try this

1 Explain why West Berlin was so important during the Cold War.
2 Describe the summit meetings that took place between the USA and the Soviet Union over the future
of Berlin.

11
 Increased
tension Had a look Nearly there Nailed it!

The Cuban Missile Crisis: origins

A revolution in Cuba set it against its neighbour, the USA. The USA attempted to bring Cuba back into
its sphere of influence but instead, Castro, Cuba's leader, asked the Soviet Union for help with defence.

The Cuban Revolution, the USA and the Soviet Union

Before 1959 Cuba was very closely linked to the USA, for example, there were lots of
US-owned businesses. Cuba had a socialist revolution in 1959 and the USA refused to deal
with the new government. Instead, Cuba started to build economic links with the Soviet
Union, for example, trading Soviet oil for Cuban sugar. The relationship between Cuba and
the USA deteriorated.

Get Castro!
• The USA refused to recognise Castro’s government
because it did not want a socialist country in their sphere
of influence, especially not a country with close links to
the Soviet Union.
• The CIA tried to assassinate the leader of Cuba, Fidel
Castro, with no success.
• The CIA convinced President Kennedy that a US-backed
invasion of Cuba, designed to overthrow Castro, could
solve the problem. Fidel Castro

The Bay of Pigs incident – 17 April 1961

What the CIA told Kennedy: What actually happened:
 The invasion will look like a Cuban  The planes were recognised as US planes
revolt – we’ve trained Cuban exiles and and photographed, and the information
disguised old US planes as Cuban. was published. The world knew that the USA
 Castro’s control of Cuba is very weak. had backed the invasion.
 Most Cubans hate Castro.  In fact, Castro knew of the invasion in
advance and 1400 US-backed troops met
20 000 of Castro’s troops. The US-backed
troops surrendered.
 In fact, most Cubans did not want their old
leader, Batista, back again, because he had
been corrupt.
The impact:
• Ended all chances of a friendly USA-Cuba relationship.
• Castro announced that he was a communist.
• Cuba and the Soviet Union started building closer ties – including military defence for Cuba…

Now try this

1 Describe the Bay of Pigs incident in your own words. What did President Kennedy think would happen
and why did it fail?
2 Explain two effects of the Bay of Pigs invasion.
3 Why did the USA seek to overthrow Castro?

12
 Increased
Had a look Nearly there Nailed it! tension

Czechoslovakia and the

Prague Spring
Like in Hungary, a relaxation of control in Czechoslovakia – another satellite state – led to a
challenge to Soviet authority.
The impact of Soviet rule on Czechoslovakia
• Czechoslovakia’s economy and living standards declined.
• Any opposition to communism was crushed.
• Communist rule became very unpopular.

Alexander Dubček
• In January 1968 Dubc ček became the
Czechoslovakian leader. Brezhnev and Dubček
• He was a good friend of Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev.
• He was a communist and supporter of the Warsaw Pact but wanted to make communism better
ček called this ‘socialism with a human face’.
and easier to live under. Dubc
• His reforms resulted in the ‘Prague Spring’ – a period of increased political freedom – in April
1968 and lots of criticism of communism resulted.

Dubček’s reforms How Czechoslovaks responded

Relaxation of censorship meant more Students, intellectuals, workers and
freedom to say and write things, young members of the Communist Party
even if critical of communism. of Czechoslovakia welcomed Dubček’s
More democracy allowed other parties reforms enthusiastically. The reforms also led to
alongside the Communist Party. writers, such as Vaclav Havel and Milan Kundera,
More power was given to the writing books that were highly critical of
Czechoslovakian parliament and Soviet Soviet-style communism.
control was reduced. The economy
was also reformed with ‘market of
were happy: members
socialism’ allowing for the introduction Not all Czechoslovaks rs
some senior army office
of some ‘capitalist elements’. the secret police and du e to
wer and status
The powers of the secret police were resented losing their po
also reduced. the reforms.

How the rest of the communist world responded

The Prague Spring horrified many older Czechoslovakian communists, as they felt it would
lead to the collapse of communism in Czechoslovakia.
Brezhnev and other communists in Eastern Europe, such as Eric Honecker, the leader of
East Germany, were especially concerned. They feared the Prague Spring would lead to
demands for reform elsewhere in the Eastern bloc that would threaten communist rule in
Eastern Europe.
Brezhnev now had a dilemma: Dubček was a friend and military action would damage the
Soviet Union’s reputation. On the other hand, if he did nothing, expectations would rise
and the whole Eastern bloc might collapse.

Now try this

Consider the reactions
of
1 Explain how Dubček wished to reform communism in ordinary Czechoslovaks
Czechoslovakia in 1968. and
those of traditional co
mmunists.
2 Why did people react to the Prague Spring in different ways?

13
 Cold War
crises Had a look Nearly there Nailed it!

The construction of the

Berlin Wall
The Soviet Union and USA started negotiations to sort out the Berlin problem, but they
broke down. Khrushchev’s solution was the Berlin Wall.
Building the Berlin Wall
• The four summit meetings of 1959–61 had
failed to resolve the problem in Berlin, and
President Kennedy started to prepare the
USA for nuclear war.
• Khrushchev could not risk a nuclear war
with the United States, but he still needed
to solve the refugee problem that existed
in Berlin.
• His solution was to build the Berlin Wall in
August 1961. This was designed to prevent
East Berliners travelling to West Berlin.
In future, any East Berliner travelling to West
Berlin would be shot.
• On 12 August 1961, East German troops
erected a barbed wire fence around
West Berlin. The fence eventually became the
ll August 1961. Note
a heavily guarded wall. Soviet tanks were Building the Berlin Wa kgrou nd . Over 200
in the bac
deployed to stop Western access to number of soldiers wall
t trying to cross the
the East. By the end of October 1961, East Germans were sho
89 .
between 1961 and 19
West Berlin was completely cut off from
East Germany.
Why the Berlin Wall was built

1 Khrushchev backed down: 2 Despite the Berlin

as he knew he couldn’t win ultimatum, the Western
a nuclear war. powers stayed in Berlin. Do not confuse the
Berlin Wall Crisis with
3 Instead, the Berlin Wall 4 Anyone trying to escape the Berlin Blockade.
was built (from August 1961). was shot at. Many people
were killed.

5 Th wall stopped East

The 6 This way, Khrushchev
Germans leaving for the avoided war with USA but
West, which solved the crisis. still looked strong.

Now try this For a narrative answer,

begin with the refugee
problem, move on to th
1 Write a narrative explaining the events that e failure of the summits
and finish with the cons
led to the construction of the Berlin Wall truction of the Wall.
between 1958 and 1961.
k
2 Why did Khrushchev reach the decision to estion, you need to loo
To answer this 'why' qu ct ed .
construct the Berlin Wall in August 1961? Wall was constru
at the reasons why the

14
 Cold War
Had a look Nearly there Nailed it! crises

The events of the Cuban

Missile Crisis
When the USA discovered the Soviet Union's missile sites on Cuba, the USA was torn on how
best to respond: attack while it could or do everything possible to avoid war.

The Cuban missile sites

The Soviet Union

nion saw Cuba as a fix to a key
strategic problem: the USA had missiles close
to the Soviet Union (e.g. in the UK), but the
Soviet Union had no missiles close to the USA..
Cuba saw Soviet missiles as a great way
to prevent the USA from invading Cuba again..
In September 1962, Soviet ships carried
nuclear warheads and missiles to Cuba.
Then in October 1962, US spy planes photographed missile
aphed the Cuban mi
issil
ile
sites and the secret was out.
The US public learned that they were now in range of Soviet nuclear
missiles. There was panic.

How should the USA respond?

President Kennedy and his team thought through the different options. Some advisers (the
‘hawks’) wanted to attack straight away, while others (the ‘doves’) wanted to avoid nuclear war if
at all possible.

Ignore the Cuban missiles:

Warn Castro that his actions
the USA also had many missile
put Cuba in grave danger
bases close to the Soviet Union,
and hope that Castro would
for example, in Turkey.
decide to stop the missile
site construction.
Do a deal and get the
Soviet Union to withdraw from
Blockade Cuba to stop any
Cuba in return for the USA
more missiles or equipment
withdrawing from one of its missile
coming from the Soviet Union.
bases close to the Soviet Union.

Destroy Cuban missile sites.

Invade Cuba: US troops would This could be done with airstrikes
invade and get rid of the Nuclear attack: attack
the Soviet Union quickly and so wouldn’t need nuclear
Castro government. strikes or a land invasion.
before the Soviet Union
could attack the USA.

Now try this

recommendation
If you were an adviser to President Kennedy, which Remember to link your
option would you have recommended and why? to the arms race!

15
 Cold War
crises Had a look Nearly there Nailed it!

The Brezhnev Doctrine and Soviet

control in Czechoslovakia
Brezhnev could not accept Dubček’s reforms and the Soviet Union invaded Czechoslovakia in
August 1968. Brezhnev then established the Brezhnev Doctrine.

Brezhnev’s response to
Dubček’s reforms
 rezhnev could not allow the reforms,
B
as any weakness in control could mean
the break-up of the Warsaw Pact – even
though this wasn’t Dubček’s intention.
Brezhnev failed to convince Dubček to
stop the reforms.
In August 1968, the Soviet Union
sent tanks to Prague and Dubček
was arrested.
Czechoslovakia returned to being under
strict Soviet control under Gustav Husak. Czechoslovakia,
The Soviet invasion of
This was known as ‘normalisation’. August 1968.

Consequences of the Brezhnev Doctrine

From now on, the Soviet Yugoslavia and

The USA Western European
Union declared the right Romania also
condemned the communist parties were
to invade any Eastern backed off from the
invasion but did horrified and declared
bloc country that was themselves independent Soviet Union,
threatening the security nothing to stop weakening the
it: it feared war. from the Soviet
of the Eastern bloc as Communist Party. Soviet Union’s grip
a whole. on Eastern Europe.

The importance of the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia

The Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia was important because the Brezhnev Doctrine meant that
the Soviet Union reserved the right to invade any country that threatened the security of the
Eastern bloc. Therefore, other East European states, such as Poland or Hungary, were required to
rigidly stick to Soviet-style communism or risk invasion themselves.

Now try this

1 Draw up a timeline showing the key events in the Cold War t the
Remember to think abou
1957–68. events
different places where
2 Explain two effects of the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia. ns of
took place and the actio
ion.
3 Explain why the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia was the USA and Soviet Un
important to Soviet control of Eastern Europe.

16
 Reaction
Had a look Nearly there Nailed it! to crisis

The Berlin Wall and

US–Soviet relations
While the construction of the Berlin Wall affected relations between the Soviet Union and the
United States, it made war over Berlin less likely. Following President Kennedy’s visit in 1963,
West Berlin became an enduring symbol of freedom during the Cold War.

The impact of the Wall

 fter the Berlin Wall went up in 1961,
A The Wall was a humiliation for the Soviet Union
Western (British, US and French) and a propaganda victory for the West, as it
troops remained in Berlin. suggested that East Germans preferred living
The Wall solved the refugee problem, in capitalist West Germany and had to be
as East Germans could no longer forced to stay in communist East Germany.
travel to West Germany. The Wall was a notorious barrier between
T
 he number of military alerts in Berlin the freedoms enjoyed by West Berliners and
declined as a result of the construction those denied to East Berliners. It meant
of the Wall. President Kennedy West Berlin became an enduring symbol
commented that, although not a nice of freedom. This was highlighted further by
solution, a wall was at least better than the fact that over 200 people lost their
a war. The Wall seemed to suggest that lives trying to cross the Wall.
the Soviets were no longer interested Khrushchev mistakenly thought that Kennedy
in unifying Berlin under communist rule, had shown weakness by allowing the Wall to
as Khrushchev had originally demanded be built, and this encouraged him to think
in November 1958. about deploying missiles in Cuba.

Kennedy’s visit to West Berlin, 1963

• Kennedy famously visited West Berlin in 1963 and claimed
“Ich bin ein Berliner” (“I am a Berliner”).
• His speech was an expression of solidarity with the people of
West Berlin. The fact that Kennedy chose to visit West Berlin
personally and give this speech demonstrated that the United
States and NATO were prepared to defend West Berlin from
communist attack.
• Kennedy was also speaking after the Cuban Missile Crisis
had ended and was showing his audience – both German
West Berlin,
and American – that he was not ‘soft on communism’. Kennedy speaking in
st German
26 June 1963. We
y shown him
leaders had previousl
the Wa ll.
The Iron Curtain divides East and West
The construction of the Berlin Wall filled the last remaining gap in the Iron Curtain
and meant that Europe was now completely divided.
There were two Germanys. There were two different
On either side of alliances (NATO and the
There were two different ideologies the Iron Curtain Warsaw Pact).
(capitalism and communism).

Now try this

Look again at the
1 Explain two consequences of the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961.
picture and notes
2 Explain the significance of Kennedy’s Berlin speech of 26 June 1963.
on this page.
17
 Reaction
to crisis Had a look Nearly there Nailed it!

The consequences of the

Cuban Missile Crisis
During the Cuban Missile Crisis the world came very close to nuclear war. There was a need to
ensure this did not happen again, so relations between the United States and the Soviet Union
actually improved after the crisis, leading to a period of cooling tensions, known as détente.
Short-term consequences of the crisis
• Communist Cuba survived as Kennedy gave assurances the USA would not invade Cuba again.
• The Soviet Union looked weak, as the world did not know the USA had removed missiles
from Turkey. This undermined Khrushchev and Brezhnev replaced him as Soviet leader in 1964.
• US ‘doves’ came out well, as their desire to avoid war resulted in the missiles being withdrawn.

Timeline 16 Oct President Kennedy is

Long-term consequences
The Cuban Missile Crisis showed how easily
informed that US spy planes
1962 have found missile sites
a nuclear war could start. The USA initiated
a move to détente – a less stressful, more
on Cuba.
informed relationship between the USA and
the Soviet Union.
22 Oct Kennedy decides
• The Hotline Agreement created a direct
against an attack. Orders
communication link between Washington
a blockade of Cuba. 24 Oct Soviet Union says a
blockade is an act of
and Moscow.
aggression and its ships will • Limited Test Ban Treaty (August
ignore it. 1963) – both sides agreed to ban
25 Oct USA and Soviet all nuclear weapon testing except for
Union prepare
underground tests.
for immediate
nuclear attack. • In 1963 Kennedy gave a speech about
working with the Soviet Union to focus on
27 Oct Cuba gets ready
their ‘common interests’.
for invasion.
Khrushchev offers to remove • However, the Soviet Union was
missiles from Cuba if USA does determined to catch up with USA in the
the same from its Italy and arms race and achieved this by 1965.
Turkey bases. This meant Mutually Assured Destruction
A US spy plane is shot down (MAD). War would be so terrible that it
over Cuba. US ‘hawks‘ must be avoided at all costs.
demand retaliation. • The USA and the Soviet Union also signed
Robert Kennedy sets up a deal the Outer Space Treaty in 1967, which
in which the USA would limited the deployment of nuclear weapons
secretly withdraw warheads in space, and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation
from Italy and Turkey.
Treaty in 1968, which prevented nuclear
28 Oct Khrushchev agrees weapons being given to other countries.
to the deal: missiles
withdrawn in return for USA
agreeing never to attack Make sure you are cle
ar about the
Cuba and taking its missiles chronology of the Cuba
out of Italy and Turkey. n Missile Crisis.

Now try this Remember: only focus

on what the USA did
1 Explain how the USA responded to the discovery of missiles in Cuba.
after the missiles
2 Explain two consequences of the Cuban Missile Crisis. were discovered.
18
 Reaction
Had a look Nearly there Nailed it! to crisis

International reaction to Soviet

measures in Czechoslovakia
The Soviet response to the Prague Spring brought about a mixed reaction in both the East and
the West. It did not damage the growing détente between East and West.

Impact on the West Impact on the East

 he United States and West Germany
T The invasion and the Brezhnev Doctrine
condemned the invasion and the limited reforms in other Eastern bloc
Brezhnev Doctrine that followed it. countries who feared a Soviet invasion.
The Soviet invasion was even described Countries such as Poland pursued
as ‘the rape of Czechoslovakia’. policies that ignored public opinion,
However, the USA and West Germany which increasingly demanded change.
offered no military support This led to public protests.
or assistance. The United States was The invasion strengthened Soviet
already bogged down in the Vietnam control over the Eastern bloc as they
War and also did not want to provoke an could use military force to ensure
international crisis. their dominance.
Yet the crisis also exposed differences
Communist leaders, such as Jacques
in the Eastern bloc. Both Romania (led
Duclos in France and Enrico Berlinguer
by Nicolae Ceauşescu) and Yugoslavia
in Italy, were appalled by the invasion,
(led by Josip Broz Tito) condemned
France and Italy therefore began to end
the invasion and signed alliances
their links with the Soviet Union.
with communist China, dividing the
communist world.

Soviet influence within

the West began to
decline as Western
communist leaders
developed a form of
communism different to
.
that in the Soviet Union
r of the French
Jacque Duclos, leade lavia.
Party originally had unist leader of Yugos
Communist Party. The Josip Broz Tito, comm not
Un ion but dropped them unist state tha t wa s
links with the Sovie t Yugoslavia was a comm
on of Czechoslovakia. w Pact.
after the Soviet invasi a member of the Warsa

Impact on superpower relations

• The Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia did little to damage the growing détente between East
and West. This was helped by the fact that relatively few people (less than 100) died as a result
of the invasion.
• However, the invasion did create a sense of complacency in Brezhnev’s mind. He believed that
any Soviet military intervention in areas that contained pro-Soviet governments would not be
challenged by the United States. This view proved to be mistaken following the Soviet invasion
of Afghanistan in 1979.

Now try this either

You can focus here on
or the impact of
superpower relations
Explain how international relations were affected by the st and the West.
Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia. the invasion on the Ea

19
 Attempts to
reduce tension Had a look Nearly there Nailed it!

Détente in the 1970s

Détente, meaning the relaxing of tension between rivals, was used to describe the
relationship between the USA and the Soviet Union in the later 1960s and 1970s.
SALT 1 -- Strategic Arms Limitation How effective was SALT 1?
Treaty (1972)  Slowed down the arms race by placing limits
Superpowers agreed to limit the number of on the number of bombers, ICBMs and
nuclear weapons they had. SLBMs each side could have.
No further production of strategic ballistic  Led to further negotiations that culminated
weapons (short-range, lightweight missiles). in the SALT 2 Treaty in 1979.
No increase in number of intercontinental  Ensured that neither side had a decisive
ballistic weapons (ICBMs) (though new advantage in strategic nuclear weapons.
ones could be added to replace old ones).
 Did not cover intermediate nuclear weapons,
No new nuclear missile launchers.
which both sides continued to deploy in
New submarines that could launch
Europe during the late 1970s.
nuclear weapons (SLBMs) only
d
allowed as replacements for existing perpowers still targete
Détente had limits. Su
missile launchers. ch other and competed
nuclear weapons at ea
The Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty Soviet Union didn't
for influence. Also, the
limited both sides to two ABM agreements from the
deployment areas. honour the human rights
Helsinki Agreements.
1975 Helsinki Conference
The Helsinki Agreements
were signed in Helsinki,
Finland, in 1975, by all Agr in
eem fere
European countries E
acc ast an ent on o inter s of
ept d t ir
ed e West border ntry nal affa ry.
except Albania and cou t
ach G
othe ermany
s: No e inter r coun
All disputes to be settled th othe
Andorra, as well as Trad r offic
ially an n
uma f
e co . peacefully, through the UN ct h
the USA, the Soviet Sov agreed operati if necessary. respe edom o t
ie t
agre t Unio o buy n: theo s to ing fre vemen
Union and Canada. ed t o ntrie d o
n
o bu and th il from SA
U Cou ts, inclu igion, m on.
y wh e So the l i
Representatives from eat v Sharing of scientific righ ch, re format
from iet Uni knowledge (e.g. in medicine)
e
spe and in
35 countries agreed on the on
USA and educational cooperation
.
security issues, cooperation, (e.g. student exchanges).
human rights and borders.

The importance of Helsinki Limits to Helsinki

• Helped the USA and the Soviet Union form a • The Soviet Union continued to focus on
stable relationship. Eastern bloc countries and to apply the
Brezhnev Doctrine. It treated dissidents
• Represented the high point of détente. (protesters) harshly; scientist Alexander
• Coincided with more US-Soviet cooperation, Sakharov was arrested, hospitalised
like the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (1975) – a and force-fed.
joint space mission – and trade agreements. • The USA continued to prioritise its interests
in countries it could influence, like Chile and
El Salvador.

Now try this

1 Explain two consequences of détente.
2 What was the importance of SALT 1 for the development of superpower relations?
3 Explain why the Helsinki Agreements were important in improving relations between the USA and the
Soviet Union.

20