PRELIM MODULE – UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | MGL

MODULE 1 – THE SELF FROM VARIOUS PHILOSOPHICAL contemporary philosophers have incorporated science to their theories in the light of the
technological advancements they have been exposed to.
PRESPECTIVES
Philosophy is often called the mother of all disciplines simply because all fields of study began  SOCRATES - was a Greek philosopher who believed that philosophy had a very
as philosophical discourses. Philosophy employs the inquisitive mind to discover the ultimate important role to play in the lives of the people. One of his most quoted phrases is,
causes, reasons, and principles of everything. It goes beyond scientific investigation by “The unexamined life is not worth living”. According to Socrates, self-knowledge or
exploring all areas of knowledge such as religion, psychology, politics, physics and even the examination of one’s self, as well as the question about how one ought to live
medicine. Hence, the etymological definition of philosophy “love of wisdom” could pertain to one’s life, are very important concerns because only by knowing your self can you
the desire for truth by formulating never ending questions to provide answers to every hope to improve your life. Socrates suggested that the self consists of two
inquiry about the nature of human existence. The nature of the self is a topic of interest dichotomous realms: physical and ideal realms.
among philosophers. Different philosophers introduced specific characteristics and meanings  The physical realm is changeable, transient and imperfect.
of the self, which, overtime, transformed from pure abstractions to explanations that hold  The ideal realm is unchanging, eternal, and immortal.
scientific proofs. The physical world in which we live belongs to the physical realm. For Socrates, our
body belongs to the physical realm while the soul belongs to the ideal realm.
Socrates explains that the essence of the self―the soul― is the immortal entity.
1. Empiricism and Rationalism The soul strives for wisdom and perfection, and reason is the soul’s tool to achieve
this dignified state. Socrates suggests that man must live an examined life and a
The dispute between rationalism and empiricism takes place primarily within life of purpose and value. The individual person can have a meaningful and happy
epistemology, the branch of philosophy devoted to studying the nature, sources, and limits of life only if he becomes virtuous and knows the value of himself that can be
knowledge. Knowledge itself can be of many different things and is usually divided among achieved through incessant soul-searching. Self-knowledge is the ultimate virtue.
three main categories: knowledge of the external world, knowledge of the internal world or
self-knowledge, and knowledge of moral and/or aesthetical values. We may find that there  PLATO - Plato was the student of Socrates who also believed that the self is
are category-specific conditions that must be satisfied for knowledge to occur and that it is synonymous with the soul. Plato elaborated the concept of the soul; specifically he
easier or more difficult to shape certain questions and answers, depending on whether we introduced the idea of a three part soul:
focus on the external world or on the values.  Reason is the divine essence that enables us to think deeply, make wise
choices and achieve a true understanding of eternal truths.
1. What is Knowledge?  Physical appetite includes our basic biological needs such as hunger,
2. How can we gain knowledge? thirst and sexual desires.
3. What are the limits of our knowledge?  Spirit or passion includes basic emotions such as love, anger, empathy.

Empiricism- there is no such thing as innate knowledge; instead, knowledge is derived from  ST. AUGUSTINE - African philosopher Augustine is regarded as a saint in the
experience either perceived with the five senses or processed with the brain. One knows Catholic Church. As religious philosopher, he contemplated on the nature of man
things because he or she has experienced it through sensory and bodily experiences. with an emphasis on the soul as an important element of man. He believed that
the soul is what governs and defines the human person. Augustine described that
Rationalism- argues that there is innate knowledge; however, there are different sources of humankind is created in the image and likeness of God. Everything created by God
innate knowledge. Rationalism explains self from the standpoint of what is “ideal” and “true”, who is all good is good. Therefore, the human person being a creation of God is
and not rooted in what is felt by the senses or body. Conclusions are derived through logic always geared towards the good. Augustine was convinced that the self is known
and reasoning. Some philosophers applied empirical views of the self; others used the rational only through knowing God. For Augustine, “knowledge can only come by seeing
approach. the truth that dwells within us.” The truth that which Augustine spoke refers to the
truth of knowing God. God is transcendent and that the self seeks to be united
with God through faith and reason.
2. The Philosophical perspective of understanding the self
 REŃE DESCARTES - French philosopher Descartes is the father of Modern
Prominent philosophers have different views regarding the nature of the self. The
philosophy. He brought an entirely new perspective to philosophy and the self. The
ancient philosophers explained the self from their conceptual understanding of the world
Latin phrase Cogito ergosum―”I think therefore I am” is the keystone of
since scientific evidence was hard to obtain due to lack of measures. Meanwhile,
Descartes’ concept of self. For him, the act of thinking about the self―of being
PRELIM MODULE – UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | MGL

self-conscious― is in itself proof that there is a self. It was then that he developed Given the new ways of knowing and the growth of the social sciences it became possible for
his theory of knowledge because he is confident that no rational person will doubt new approaches to the examination of the self to come to force. One of the loci, if not most
his or her own existence as a conscious, thinking entity-while we are aware of important axis of analysis is the relationship between the self and the external world. How
thinking about ourselves. For Descartes, this is the essence of the human self- a much of you are essential? How much of who you are now a product of your society,
thinking entity that doubts, understands, analyzes, questions and reasons. community, and family? Has your choice of school affected yourself now? Had you been into
a different family and schooled in a different college, how much of who you are now would
 JOHN LOCKEF - for Locke, the human mind at birth is tabula rasa or blank slate. change?
The self or personal identity is constructed primarily from sense experience―
specifically, what people see, hear, smell, taste, and feel. These experiences shape
and mold the self throughout a person’s life. For Locke, conscious awareness and 1. The Self
memory of previous experiences are the keys to understanding the self. The self, in contemporary literature and even common sense, is commonly defined
by the following characteristics: “separate, self-contained, independent, consistent, unitary,
 IMMANUEL KANT - For German philosopher Kant, it is the self that makes and private”(Stevens1996)
experiencing an understandable world possible because it is the self that is actively a. Separate
organizing all our thoughts and perceptions. In other words, the self-construct its  The self is distinct form other selves.
own reality, actively creating a world that is familiar, predictable, and most  The self is always unique and has its own identity.
significantly, mine. The self is the product of reason, a regulative principle, because  One cannot be another person.
the self regulates experience by making unified experiences possible. The self
transcends experience because the mind can grasp aspects of reality which is not b. Self-contained and Independent
limited to the senses.  The self in itself can exist.
 In distinctiveness it allows to be self-contained with its own thoughts,
 GILBERT RYLE - British philosopher Ryle believed that the self is best understood as characters, and volition.
a pattern of behavior, the tendency for a person to behave in a certain way in  It does not require other selves for it to exist.
certain circumstances. Ryle’s concept of the human self thus provided the c. Consistent
philosophical principle, “I act therefore I am”. Ryle considers the mind and body  Has a personality that is enduring and therefore can be expected to persist
intrinsically linked in complex and intimate ways. In short, the self is the same as for quite some time.
bodily behavior. Ryle is convinced that the mind expresses the entire system of  Its consistency, therefore, allows it to be studied, described, and measured.
thoughts, emotions, and actions that make up the human self. d. Unitary
 Center of all experiences and thoughts that run a person
 PAUL CHURCHLAND - American philosopher Churchland advocated the idea of  It is like the chief command post in an individual where all processes,
eliminative materialism or the idea that the self is inseparable from the brain and emotions, and thoughts converge
the physiology of the body. All person has is the brain and so, if the brain is gone, e. Private
there is no self. For Churchland, the physical brain and not the imaginary mind,  Each person sorts out information, feelings and emotions, and thought
gives people the sense of self. The self is the brain. processes within the Self.
 The whole process is never accessible to anyone but the Self.
MODULE 2 – THE SEELF, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE  Self is always changing and dynamic, allowing external influences to take part
in its shaping.

Across the time and history, the self has been debated, discussed and fruitfully or otherwise
2. Culture
conceptualized by different thinkers in philosophy. Eventually, with the advent of the line
Remaining the same person and turning chameleon by adapting to one's context
social sciences, it became possible for new ways and paradigms to reexamine the true nature
seems paradoxical.
of the self. People put a halt on Speculative debates on the relationship between the body
and soul, eventually renamed body and the mind. Thinkers just eventually got tired of
Culture
focusing on the long-standing debate since sixth century BC between the relationships of
- An expansive set of material and symbolic processes such as world, environment, context,
these two components of the human person. Thinkers just settled on the idea that there are
cultural systems, social systems, social structures, institutions, practices, policies, norms, and
two components of the human person and whatever relationship these two have is less
values that give form and direction to our behavior.
important than the fact that there is self. The debate shifted into another locus of discussion.
- Not a stable set of values that reside inside people.
PRELIM MODULE – UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | MGL

- Located in the world in patterns of ideas, practices, institutions, and artifacts. Apart from the anthropological and psychological basis for the relationship between the self
- Product of human activity. and the social world, the sociological likewise struggled to understand the real connection
- Each individual’s activity as well as thoughts, feelings, and actions of those who came before between the two concepts. In doing so, sociologist focus on the different institutions and
the person. power sat play in the society. Among these, the most prominent is the family.

Marcel Mauss - French anthropologist - Explained that the Self has two faces: - It is what family initiates the person to become and serves as the basis for that person’s
progress.
 PERSONNE - Composed of the social concepts of what it means to be who he is. It
has much to do with what it means to live in a particular institution, a particular
family, a particular religion, a particular nationality, and how to be have given Gender and the self Gender
expectations and influences from others. is one of those loci of the self that is subject to alteration, change, and development. We have
 MOI - Refers to a person’s sense of who he is, is body, and his basic identity, his seen in the past years how people fought hard for the right express, validate, and assert their
biological givenness. It is the person’s basic identity. gender expressions. Many conservatives may frown upon this and insist on the biological.
However, from the point-of-view of the social sciences and the self, it is important to give one
the leeway to find, express, and live his identity.
3. The Self and Culture - People fought and fights hard for the right to express, validate, and assert their gender
expression.
So how do people actively produce their social worlds? How do children growing
- Often times, society forces a particular identity depending on a person’s sex and/or gender.
up become social beings? How can a boy turn out to just be like an ape? How do twins coming
- Partly determines how a person sees them self in the world.
out from the same mother turn out to be terribly different when given up for adoption?
Mother than his givenness (personality, tendencies, and properties, among others), one is
believed to be inactive participation in the shaping of the self. Most often, we think the MODULE 3 – ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF
human persons are just passive actors in the whole process of the shaping of selves. That men The Origin of Self explores the role that selfhood plays in defining human society. It
and women are born with particularities that they can no longer changed. Recent studies, considers the genetic and cultural origins of self, the role that self plays in socialization and
however, indicate that men and women in the growth and development engaged actively in language, and the types of self we generate in our individual journeys to and through
the shaping of the self. adulthood. Edwardes argues that other awareness is a relatively early evolutionary
development, present throughout the primate clade and perhaps beyond, but self-awareness
Language is a product of the sharing of social models, something only humans appear to do. The self of
- A salient part of culture - Has tremendous effect in crafting the Self whom we are aware is not something innate within us, it is a model of our self-produced as a
- One of the reasons culture divide accounts for the differences on how one regards one’s response to the models offered to us by other people. Edwardes proposes that human
self. construction of selfhood involves seven different types of self. All but one of them are
- Language both publicly shared and privately utilized symbol system is the site where the internally generated models, and the only non- model, the actual self, is completely hidden
individual and the social make and remake each other. (Schwarts, White, Luts, 1993) from conscious awareness. We rely on others to tell us about our self, and even to let us know
we are a self.
Lev Vygotsky and George Herbert Mead
The way that human persons develop is with the use of language acquisition and interaction 1. Anthropology
with others. The way that we process information is normally a form of an internal dialogue in
our head. Those who deliberate about moral dilemmas undergo this internal dialog. “Should I The Origin of Self explores the role that selfhood plays in defining human society. It
do this or that?” “But if I do this, it will be like this.” “Don’t I want the other option?” And so considers the genetic and cultural origins of self, the role that self plays in socialization and
cognitive and emotional development of a child is always a mimicry of how it is done in the language, and the types of self we generate in our individual journeys to and through
social world, in the external reality where he is in. adulthood. Edwardes argues that other awareness is a relatively early evolutionary
- Believed that the child internalizes real-life dialogues that he has with others, with his family, development, present throughout the primate clade and perhaps beyond, but self-awareness
his primary caregiver, or his playmates. They apply this to their mental practical problem is a product of the sharing of social models, something only humans appear to do. The self of
solving. whom we are aware is not something innate within us, it is a model of our self-produced as a
- Notice how children become what they watch and they can easily adopt ways of cartoon response to the models offered to us by other people. Edwardes proposes that human
characters they are exposed. construction of selfhood involves seven different types of self. All but one of them are
internally generated models, and the only non- model, the actual self, is completely hidden
Self in Families
PRELIM MODULE – UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | MGL

from conscious awareness. We rely on others to tell us about our self, and even to let us know about God, worship, morals, and ethics. These beliefs, then, determine how the culture
we are a self. responds to its religious topics, issues, and events.

In anthropology, the self-came to be understood as a process that orchestrates an Two Anthropological Perspectives of the Self
individual's personal experience following which s/he becomes self-aware and self-reflective 1. Egocentric- a concept of the self where the self is seen as an autonomous and distinct
about her or his place in society. This chapter seeks to explore the role selfhood plays in individual.
defining human society, and each human individual in that society. It considers the genetic 2. Socio-centric - according to this view, there is no intrinsic self that can possess enduring
and cultural origins of self, the role that self plays in socialization and language, and the types qualities.
of self we generate in our individual journeys to and through adulthood.
Three-Phased Rite of Passage by Arnold Van Gennep
Anthropology 1. Separation Phase- in this phase, people detach from their former identity to another
● The study of human societies and cultures and their development 2. Liminality Phase- in this phase, a person transitions from one identity to another
● it is concerned with how cultural and biological processes interact to shape human 3. Incorporation Phase- in this phase, the change in one's status is officially incorporated
experience
Anthony Wallace and Raymond Fogelson coined the term Identity Struggles this refers to the
2. Self as Embedded in Culture characterize interaction in which there is a discrepancy between the identity a person claims
to possess and the identity attributed to that person by other.
Self-concept refers to all understanding and knowledge of oneself. The
components of self-concepts include: psychological, physical and social attitudes, ideas and Self-identification - in order to attain this, individuals have to overcome many obstacles.
beliefs that one has. The most influence in terms of self-concept is family’s history, basically
referring to the culture one has been brought up in, and the experiences he or she has MODULE 4 – THE SELF AS COGNITIVE CONSTRUCT
undergone. Various studies have been carried out concerning the impact culture may have
towards self-concept. One such study was carried out by Erdman (2006) using American and As discussed in the previous unit, every field of study have their own research,
Chinese students, requesting them to recall memories and events of their early years of definition, and conceptualization of self and identity. The trend of the lessons seems to define
childhood. In his study, Erdman found out that early childhood memories were a big part of the concept of the self from a larger context down to the individual. However, it must be
self-concept. The findings demonstrated that different cultural memories are brought about pointed out the modern researches acknowledge the contributions of each field and this is
by early childhood years and persist into adulthood. The differences are formed both in the not some sort of a nurture vs. nature, society/culture vs. individual/brain, other social
extended cultural contexts which defines the meaning of the self and the immediate family sciences vs. psychology debate. Psychology may focus on the individual and cognitive
environment. functions, but it does not discount the context and other possible factors that affect the
individual.
Material and Non-material Culture Sociologists describe two interrelated aspects
of human culture: the physical objects of the culture and the ideas associated with these
1. SELF AS COGNITIVE CONSTRUCT
objects.
There are various definitions of the self and other similar or interchangeable concepts in
Material culture refers to the physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to
psychology. Simply put, the self in psychology is the sense of personal identity and of who we
define their culture. These include homes, neighborhoods, cities, schools, churches,
are as individuals.
synagogues, temples, mosques, offices, factories and plants, tools, means of production,
goods and products, stores, and so forth. All of these physical aspects of a culture help to
William James as one of the earliest psychologists to study the self, he conceptualized the self
define its members' behaviors and perceptions. For example, technology is a vital aspect of
as having two aspects: the “I” and “Me”.
material culture in today's Filipino Society. Students in highly urbanized cities must learn to
 “I” is the thinking, acting and feeling self.
use computers to survive in college and business, in contrast to young adults in the ethnic
 “Me” is the physical characteristics as well as psychological capabilities that make
societies who must learn to build weapons and hunt.
who you are.
Non‐material culture refers to the nonphysical ideas that people have about their culture,
Carl Rogers used the same terms,
including beliefs, values, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions. For
 "I" as the one who acts and decides.
instance, the non‐material cultural concept of religion consists of a set of ideas and beliefs
 “Me” is what you think or feel about yourself as an object
PRELIM MODULE – UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | MGL

Our group identity and self-awareness also has a great impact on our self-esteem. Self-esteem
Other concepts similar to self are identity and self-concept. is our own positive or negative perception or evaluation of ourselves. One of the ways in
 Identity is composed of one’s personal characteristics, social roles and which our social relationships affects our self-esteem is through social comparison.
responsibilities.
 Self-concept is basically what comes to your mind when you are asked about who 1. Downward Social Comparison –comparing ourselves with those people who are worse off
you are. than us.
2. Upward Social Comparison – comparing ourselves with those people who are better off
Theories generally see the self and identity as mental constructs. Current researches point to than us.
the frontal lobe of the brain as the specific area of the brain associated with processes
concerning the self. Sigmund Freud saw the self, its mental processes and one’s behavior as Social comparison entails what is called self-evaluation maintenance theory which states that
the results of the interaction between the structures of personality. As in the we can feel threatened when someone out-performs us. In this case, we react in three ways:
abovementioned definitions of the self, social interaction always has a part to play in who we  We distance ourselves from the person or redefine our relationship with them.
think we are.  We may reconsider the importance of the aspect or skill in which you were out-
performed.
Under the theory of symbolic interactionism, Mead argued that the self is created and  We may also strengthen or resolve to improve that certain aspect of ourselves.
developed through human interaction. There are three reasons why self and identity are
social products: However, in the attempt to increase or maintain self-esteem, some people become
1. We do not create ourselves out of nothing. narcissistic. Narcissism is a trait characterized by overly high self-esteem, self-admiration and
2. Whether we like to admit it or not, we actually need others to affirm and reinforce who we selfcenteredness. Sometimes, there is a thin line between high self-esteem and narcissism
think we are. and there are a lot of test and measurements for self-esteem but the issue is that the result
3. What we think as important to us may also have been influenced by what is important in can be affected by the desire of the person to portray herself in a positive or advantageous
our social or historical context. way.

Social interaction and group affiliation are vital factors in creating our self-concept especially
in the aspect of providing us with or social identity. However, there are times when we are
aware of our self-concepts, also called self-awareness. Carver and Scheier identified two types MODULE 5 – THE SELF IN WESTERN AND EASTERN THOUGHT
of self that we can be aware of
Private Self – your internal standards and private thoughts and feelings.
Public Self – your public image commonly geared toward having a good representation of
yourself to others 1. CONFUCIANISM

Self-awareness also presents us with at least three other self-schema: Confucianism is a philosophy and belief system from ancient China, which laid the foundation
Actual Self - who you are at the moment. for much of Chinese culture. Confucius was a philosopher and teacher who lived from 551 to
Ideal Self - who you like to be 479 B.C.E. His thoughts on ethics, good behavior, and moral character were written down by
Ought Self - who we think we should be his disciples in several books, the most important being the Lunyu. Confucianism believes in
ancestor worship and human centered virtues for living a peaceful life. The golden rule of
Self-awareness may be positive or negative depending on the circumstances and our next Confucianism is “Do not do unto others what you would not want others to do unto you.”
course of action. It can keep you doing something dangerous. In other instances, self-
awareness can be too much that we are concerned about being observed and criticized by There is debate over if Confucianism is a religion. Confucianism is best understood as an
others, also known as self-consciousness. ethical guide to life and living with strong character. Yet, Confucianism also began as a revival
of an earlier religious tradition. There are no Confucian gods, and Confucius himself is
At other times, we may experience deindividuation or the loss of individual self-awareness worshipped as a spirit rather than a god. However, there are temples of Confucianism, which
and individual accountability in groups. A lot of people will attune themselves with the are places where important community and civic rituals happen. This debate remains
emotions of their group and because the large crowd also provides some kind of anonymity. unresolved and many people refer to Confucianism as both a religion and a philosophy.

The main idea of Confucianism is the importance of having a good moral character, which can
then affect the world around that person through the idea of “cosmic harmony.” If the
PRELIM MODULE – UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | MGL

emperor has moral perfection, his rule will be peaceful and benevolent. Natural disasters and god, although there are supernatural figures who can help or hinder people on the path
conflict are the result of straying from the ancient teachings. This moral character is achieved towards enlightenment.
through the virtue of ren, or “humanity,” which leads to more virtuous behaviors, such as
respect, altruism, and humility. Confucius believed in the importance of education in order to The Buddha taught about Four Noble Truths. The first truth is called “Suffering (dukkha),”
create this virtuous character. He thought that people are essentially good yet may have which teaches that everyone in life is suffering in some way. The second truth is “Origin of
strayed from the appropriate forms of conduct. Rituals in Confucianism were designed to suffering (samudāya).” This states that all suffering comes from desire (tanhā). The third truth
bring about this respectful attitude and create a sense of community within a group. is “Cessation of suffering (nirodha),” and it says that it is possible to stop suffering and
achieve enlightenment. The fourth truth, “Path to the cessation of suffering (magga)” is about
the Middle Way, which is the steps to achieve enlightenment.
2. TAOISM

Taoism (also spelled Daoism) is a religion and a philosophy from ancient China that has
influenced folk and national belief. Taoism has been connected to the philosopher Lao Tzu,
who around 500 B.C.E. wrote the main book of Taoism, the Tao Te Ching. Taoism holds that
humans and animals should live in balance with the Tao, or the universe. Taoists believe in
spiritual immortality, where the spirit of the body joins the universe after death.

The Tao Te Ching, or “The Way and Its Power,” is a collection of poetry and sayings from
around the third and fourth centuries B.C.E. that guides Taoist thought and actions. While the
author is traditionally believed to be the philosopher Lao Tzu, there is little evidence that Lao
Tzu existed at all. Rather, the Tao Te Ching is a gathering of earlier sayings from many authors.
This book was given an origin with the philosopher Lao Tzu for cultural and political reasons.
Lao Tzu is sometimes understood as the image of the Tao, or a god, and given legendary
status.

The Tao (or Dao) is hard to define but is sometimes understood as the way of the universe.
Taoism teaches that all living creatures ought to live in a state of harmony with the universe,
and the energy found in it. Ch’i, or qi, is the energy present in and guiding everything in the
universe. The Tao Te Ching and other Taoist books provide guides for behavior and spiritual
ways of living in harmony with this energy. However, Taoists do not believe in this energy as a
god. Rather, there are gods as part of the Taoist beliefs, often introduced from the various
cultures found in the region known now as China. These gods are part of the Tao, like all living
things. Taoism has temples, monasteries, and priests who make offerings, meditate, and
perform other rituals for their communities.

3. BUDDHISM

Buddhism is one of the world’s largest religions and originated 2,500 years ago in India.
Buddhists believe that the human life is one of suffering, and that meditation, spiritual and
physical labor, and good behavior are the ways to achieve enlightenment, or nirvana.
Buddhism is one of the world’s major religions. It originated in South Asia around the 5th
century B.C.E. with Siddhartha Gautama, and over the next millennia it spread across Asia and
the rest of the world. Buddhists believe that human life is a cycle of suffering and rebirth, but
that if one achieves a state of enlightenment (nirvana), it is possible to escape this cycle
forever. Siddhartha Gautama was the first person to reach this state of enlightenment and
was, and is still today, known as the Buddha. Buddhists do not believe in any kind of deity or