Module 3

Mechatronics in Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines: Design of modern CNC machines –

Mechatronics elements - Machine structure: guide ways, drives.

Bearings: antifriction bearings, hydrostatic bearing and hydrodynamic bearing. Re-circulating ball
screws, pre-loading methods. Re-circulating roller screws.

Measuring system for NC machines - direct and indirect measuring system.

System modeling - Mathematical models and basic building blocks of general mechanical, electrical,
fluid and thermal systems.

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Mechatronics in Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines
Mechatronics has been hailed as the innovation engine behind the fourth industrial revolution. t. A best
example of mechatronic systems is CNC machines using for automation in manufacturing. It makes the
product smarter, smaller, and efficient. CNC machining uses advanced technology to create the
machines, materials, and products that we use. Basically, mechatronics is a technology that combines
mechanical and electronic technology into a harmonized system, with the aim of boosting automation in
manufacturing plants. Mechatronics enhance mechanics with electronics.
The Role of Mechatronics in Advanced Manufacturing (CNC)
1. Saving time: An integrated production line is much faster when compared to a system with
different engineering concepts detached from each other.
2. Increase in output: A fast system means a good uptick in the production capacity. Mechatronics
has made it easy to manufacture mass amounts of products.
3. It’s more cost-effective: When you have an automated production line at work, it means that
you use less manpower. That translates into savings in terms of labor costs.
4. An automated system is more efficient in operation, with less technical and input errors.
5. Ensure High precision, repeatability and reliability
6.
CNC Machines
Computer Numerical control (CNC) is a form of programmable/Flexible automation in which the
mechanical actions of a machine tool or other equipment are controlled by a program containing coded
alphanumeric data. The alphanumeric data represent relative positions between a work head and a
work part as well as other instructions needed to operate the machine. When the current job is
completed, the program of instructions can be changed to process a new job. It is capable to change the
program suitable for low and medium production. This CNC technology is applied to various operations
such as machining operation, turning operation, grinding operations, gear cutting operations and variety
of other machine tools which are computer numerical controlled.
Necessity of CNC machines
• To manufacture complex curved geometries in 2D or 3D was extremely expensive by mechanical
means (which usually would require complex jigs to control the cutter motions)
• Machining components with high Repeatability and Precision
• Unmanned machining operations
• To improve production planning and to increase productivity
• To survive in global market CNC machines are must to achieve close tolerances.
Advantages of CNC
1. Produces Little to No Waste.
2. Zero Defects and Greater Accuracy.
3. Faster and Efficient Production.
4. Complex geometry can be made
5. Enhanced Personnel Safety.
6. Reduction in Energy Consumption.
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Elements Of CNC Machines

A Computer numerically controlled (CNC) machine is a mechatronic system integrated with the
electronic controls for its different drives and computer system for interfacing the software unit the
mechanical and electronic system. Hardware or electronic circuits control the motions of various drives.
The following are some of the important constituent parts, and aspects of CNC machines
 Machine structure.
 Guideways / Slideways
 Drives.
 Spindle and spindle bearings.
 Measuring systems.
 Tool monitoring.
 Controls and Safety.

Machine Structure
The "machine structure" is the load carrying and supporting member of the machine tool. The design
and construction of CNC machine should be such that it meets the main "objectives"
1. High precision and repeatability
2. reliability;
3. Efficiency.
In order to meet these requirements, the numerically controlled machine tools should be designed to
cope with the torsional forces and heavy duty cutting imposed on these machines. It does not deform or
vibrate beyond the permissible limits under the action of static and dynamic forces, to which it is
subjected. The structure design should be such that the removal of chips etc., do not fall on the slide-
ways.
In a CNC machine tool there are three major group of elements:
 Control and electronics.
 Electric drives (electromechanical drives)
 Mechanical elements (table, slide, tool holder etc.)
In addition, there can be hydraulic and pneumatic systems which are integrated with CNC machine tool.
The primary function of the drive is to cause motion of the controlled machine tool member to conform
as closely as possible to the motion commands issued by CNC system. In order to ensure a high degree
of consistency in production, variable speed drives are essential Most of the drives used in machine
tools are electrical.
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Mechatronics based Design of modern CNC machines

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Stages in Designing Mechatronic Systems

The Need:
 The design process starts with the need of a customer.
 By adequate market research and knowledge, the potential needs of a customer can be clearly
identified.
Analysis of the Problem:
 This is the first stage and also the critical stage in the design process.
 After knowing the customer need, analysis should be done to know the true nature of the
problem.
 To define the problem accurately, analysis should be done carefully
Preparation of a Specification:
 The specification must be given to understand the requirements and the functions to be met.
 The specification gives mass dimensions, types, accuracy, power requirements, load, praying
environments, velocity, speed, life etc.
Conceptualization:
 The possible solution should be generated for each of the functions required
 It is generated by verifying the old problems or some newly developed techniques may be used
Optimization:
 Optimization is defined as a technique in which a best solution is selected among a group of
solutions to solve a problem.
Detail Design:
 Once optimizing a solution is completed, the detail design of that solution is developed.
 This may require a production of prototype etc.
 Mechanical layout is to be made whether physically all component can be accommodated.
Production of working Drawings:
 The selected design or solution is then translated into working drawings, circuit diagrams, etc.
So that the item can be made. Drawings also include the manufacturing tolerances for each
component.

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Guideways/Slideways
In machine tools the guideways are used to serve the following purposes:
 To control the direction or line of action of the carriage/table on which a tool or work-piece is
held.
 To absorb all static and dynamic loads.
The guideways may be an integral part of the machine structure or may be mounted separately on the
structure. These guideways may be horizontal, vertical or inclined. However vertical and inclined
guideways are preferred so that chips produced during the cutting operation do not get collected on the
quick-ways. The shape and size of the work produced depends on the accuracy of the movement and
kinematic accuracy of the guideway. Kinematic accuracy depends on the straightness, flatness and
parallelism errors in the guideway.
In a CNC machine the design of guideway/slideway should
 Reduce friction;
 Reduce wear;
 Satisfy the requirements of movement of the slides
 Improve smoothness of the drive
Factors influencing the design of guideways
The following factors should be considered while designing guideways
1. Geometric and kinematic accuracy.
2. Provision for adjustment of play.
3. Rigidity.
4. Damping capability.
5. Velocity of slide.
6. Friction characteristics.
7. Wear resistance.
8. Protection against chip and damage.
9. Effective lubrication and efficient lubrication systems.
Types of guideways
Guideways are broadly classified as follows:
1. Friction guideways.
a. Vee guideways.
b. Flat guideways
c. Dovetail guideways.
d. Cylindrical guideways
2. Antifriction linear motion (LM) guideways.
3. Frictionless guideways
a. Hydrostatic guideways.
b. Aerostatic guideways.
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Friction guideways
These guideways find wide application in conventional machine tools due to their low manufacturing
cost and good damping properties. They operate under conditions of sliding friction and do not have a
constant coefficient of friction. The frictional coefficient varies with the sliding velocity as shown in Fig.

At the commencement of the movement, the coefficient of friction is very high, but as the velocity
increases it falls rapidly and beyond a certain critical velocity it remains almost constant. Thus to start
motion/movement, the force to overcome friction has to be correspondingly high. This force results in
the drive mechanism, such as a screw, being elastically deformed.
With the increase in speed, the friction decreases and a greater amount of movement than that
intended for the slide takes place; this may lead ultimately to a jerky motion. This phenomenon is
known as “stick-slip phenomenon “.

Vee guideways
In case of Vee guideways with apex upwards, there is no chip falling or accumulation. In this case
lubrication is difficult. In case of inverted Vee guideways, there is a possibility of falling and
accumulation of chips; however lubrication is easier.

 The Vee guideways are widely used on machine tools, especially on lathe beds.
 One of the advantages of Vee guideways is that the parallel alignment of the guideway with the
spindle axis is not affected by wear
 These guideways wear away rapidly due to lack of bearing surface. These are difficult to
manufacture.
Flat guideways:
 These guideways have better load bearing capabilities than other guideways.
 These are easier to manufacture.
 In such guideways the chip accumulation and lubrication problems are serious.
 These do not wear uniformly.
 Jibs are used to ensure accurate fitting of the slide on the flat surface.
 These guideways are Suitable for heavy load transmission.
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Dovetail guideways
These guideways have large load carrying capacity and tend to check the overturning tendency under
eccentric loading.
 They are preferred when both horizontal and vertical locations of moving parts are considered
essential.
 Jibs are used to ensure accurate fitting of the slide on the dovetail Surface. The jibs are tapered
and can be adjusted to reduce excessive clearance caused by wear.
 Although the Vee type guideways have certain advantages, it is the jot or dovetail forms which
are used on CNC machine tools.

Cylindrical guideways
In this case the bore in the carriage housing provides support all around the guideways.
 These guideways are very efficient for relatively short traverses and light loads.
 Their use for long traverses and heavy loads is not suitable because the guideways may sag or
bend in the centre of the span under a load.

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Antifriction guideways- linear motion (LM)
These guideways are used on CNC machine tools to reduce amount of wear, friction, heat generation
and improve smoothness of the movement. The antifriction guideways are employed to overcome the
relatively high coefficient of friction in metal-to-metal contacts.
Advantages
a. High load carrying capacity.
b. Heavier preloading possibility,
c. High traverse speeds.
d. Low frictional resistance.
e. No stick-slip,
f. Commercially available in ready-to-fit condition
Disadvantage
 Lower damping capacity
 LM guideways have rapid traverse rates
Types of antifriction guideways
Although several types of antifriction guideways are put to use, yet the most commonly used in CNC
machines are:
1. Linear bearing with balls.
2. Linear bearing with rollers.
Linear bearing with balls
They are used where linear guidance systems with high load-carrying capacity and rigidity must move
heavy loads with high running and positional accuracy as well as low friction.

Linear bearing with rollers

It consists of hardened and precision ground supporting elements and a number of cylindrical rollers.
The rollers are guided between shoulders of the supporting elements with very close tolerances. The
rollers are in contact with guideway machined on the bed of the machine. This arrangement provides
smooth and easy movement but the machine bed has to be machined to an accurate form. The
recirculating linear roller bearings are used for movement along a flat plane
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Hydrostatic guideways
In these guideways the surface of the slide is separated from the guideway by a very thin film of fluid
supplied at pressures as high as 300 bar.
 In hydrostatic guideways frictional wear and stick slip are entirely eliminated
 In such guideways a high degree of dynamic stiffness and damping is obtained, both the
characteristics contributing to good machining capabilities.
 Owing to high cost and difficulty in assembly, their application is limited.
Aerostatic guideways
In these guideways, the slide is raised in a cushion of compressed air which entirely separates the slide
and guideways s surfaces. Their major limitation is low stiffness and this limits their use to positioning
applications only.
Advantages of frictionless guideways
a. Longer life.
b. Large damping capability.
c. Frictionless.
d. High stiffness.
e. No stick-slip.
f. Less thermal distortion due to better heat dissipation. Disodrantoges :
g. Difficulty in assembling the guideways.
h. High cost.
Selection of guideways
The selection of guides for a particular application basically depends upon the requirements of
 The load carrying capacity;
 The traverse speed.
For getting the maximum benefit, most of the machine tool manufacturers make use of a combination
of antifriction and friction guideways. In such a combination antifriction guideways improve the load
carrying capacity while friction guideways improve damping property.

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Drives
Basic function of a CNC machine is to provide automatic and precise motion control to its elements such
work table, tool spindle etc. Drives are used to provide such kinds of controlled motion to the elements
of a CNC machine tool. The control unit sends the amplified control signals to actuate drive motors
which in turn rotate the ball lead-screws to position the machine table or cause rotation of the spindle.
In CNC, usually AC, DC, servo and stepper electrical drives are used.
Power drives
Drives used in an automated system or in CNC system are of different types such as electrical, hydraulic
or pneumatic.
Electrical drives
These are direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) servo motors. They are small in size and are
easy to control.
Hydraulic drives
These drives have large power to size ratio and provide stepless motion with great accuracy. But these
are difficult to maintain and are bulky. Generally they employ petroleum based hydraulic oil which may
have fire hazards at upper level of working temperatures. Also hydraulic elements need special
treatment to protect them against corrosion.
Pneumatic drives
This drives use air as working medium which is available in abundant and is fire proof. They are simple in
construction and are cheaper. However these drives generate low power, have less positioning accuracy
and are noisy.
The various drives used in CNC machines can be classified as:
a. Spindle drives to provide the main spindle power for cutting action
b. Feed drives to drive the axis
Spindle drives
The spindle drives are used to provide rotary motion to the work-piece or a cutting tool. The speed
ranges
can be from 10 to 20,000 rpm. Mostly spindle employ AC or DC drives.

Feed Drives
These are used to drive the slide or a table. The drive should have extremely small positioning
resolution. Maximum speed of around 2000 rpm and at a minimum speed of 0.1 rpm.
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Spindle Bearings
Machine tools are expected to be more accurate, efficient, and reliable than ever. To remain
competitive, machining companies are investing in high quality bearings that ensure top equipment
performance. The overall purpose of a spindle bearing is to enhance and streamline spindle movement
to ensure optimal machine speed and accuracy. Bearings affect the speed, rotation, vibration, precision,
and temperature of the machine tool, which in turn alters the quality of the final product.
 The rotational accuracy of the spindle is dependent on the quality and design of the bearings
used and the preloading.
 The bearings should support the spindle radially and axially.
 The accuracy and the quality of the work produced depends directly on the geometrical
accuracy, running accuracy and stiffness of the spindle assembly.
Various types of spindle bearings used in the design of a spindle for machine tools are;
 Hydrodynamic bearings
 Hydrostatic bearings
 Antifriction bearings
Hydrodynamic Bearings
Hydrodynamic bearings generate the pressure through the relative motion of the surfaces and the
converging geometry. Hydrodynamic bearings are journal bearings with a thin film of oil between the
spindle and journal. These are used where the load carrying capacities are low and frequent starting and
stopping of the spindle is not required.
The essential features are;
 Simplicity
 Good damping properties
 Good running accuracy.
The pressure of the oil is created within the bearings by the rotation of the spindle. As the spindle
rotates, the oil in contact with the spindle is carried into wedge shaped cavities between the spindle and
the bearing. the oil pressure is increased as the oil is forced through the small clearances between the
bearing and the spindle.
The main limitation of hydrodynamic bearing is that a definite clearance (50μm to 200μm) must be
provided for the oil flim to be maintained between the spindle and the bearing. This clearance may
result in the centre of a spindle in the bearing to change its position owing to variation in the applied
force.

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Hydrostatic Bearings
Hydrostatic bearings use an external source to supply the necessary film pressure between surfaces. The
spindle is supported by a relatively thick film of oil supplied under pressure.
 The oil is pressurized by a pump external to the bearing.
 The load carrying capacity of this type of bearing is independent of the rotational speed.
 These are used only where temperature effects cause problems in the part accuracy as in the
 case of grinding machines and fine boring machines.
 They are very expensive.
Advantages are;
 High damping properties
 High running accuracy
 High wear resistance

Antifriction Bearings
These are suitable for high speeds and high loads. For efficient service, it is essential that all the
components of the ball and roller bearings, particularly the rolling elements, and the inner and outer
bearing tracks are of the highest accuracy. The selection of a particular type of bearing for the spindle
depends on the requirements of the particular machines like speed of operation, accuracy of the spindle
and stiffness of the spindle.
Different types of ball and roller bearings used
in CNC machines are;
1. Ball bearings
2. Angular contact ball bearings
3. Roller bearings
4. Cylindrical roller bearings
5. Tapered roller bearings

Advantages
 Low friction
 Moderate dimensions
 Lesser liability to suffer from wear or incorrect adjustment
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 Ease of replacement
 High reliability.
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Recirculating Ball Screws
In ball screws, the sliding friction encountered in conventional screws and nuts is replaced by rolling
friction in a manner analogous to the replacement of simple journal bearings by ball bearings. The balls
rotate between the screw and the nut, and at some point are returned to the start of the thread in the
nut. The efficiency of the recirculating ball screw is of the order of 90% and is obtained by the balls
providing rolling motion between the screw and the nut.

Advantages of ball screws

o Highly efficient and reliable.
o Lower co efficient of friction compared to sliding type screws and run at cooler temperatures
o Power transmission efficiency is very high and is of the order of 95 %.
o Could be easily preloaded to eliminate backlash.
o the friction at rest is very small;
o Has longer thread life hence need to be replaced less frequently.
o Ball screws are well -suited to high through output, high speed applications or those with
continuous or long cycle times.
Disadvantages of ball screws
o Tend to vibrate.
o Require periodic overhauling to maintain their efficiency.
o Inclusion of dirt or foreign particles reduces the life of the screws.
o They are not self-locking screws hence cannot be used in holding devices such as vices.
o Require high levels of lubrication.
Roller Screws
A roller screw is a mechanical actuator similar to a ball screw that uses rollers as the load transfer
elements between nut and screw instead of balls. They provide backlash free movement and their
efficiency is of the same order as of ball screws. They will provide more accurate positional control.
Roller screws are much costlier than the ball screws. They are capable of transmitting high loads at fast
speeds
Bearing Preloading
Almost all bearings are made with a clearance or space between their components to allow for free
movement. This space, if not taken up by a preload can allow the rolling elements to slide rather than
roll, or even allow for races to misalign. The purpose of preload in a bearing system is to eliminate
clearance in the bearings.
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  Left image: A bearing with no play, or an interference fit has all rolling elements loaded, wears
and heats up excessively.
 Center image: A bearing with standard play in the free state has low rigidity, and rolling
elements can slide or skid instead of rotating.
 Right image: A standard bearing with proper preload applied will provide system rigidity,
reduced vibration, and optimal bearing life.
In ball screw, Preloading is the process of applying initial load to the nut which will cause elastic
deformation of the screw threads in the axial direction, thereby increasing the axial rigidity of the ball
screw nut. It removes excess backlash. A shim plate (spacer) is inserted between two nuts for
preloading. As a result the balls in one of the nuts contact the one side of the thread and balls in the
other nut contact the opposite side.

Zero backlash can be obtained by fitting two nuts with preloading (tension or compression) or by
applying a load which exceeds the maximum operating load.

Effects of preload
• Zero backlash: It eliminates axial play between a screw shaft and a ball nut.
• the rigidity enhances- It minimizes elastic deformation caused by external force
• reduces noise
• provides smooth operation by uniform motion
• long life etc
Tension preload
Tension preload provides the required amount of preload by the insertion of a spacer of specified
width between the two nuts. Each nut exerts pressure on its perspective ball, thus forcing the
balls away from each other.
Compression preload
In this case also the preload is achieved through the insertion of a spacer between the nuts but the
pressure is applied in the opposite direction, squeezing them together and forcing the balls
against threads of the screw shaft.
Measuring system for NC machines - direct and indirect measuring system
Due to the high requirements of CNC products, each part should accurate dimension and precision,
which needs a complete CNC measuring system.
Direct measurement
A measuring scale secured to the slide or machining table and measuring value resolver (encoder) pick
up information optically from measuring scale and converts this into electrical signal.
Indirect measurement
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The slide traverse is represented by rotation and a resolver records the rotational movement of a pulse
disc. The control system calculates the slide traverse movement from rotation pulse
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System modeling
Mathematical models are equations which describe the relationship between the input and output of a
system. The modeling, basically refers to a development of a mathematical representation of a physical
system. The mathematical formulations will be simulated in order to determine the behavior of the
system or to study the behavior of the system. So our dynamic system could be either in the electrical
domain in an electrical system, a mechanical system, or it could be an electro mechanical system, or it
could be a hydraulic system or it could be thermal system. So differential equations represent the
behavior of the engineering system or rather represent the characteristics of the engineering model.

Mathematical modeling involves using mathematical concepts and techniques to describe and predict
the behavior of real-world systems. Mathematical models are used to solve many real-life situations
like: launching a satellite. predicting the arrival of the monsoon, Controlling pollution due to vehicles.
Mathematical Models
The set of mathematical equations describing the dynamic characterstics of a system is called
mathematical model of system.
o Think how systems behave with time when subject to some disturbances.
o In order to understand the behaviour of systems, mathematical models are required.
o The basis for any mathematical model is provided by the fundamental physical laws that govern
the behaviour of the system.
Building Blocks
Variables are the building blocks of models. They are the elements that are measured or observed and
used to create the model. These building blocks are used to construct mathematical models that can be
used to understand and predict the behavior of real-world systems.
o Systems can be made up from a range of building blocks.
o Each building block is considered to have a single property or function.
o By combining these building blocks a variety of systems can be built up and the overall input
output relationship can be obtained.
Mechanical system- Building Blocks
Mechanical System Building Blocks Basic building block: spring, dashpots, and masses. Springs represent
the stiffness of a system Dashpots represent the forces opposing motion, for example frictional or
damping effects. Masses represent the inertia or resistance to acceleration. All these building blocks
may be considered to have a force as an input and displacement as an output.
There are two types of mechanical systems based on the type of motion.
1. Translational mechanical systems
2. Rotational mechanical systems
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Modeling of Translational Mechanical Systems
Translational mechanical systems move along a straight line. These systems mainly consist of three basic
elements. Those are mass, spring and dashpot or damper. If a force is applied, then it is opposed by
forces due to mass, elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied force and the opposing forces
are in opposite directions, the algebraic sum of the forces acting on the system is zero. Let us now see
the force opposed by these three elements individually.

Mass
Mass represents the inertia or resistance to acceleration. If a force is applied on a body having mass M,
then it is opposed by an opposing force due to mass. This opposing force is proportional to the
acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.

Where,
 F is the applied force
 M is mass
 a is acceleration
 x is displacement
Spring
Spring represent the stiffness of the system. If a force is applied on spring K, then it is opposed by an
opposing force due to elasticity of spring. This opposing force is proportional to the displacement of the
spring. In the case of spring where the extension or compression is proportional to the force.

Where,
 F is the applied force
 K is spring constant
 x is displacement
Dashpot
If a force is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing force due to friction of the dashpot.
This opposing force is proportional to the velocity of the body. Assume mass and elasticity are negligible.

Where,
 Fb is the opposing force due to friction of dashpot
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 B is the frictional coefficient

 v is velocity
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 x is displacement
Mathematical model of Linear Mechanical system

Modeling of Rotational Mechanical Systems

Rotational mechanical systems move about a fixed axis. These systems mainly consist of three basic
elements. Those are moment of inertia, torsional spring and dashpot. If a torque is applied to a
rotational mechanical system, then it is opposed by opposing torques due to moment of inertia,
elasticity and friction of the system. Since the applied torque and the opposing torques are in opposite
directions, the algebraic sum of torques acting on the system is zero.
Moment of Inertia
If a torque is applied on a body having moment of inertia J, then it is opposed by an opposing torque
due to the moment of inertia. This opposing torque is proportional to angular acceleration of the body.
Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.

Where,
 T is the applied torque
 J is moment of inertia
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 α is angular acceleration
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 θ is angular displacement
Torsional spring
If a torque is applied on torsional spring K, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to the elasticity
of torsional spring. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular displacement of the torsional
spring. Assume that the moment of inertia and friction are negligible

Where,
 T is the applied torque
 K is the torsional spring constant
 θ is angular displacement
Dashpot
If a torque is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to the rotational
friction of the dashpot. This opposing torque is proportional to the angular velocity of the body. Assume
the moment of inertia and elasticity are negligible.

Where,
 Tb is the opposing torque due to the rotational friction of the dashpot
 B is the rotational friction coefficient
 ω is the angular velocity
 θ is the angular displacement
Modeling of Rotational Mechanical Systems considering all elements

Where,
• T is the applied torque
• Tj is the opposing torque due to the moment of inertia
• Tb opposing torque due to the rotational friction of the dashpot
• Tk opposing torque due to the elasticity of torsional spring
• J is moment of inertia
• B is the rotational friction coefficient
• K is the torsional spring constant
• ω is the angular velocity
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• θ is the angular displacement

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Mathematical modelling of electrical system
The basic building block in electrical systems is inductors, capacitors and resistors and by using these 3
basic building blocks we can model any system. Circuits consisting of these three elements are analyzed
by using Kirchhoff's Voltage law and Current law.
Mathematical models for a series RLC network
All these electrical elements are connected in series. The input voltage applied to this circuit is Vi and
the voltage across the capacitor is the output voltage Vo. Then, to find the relationship between the
input and output, we start by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the loop,

Applying Kirchhoff voltage law

Input voltage =voltage across resistor + voltage across inductor + voltage across capacitor
𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝑖 = 𝑖𝑅 + 𝐿 + 𝑣0 … … … . . 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
𝑑𝑡

To find the relationship between the input and output voltages

𝑑𝑣0
We have current through the capacitor 𝑖 = 𝐶 … … … … 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛2
𝑑𝑡

Substitute the above equation 2 in equation 1

Differential equation for RLC circuit

Divide by LC and re-arrange we get,

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Thermal system modeling
In thermal system there are only two basic building blocks which are used to model the thermal system.
And these basic elements or building blocks are thermal resistance and thermal capacitance. To develop
a mathematical model of a thermal system we use the concept of an energy balance.
Heat in = Heat out + Heat stored
Thermal resistance
There is a heat flow between two points, if there is a temperature difference between them and a
relationship for thermal resistance can be defined similar to that of the electrical resistance.

𝑨𝑲(𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟐 )
𝒒=
𝑳
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝐾 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠
𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑇1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇2 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝐿
if we take 𝑅 =
𝐴𝐾
𝑇1 −𝑇2 𝑉
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑞 =
𝑅
(𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑖 =
𝑅
)

Model for convective heat transfer (liquid/gas)

𝒒 = 𝒉𝑨∆𝑻
𝑞 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜 − 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐴 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
∆𝑡 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑦𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Thermal capacitance
The thermal capacitance is a measure of a store of internal energy in a system. So if input and output
flow rate of heat are q1 and q2 then the rate of change of internal energy is equal to q1-q2

𝑑𝑇
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦, 𝑞1 − 𝑞2 = 𝑚c 𝑑𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑑𝑇
= 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑑𝑡
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
20

𝑖𝑓 𝑤𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑚𝑐 = 𝐶 (𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑉
𝑞1 − 𝑞2 = 𝐶 (𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑖 = 𝐶 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
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𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Thermal modeling example 1- A thermometer

Thermal modeling - Example 2 –heating a room

Consider a room with an electric fire. Heat input is q1 and heat loss from the room is q2. Air inside the
room is having uniform temperature T and surrounding temperature is T0

(𝑇1 − 𝑇0 )
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑞2 = … … . 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
𝑅
𝑑𝑇1
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑞1 − 𝑞2 = 𝐶 … … . . 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2
𝑑𝑡
Substituting equations 1 in equation 2, we get
(𝑇1 − 𝑇0 ) 𝑑𝑇
𝑞1 − =𝐶
𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇
ie =𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑇 = 𝑅𝑞1 + 𝑇0
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Fluid system modeling
Here in the hydraulic system also, we have the three basic building blocks and these basic building are
hydraulic resistance hydraulic capacitance and hydraulic inheritance. And in fact these are equivalent to
electrical system that is electrical resistance electrical capacitance and electrical inductance in the
electrical systems. So we can have 1 to 1 analogy between this.
In case of hydraulic system, the input is volumetric rate of flow (equivalent to current electrical system)
and the output is pressure difference (equivalent to the potential difference in an electrical system)

In case of hydraulic system, the fluid is liquid and uncompressible. So, the fluid having this behavior we
classify as part of the hydraulic system and when the fluid is gas compressible these things are treated
under the pneumatic category.

Hydraulic resistance
It is the resistance to flow due to the liquid flowing through to the valves or changes in the pipe
diameter. So whenever this type of situation comes those situations can be model us the hydraulic
resistance

The relationship between volume rate of flow of liquid threw the resistive element and the resulting
pressure difference is given by this equation.
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑅 = =
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑞

𝑖𝑒 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝑞𝑅
Where
q= flow rate
22

R=hydraulic resistance
The higher the value of the resistance higher will be the pressure drop for the given rate of flow.
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(above equation is similar to electrical system, V=IR)

Hydraulic capacitance
It is the energy is storage in the liquid when it is stored in the form of potential energy.

For an example, liquid in a tank have a volume rate flow q1 is coming in and the q2 is going out and the
height of liquid is “h”. the rate of volume change in the tank is equal to
𝑑𝑉
𝑞1 − 𝑞2 = 𝑑𝑡
------------------ V=Ah
𝑑ℎ 𝑝
𝑞1 − 𝑞2 = 𝐴 𝑑𝑡 …………… ( 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ so ℎ = 𝜌𝑔
)
𝐴 𝑑𝑝
therefore 𝑞1 − 𝑞2 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑡
𝐴
where Hydraulic capacitance
𝜌𝑔

Comparison with electrical system

𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑉
𝑞1 − 𝑞2 = 𝐶 ( (𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑖 = 𝐶 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Hydraulic inertance
It is the equivalent of inductance in electrical systems and spring in mechanical systems.
Consider a segment of the fluid system whose
Mass = m
Length of element = L
Cross sectional area = A
p1 and p2 are the pressure at the left and right hand side
Net force acting on liquid equal

𝑑𝑣
𝐹1 − 𝐹2 = (𝑝1 − 𝑃2 )𝐴 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
(𝑝1 − 𝑃2 )𝐴 = 𝜌𝑎𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝜌𝐴𝐿 𝑑𝑞
(𝑝1 − 𝑃2 )𝐴 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑞 = 𝐴𝑣)
𝐴 𝑑𝑡
𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑞
(𝑝1 − 𝑃2 ) =
𝐴 𝑑𝑡
𝜌𝐿
Hydraulic inertance 𝐼 =
𝐴
23

Comparison with electrical system

𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑖
Page

(𝑝1 − 𝑃2 ) = 𝐼 (𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉 = 𝐿

𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Example : Hydraulic Model of a tank system

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Pneumatic system modeling
These pneumatic system differs from liquid in the sense that with pressure the volume changes and
hence the density changes. Here also we have the three basic building blocks and these all the
pneumatic resistance, pneumatic capacitance and the pneumatic inheritance.
Pneumatic resistance
Pneumatic resistance is defined as rate of change in pressure difference for the change in gas flow rate.
The resistance is the restriction to the rate of flow.

𝑑𝑚
𝑃1 − 𝑝2 = 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑚̇
𝑑𝑡

Pneumatic capacitance
Pneumatic capacitance is due to the compressibility of the gases and this is comparable to the
compression of spring which stores energy in a mechanical system.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 (𝑘𝑔)
𝐶=
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑁/𝑚2)
Now let there be a container of volume V
mass flow rate entering the to the container=m1
mass flow rate leaving the container=m2
density of gas in the container = 𝜌
rate of change of mass in the container=(m1-m2)

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Pneumatic inertance

Example for pneumatic system

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*********************************END***********************************
27
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 Additional notes
Guideways short notes
The main function of the guideway is to make sure that the cutting tool or machine tool operative
element moves along a predetermined path. The purpose of the guideway (or slide-way) is to
accommodate the axial movement of the machine slides, worktables, and spindles.
A linear guideway allows a type of linear motion that utilizes elements such as rolling balls. By using
recirculating elements between rail and block, linear guideways can achieve high precision linear motion
and greatly enhanced moving accuracy.

Requirements of guideways
 It should process sufficient stiffness
 There should be less wear
 There should be less friction.
 The surface of guideways must contain greater accuracy and surface finish.

Types of guideways
The guideways are mainly classified according to the nature of friction between contacting surfaces of
the operative element:
(a) Guideways with sliding friction
(b) Guideways with rolling friction
The most commonly used shapes of guiding elements of slideways are:
1. Flat – large load bearing area-withstand heavy load –good damping-but not suitable for very
slow and fast motion.
2. Vee –self aligment capability- Automatic adjustment due to gravity action which always keeps
the surfaces in contact, thus the possibility of any play is eliminated. it wears away rapidly due
to lack of bearing surface, and is difficult to manufacture
3. Dovetail –Good rigidity and alignment characteristics but it is expensive guideway to produce.
4. Box (square/rectangular) –It is used in heavy machining (e.g. milling) applications.
5. Ball or roller – This arrangement reduces the friction between the two members of the slide
because rolling friction is substituted for sliding friction. Used to move heavy loads positively
28

and accurately. Less back lash

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Design of modern CNC machines
CNC stands for Computer Numerical Control. When computers are used to control a Numerical Control
(NC) machine tool than the machine is called CNC machine. In CNC machine, programs are prepared
first, and then it is fed to the CNC machine. According to the program, the CNC controls the motion and
speed of the machine tools.

Block Diagram of CNC Machine

1. Input Devices: These are the devices which are used to input the part program in the CNC machine.
2. Machine Control Unit (MCU): It is the heart of the CNC machine. It performs all the controlling
action of the CNC machine, the various functions performed by the MCU are
 It reads the coded instructions fed into it.
 It decodes the coded instruction.
 It implements interpolation (linear, circular and helical) to generate axis motion commands.
 It feeds the axis motion commands to the amplifier circuits for driving the axis mechanisms.
 It receives the feedback signals of position and speed for each drive axis.
 It perform the auxiliary control functions such as coolant on/off, spindle on/off and tool
change.
3. Machine Tool: A CNC machine tool always has a slide table and a spindle to control of the position
and speed. The machine table is controlled in X and Y axis direction and the spindle is controlled in
the Z axis direction.
4. Driving System: The driving system of a CNC machine consists of amplifier circuits, drive motors and
ball lead screw. The MCU feeds the signals of each axis to the amplifier circuits. The control signals
used to actuate the drive motors. And the actuated drive motors rotate the ball lead screw to
position the machine table.
5. Feedback System: It contains position and speed transducers that continuously monitor the position
and speed of the cutting tool located at any instant. The MCU receives the signals from these
transducers and it uses the difference between the reference signals and feedback signals to
generate the control signals for correcting the position and speed errors.
6. Display Unit: A monitor is used to display the programs, commands and other useful data of CNC
machine.
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CNC Machine structure
The basic CNC process can be broken down into 3 steps. The engineer first designs the CAD model of the
part. The machinist then turns the CAD file into a CNC program (G-code) and sets up the machine.
Finally, the CNC system executes all machining operations with little supervision.
A CNC system requires motor drives to control both the position and the velocity of machine axes. Each
axis must be driven separately, and must follow the command signal generated by the numerical
control. There are two ways to activate the servo drives; the open-loop system and the closed-loop
system. The computer converts the CAD design into numbers – graphic coordinates – or we prepare
program for the part fed to computer which control the movement of the cutter. The computer-
controlled cutter will travel to different sets of coordinates, in sequence, until the desired shape has
been manufactured.

Drives
Basic function of a CNC machine is to provide automatic and precise motion control to its elements such
work table, tool spindle etc. Drives are used to provide such kinds of controlled motion to the elements
of a CNC machine tool. A drive system consists of drive motors and ball lead-screws. The control unit
sends the amplified control signals to actuate drive motors which in turn rotate the ball lead-screws to
position the machine table or cause rotation of the spindle.
Power drives
Drives used in an automated system or in CNC system are of different types such as electrical, hydraulic
or pneumatic.
Electrical drives
These are direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) servo motors. They are small in size and are
easy to control. In CNC, usually AC, DC, servo and stepper electrical drives are used.
Hydraulic drives
These drives have large power to size ratio and provide step-less motion with great accuracy. But these
are difficult to maintain and are bulky.
Pneumatic drives
This drives use air as working medium which is available in abundant and is fire proof. They are simple in
construction and are cheaper. However, these drives generate low power, have less positioning
accuracy and are noisy.
The various drives used in CNC machines can be classified as:
(a) Spindle drives to provide the main spindle power for cutting action
30

(b) Feed drives to drive the axis

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