Republic of the Philippines

Technological University of the Philippines

Ayala Blvd. cor. San Marcelino St. Ermita, Manila
• MODULE 1

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP 2

LECTURE NOTES
ON
BASIC MOTOR CONTROL

SUBJECT CODE: ESW 2

Prepared by: Engr. Edwin C. Espinas, for TUP COE-EE Department

1
Republic of the Philippines
Technological University of the Philippines
Ayala Blvd. cor. San Marcelino St. Ermita, Manila
• MODULE 1

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP 2

Disclaimer

This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a substitute for prescribed
textbooks. The information presented here is merely a collection by the faculty assigned for their respective
teaching loads assignments. Various sources are cited and mentioned at the end of document as well as freely
available open access material from internet were utilized for preparing this document. The ownership of the
information lies with the respective authors or institutions. Further, this document is not indented to be used
for commercial purpose and the faculty are not accountable for any issues, legal or otherwise, arising out of
use of this document. The faculty make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or
completeness of the contents of this document and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of
merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. The faculty member shall not be liable for any loss of profit
or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other
damages.

Acknowledgement

The Faculty member gratefully acknowledge all references utilized for preparing this lecture note also
wants to express gratitude to the person out there who think knowledge should be free and be accessible and
sharable without any restrictions so that every single students on this university has the same opportunity to
explore, expand and become enlightened.

However apart from this lecture notes students are strongly recommended to follow the listed
references at the end of each modules and above all confer and consult with the concern faculty for through
understanding of the given subject in electrical engineering.

Prepared by: Engr. Edwin C. Espinas, for TUP COE-EE Department

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Republic of the Philippines
Technological University of the Philippines
Ayala Blvd. cor. San Marcelino St. Ermita, Manila
• MODULE 1

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP 2

Activities / Instructions

For the Orientation:

- Accomplish the student’s profile survey form. Link will be posted to your chat box.

- I will discuss the course syllabus, course requirements, student’s handbook, house rules, and basic use of
MS Teams for your familiarization.

- Course Duration: We have 6 hours session per week. For one to two hours per meeting, we will be having
a live online video discussion for the scheduled topic and the remaining hours will be a self-pace study of
additional materials, sources and exercises posted on your MS Teams.

- House Rules: Mute your microphone and off your video so as lagging of presentation can be minimize due
to bandwidth constrain and to avoid unnecessary distraction if the lecture is ongoing especially if your
surrounding area had a lot of unusual sound. Just unmute and open your video when you called to recite,
you can use the virtual raising hand if you want to answer. For any questions or clarifications, you can use
the chat box for any concerns.

- For Offline students: Study in advance or with-in given time schedule for the subjects and a lot data
allowance for your quizzes and exams for an hour or two. All of you will be given a softcopy via your TUP
e-mail add or hard copy via EE Department distribution of Lectures Notes.

For the Topics:

- We will be having a live video online lecture and problem-solving discussion. Have your scientific calculator
or E-calculator ready.

- For interactive discussion, participate on the Q&A portion during end or pausing of lecture.

- Jot down important lesson notes for you will be able to answer correctly short quizzes given at the end of
each lecture.

- Link to your quiz will be posted after our live discussion. Kindly accomplish the quiz after the link was
posted for it will expire after one to two hours or less.

- Recorded online video discussion, additional resources and materials will be given to you as well for your
self-pace study. Please study these lessons.

- For those who are offline, study and accomplished the exercises given on each Modules hard copy or
Learning Material soft copy. But still you need to go on-line during quizzes and Exams upon receiving the
link on our group chat via messenger.

- Lesson Proper

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Republic of the Philippines
Technological University of the Philippines
Ayala Blvd. cor. San Marcelino St. Ermita, Manila
• MODULE 1

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP 2
Introduction

Module 1 will last for three weeks it covers the following; Dynamo, Alternating Current, Alternators,
and Motors. Each week will deal mostly on basic principles, theories, laws, parts, construction, types and
applications specifically for motor.

Objectives:

I. After the 1st week the students will be able to understand and apply some basic calculation on the ff:
a. Basic Motor / Generator principle of operation
b. Main and Basic Parts of Dynamo
c. Faraday’s Law and Fleming’s Rule
d. Differentiate between Motors to Generators and AC to DC

Topic/Content:

A. Orientation on;
a. Class policies
b. Familiarization with MS Team
c. Course requirement and overview of course syllabus
d. Student profile survey

B. Dynamo
a. Introduction DC Motors/Generators
b. Construction, Main and Basic Parts
c. Principle of Operation

Lesson # 1:

I. Direct Current (DC) Machines

A. DYNAMO
If the dynamo operates from or deliver AC, then it is termed as AC machine. Conversely, if the
dynamo operates from or delivers unidirectional or direct current, then it is termed DC machine.
B. Definition:
a. Use as basis;
A rotating machine for converting mechanical energy to electrical energy or vice-versa.
a.1 ME to EE (generator)
a.2 EE to ME (motor)
b. Construction & operation as basis:
A rotating machine which functions by producing relative motion between the electrical
conductors and magnetic field.

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Technological University of the Philippines
Ayala Blvd. cor. San Marcelino St. Ermita, Manila
• MODULE 1

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP 2

C. Three factors that affect the generation of emf.

1. Magnet - mmf - magnetic field - magnetic flux
2. Armature Winding - electrical conductor \ inductor
3. Relative Motion between the inductors and flux.
D. 3 main parts of Dynamo
1. armature unit - rotating part (rotor)
2. frame - stationary part (stator)
3. end plates -main support of the armature unit or hold the armature
unit in position.

Figure 1.1 Cross Section of a Dynamo

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Technological University of the Philippines
Ayala Blvd. cor. San Marcelino St. Ermita, Manila
• MODULE 1

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP 2

Figure 1.2 Basic Parts

Prepared by: Engr. Edwin C. Espinas, for TUP COE-EE Department

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Technological University of the Philippines
Ayala Blvd. cor. San Marcelino St. Ermita, Manila
• MODULE 1

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP 2

E. BASIC PARTS:

1.a Armature core - made up of laminated steel sheets stacked together with grooves and slots, it holds the
armature windings.
1.b Armature windings- made up of insulated coils of magnet wire which are place on the core slots, it cuts
flux produced by the field windings there by current is induced in it.
1.c Tooth - it separates the magnet wires
1.d Slots - canals or grooves where magnet wires are placed.
1.e Active conductor- those conductors passing through the slots.
1.f Commutator - made up of heavy copper bars or segments insulated from each other where the armature
windings coils are connected and used to transform AC produced by the armature windings to direct
current.
1.g Inactive conductor - those outside the slots.
1.h Shaft - made of steel which hold the armature core by means of the spider.
1.i Spider - use to hold the armature unit. It also reduces the weight of the of the machine and the
temperature because of air ventilation.

2.a Field yoke - made-up of steel cast or iron which serves as the path of the magnetic flux produced by the
field windings. It also acts as the mechanical support for the poles.
2.b Field windings - made up of insulated coils of magnet wires which produces magnetic flux to be cut by the
armature windings.
2.c Pole core - made up of laminated steel sheets which holds the field windings.
2.d Pole shoe - use to reduce the reluctance of the air gap, to provides mechanical support to the field windings
and to establish the desired flux distribution.
2.e Pole tip - Prevent wastage and straying of flux. (leading and trailing tip)
2.f Feet- cast steel which support the field yoke.

3.a Bearing - made up of steel which minimizes friction produced by the rotation of the armature unit.
3.b Brush holder - made-up of iron which hold the brush in position.
3.c Brush - made up of carbon or iron graphite which collects the current from the commutator.
3.d Pig tail (brush shunt) - a flexible copper wire which connects the brush to the brush holder.

F. Path of Magnetic Flux

1. Field pole
2. Air gap
3. Field yoke
4. Armature windings and armature core.

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Republic of the Philippines
Technological University of the Philippines
Ayala Blvd. cor. San Marcelino St. Ermita, Manila
• MODULE 1

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP 2

G. DYNAMO PRINCIPLES

source: electrical 4 u

Figure 1.3 Induced Electro Motive Force (emf)

According to Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction, when a conductor moves in a magnetic

field (thereby cutting the magnetic flux lines), an emf gets induced in the conductor. The magnitude of
generated emf can be given emf equation of DC Generator. If a closed path is provided to the moving
conductor, then the generated emf causes a current to flow in the circuit.
Half of the rotation produces voltage with the current on one direction; on the second half, the
current moves to another direction. Therefore, a DC Generator is fundamentally an AC Generator but as it
passes through the brushes, commutation takes place resulting in a DC waveform.
One of the main functions of the commutator is to convert generated AC emf into DC. As seen in
figure 3, direction of generated emf will change across every conductor when it rotates (see the direction
across conductor ABCD in case 1 and case 2). It can be understood from the image, comparing both cases, that
even though the generated emf across the conductors is alternating, the output of a DC Generator is converted
to unidirectional current (DC) with the aid of the commutator. The output voltage wave form of a DC generator
is as shown below.
Commutator consists of two segments, secured to, and insulated from the armature shaft. It reverses
connections to external circuit at the same instant that the direction of emf reverses in each of the coil sides.

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Republic of the Philippines
Technological University of the Philippines
Ayala Blvd. cor. San Marcelino St. Ermita, Manila
• MODULE 1

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP 2

source: electrical 4 u source: electrical 4 u

Figure 1.4 Flemings Right- and Left-Hand Rule

Whenever a current carrying conductor comes under a magnetic field, there will be a force acting on
the conductor. The direction of this force can be found using Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule (also known as ‘Flemings
left-hand rule for motors’).
Similarly if a conductor is forcefully brought under a magnetic field, there will be an induced current
in that conductor. The direction of this force can be found using Fleming’s Right Hand Rule. In both Fleming’s
left- and right-hand rules, there is a relation between the magnetic field, the current and force. This relation
is directionally determined by Fleming’s Left-Hand rule and Fleming’s Right Hand rule respectively.
These rules do not determine the magnitude but instead show the direction of any of the three
parameters (magnetic field, current, force) when the direction of the other two parameters is known.
Fleming’s Left-Hand rule is mainly applicable to electric motors and Fleming’s Right-Hand rule is mainly
applicable to electric generators. (Electrical 4 U, 2019)

source: electrical 4 u

Figure 1.5 Direction of Current, Force and Magnetic Field

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Technological University of the Philippines
Ayala Blvd. cor. San Marcelino St. Ermita, Manila
• MODULE 1

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP 2

source: rvtechmag.com
Figure 1.6 Current Waveforms

In figure 1.6 we have the AC waveform on the left and the DC waveform on the right. Voltage is plotted
vertically and identified as "U" on the graph so the higher the waveform, the greater the voltage. Time is
plotted horizontally and identified as "R" on the graph. We can see a large gap between the two "humps" on
the DC graph. That's when the armature is in between the field coils and the generator isn't producing any
power. This is a characteristic of a DC generator. The graph on the left shows an AC waveform. In this case
positive polarity is above the center line while negative polarity is below the center line. You get twice the
power pulses, or "humps", in an alternator as in a DC generator. Adding built-in diodes to an alternator will
rectify this current into DC current so that it can feed the battery. The result is that an alternator is capable of
higher outputs than a DC generator. (RV TechMag, 2017)

H. Requirements for Voltage Generation:

1. There must be a motion of conductors.
2. Presence of magnetic flux (magnetic lines of force)

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Republic of the Philippines
Technological University of the Philippines
Ayala Blvd. cor. San Marcelino St. Ermita, Manila
• MODULE 1

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP 2
Objectives:
II. After the 2nd week the students will be able to understand and apply some basic calculation on the ff:
a. 1ø to 3ø power system development
b. Alternating currents waveforms
c. Basic AC Circuits
d. Construction of AC Generators
e. Frequency and Generated Voltage

Topic/Content:

A. Alternating Current
a. Single phase to three phase power development
b. Basics of Alternating Current waveforms and parameters
c. Basic AC Circuits calculation

B. Introduction to Alternators
a. Construction
b. Frequency and generated voltage equations

Lesson # 2:

A. Alternating Current

a.1 Single Phase

source: (Kuphaldt, 2007)

Figure 2.1 Single Phase Power System

Figure 2.1 shows a very simple AC circuit. If the load resistor’s power dissipation were substantial, we
might call this a “power circuit” or “power system” instead of regarding it as just a regular circuit. So, let’s
consider it a simple single-phase power system for the purpose of discussing the power development.
One such concern is the size and cost of wiring necessary to transmit power from the power
generation to the distribution utility and end user. If we give the source in the above circuit a voltage value
and give power dissipation values to the two load resistors, we can determine the wiring needs for this circuit:
(Figure 2.2)

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Technological University of the Philippines
Ayala Blvd. cor. San Marcelino St. Ermita, Manila
• MODULE 1

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP 2

source: (Kuphaldt, 2007)

Figure 2.2 20 kW Loads at 120 Vac supply

For each load current;

𝑃 10,000
𝐼= = = 83.33 𝐴
𝐸 120

For total current;

𝐼𝑇 = 2𝐼 = 2(83.33) = 166.67 𝐴

For total power consumed;

𝑃𝑇 = 2𝑃 = 2(10) = 20 𝑘𝑊

83.33 A for each load resistor in Figure 2.2 adds up to 166.66 A total circuit current. This is no small
amount of current and would necessitate copper wire conductors of at least 3/0 gauge or 85 mm². Such wire
is well over 0.41 inch (10.4 mm) in diameter, weighing more than 800 kilos per thousand feet. Bear in mind
that copper is not cheap either! It would be in our best interest to find ways to minimize such costs if we were
to design a power system with long conductor lengths.
One way to do this would be to increase the voltage of the power source and use loads built to
dissipate 10 kW each at this higher voltage. The loads, of course, would have to have greater resistance values
to dissipate the same power as before (10 kW each) at a greater voltage than before. The advantage would
be less current required, permitting the use of smaller, lighter, and cheaper wire:

At 240 V supply, load current for each load

𝑃 10,000
𝐼= = = 41.67 𝐴 All require size of conductors is approximately reduced to halve,
𝐸 240
hence it is more economical. That is one of the reasons why the
transmission voltage being step-up.
For total current;

𝐼𝑇 = 2𝐼 = 2(41.67) = 83.33 𝐴

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Technological University of the Philippines
Ayala Blvd. cor. San Marcelino St. Ermita, Manila
• MODULE 1

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP 2

source: (Kuphaldt, 2007)

Figure 2.3 Two loads 120V each connected in series

Figure 2.3 shows the current through each load is the same as it was in the simple 120 V circuit, but
the currents are not additive because the loads are in series rather than parallel. The voltage across each load
is only 120 V, not 240 V, so the safety factor is better. Mind you, we still have a full 240 V across the power
system wires, but each load is operating at a reduced voltage.
There’s only one disadvantage being a series circuit, if either load were to open, current would stop
in the other load as well. For this reason, we need to modify the design a bit: (Figure 2.4)

source: (Kuphaldt, 2007)

Figure 2.4 Addition of neutral conductor allows loads to be individually driven.

𝑬𝑻 = (𝟏𝟐𝟎∠𝟎° ) + (𝟏𝟐𝟎∠𝟎° ) ∴ 𝑬𝑻 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝑽∠𝟎°

𝑷 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑰= = = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 𝑨 ∠𝟎° 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓
𝑬 𝟏𝟐𝟎∠𝟎°

𝑷𝑻 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑾

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Ayala Blvd. cor. San Marcelino St. Ermita, Manila
• MODULE 1

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP 2

Instead of a single 240 V power supply, we use two 120 V supplies (in phase with each other!) in series
to produce 240 V, then run a third wire to the connection point between the loads to handle the eventuality
of one load opening. This is called a split-phase power system. Three smaller wires are still cheaper than the
two wires needed with the simple parallel design, so we’re still ahead on efficiency. It will be noted that the
neutral wire only must carry the difference of current between the two loads back to the source. In the above
case, with perfectly balanced loads consuming equal amounts of power, the neutral wire carries zero current.
Notice how the neutral wire is connected to earth ground at the power supply end. This is a common
feature in power systems containing “neutral” wires, since grounding the neutral wire ensures the least
possible voltage at any given time between any “hot” wire and earth ground. An essential component to a
split-phase power system is the dual AC voltage source. Fortunately, designing and building one is not difficult.
Since most AC systems receive their power from a step-down transformer anyway (stepping voltage down
from high distribution levels to a user-level voltage like 120 or 240), that transformer can be built with a center-
tapped secondary winding: (Figure 2.5) If the AC power comes directly from a generator (alternator), the coils
can be similarly center-tapped for the same effect. The extra expense to include a center-tap connection in a
transformer or alternator winding is minimal.

source: (Kuphaldt, 2007)

Figure 2.5 Centered Tap Step down Transformer

Here is where the (+) and (-) polarity markings really become important. This notation is often used to
reference the phase sequence of multiple AC voltage sources, so it is clear whether they are aiding each other
or opposing each other. If not for these polarity markings, phase relations between multiple AC sources might
be very confusing. Note that the split-phase sources in the schematic (each one 𝟏𝟐𝟎∠𝟎𝟎 ), with polarity marks
(+) to (-) just like series-aiding batteries can alternatively be represented as such: (Figure 2.6)

source: (Kuphaldt, 2007)

Figure 2.6 Split phase 120/240 V source is equivalent to two aiding 120 V sources.

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• MODULE 1

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To mathematically calculate voltage between “hot” wires, we must subtract voltages, because their
polarity marks show them to be opposed to each other:

POLAR FORM
𝟏𝟐𝟎∠𝟎°− (𝟏𝟐𝟎∠𝟏𝟖𝟎° ) = 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝑽∠𝟎°
RECTANGULAR FORM
(𝟏𝟐𝟎 + 𝑱𝟎) − (−𝟏𝟐𝟎 + 𝒋𝟎) = 𝟐𝟒𝟎 + 𝑱𝟎 𝑽

If we mark the two sources’ common connection point (the neutral wire) with the same polarity mark
(-), we must express their relative phase shifts as being 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 apart. Otherwise, we’d be denoting two voltage
sources in direct opposition with each other, which would give 0 volts between the two “hot” conductors.
Power systems in American households and light industry are most often of the split-phase variety,
providing so-called 120/240 V AC power. The term “split-phase” merely refers to the split-voltage supply in
such a system. In a more general sense, this kind of AC power supply is called single phase because both
voltage waveforms are in phase with each other. The term “single phase” is a counterpoint to another kind of
power system called “polyphase”. (Kuphaldt, 2007)

REVIEW:

➢ Single phase power systems are defined by having an AC source with only one voltage waveform.

➢ A split-phase power system is one with multiple (in-phase) AC voltage sources connected in series,
delivering power to loads at more than one voltage, with more than two wires. They are used primarily
to achieve balance between system efficiency (low conductor currents) and safety (low load voltages).

➢ Split-phase AC sources can be easily created by center-tapping the coil windings of transformers.

➢ A polyphase power system uses multiple voltage sources at different phase angles from each other
(many “phases” of voltage waveforms at work). A polyphase power system can deliver more power
at less voltage with smaller-gauge conductors than single or split phase systems.

a.2 Three Phase

Split-phase power systems achieve their high conductor efficiency and low safety risk by splitting up
the total voltage into lesser parts and powering multiple loads at those lesser voltages, while drawing currents
at levels typical of a full-voltage system. This technique, by the way, works just as well for DC power systems
as it does for single-phase AC systems. Such systems are usually referred to as three-wire systems rather than
split-phase because “phase” is a concept restricted to AC. But we know from our experience with vectors and
complex numbers that AC voltages don’t always add up as we think they would if they are out of phase with
each other. This principle, applied to power systems, can be used to make power systems with even greater
conductor efficiencies and lower shock hazard than with split-phase.

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• MODULE 1

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ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP 2

Suppose that we had two sources of AC voltage connected in series just like the split-phase system
we saw before, except that each voltage source was 120° out of phase with the other: (Figure 2.7) Since each
voltage source is 120 V, and each load resistor is connected directly in parallel with its respective source, the
voltage across each load must be 120 V as well. Given load currents of 83.33 A, each load must still be
dissipating 10 kW of power. However, voltage between the two “hot” wires is not 240 V (120∠0° −
120∠180° ) because the phase difference between the two sources is not 180°. Instead, the voltage is:

𝟏𝟐𝟎∠𝟎𝟎 − (𝟏𝟐𝟎∠𝟏𝟐𝟎° ) = 𝟐𝟎𝟕. 𝟖𝟓 𝑽∠−𝟑𝟎°

(𝟏𝟐𝟎 + 𝑱𝟎) − (−𝟔𝟎 + 𝒋𝟏𝟎𝟑. 𝟗𝟐) = 𝟏𝟖𝟎 − 𝑱𝟏𝟎𝟑. 𝟗𝟐 𝑽

source: (Kuphaldt, 2007)

Figure 2.7 Pair of 120 V AC sources phased 120°

If we calculate the current through the “neutral” conductor, we find that it is not zero, even with
balanced load resistances. Kirchhoff ’s Current Law tells us that the currents entering and exiting the node
between the two loads must be zero: (Figure 2.8)

source: (Kuphaldt, 2007)

Figure 2.8 Neutral current won’t be zero in the case of a pair of 120° phased sources

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−𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝑵 = 𝟎 ∴ 𝑰𝑵 = −(𝟖𝟑. 𝟑𝟑∠𝟎° ) − (𝟖𝟑. 𝟑𝟑∠𝟏𝟐𝟎° )

𝑰𝑵 = −(𝟖𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 + 𝒋𝟎) − (−𝟒𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 + 𝒋𝟕𝟐. 𝟏𝟕) = −𝟒𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 − 𝒋𝟕𝟐. 𝟏𝟕 = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 𝑨 ∠ − 𝟏𝟐𝟎°

So, we find that the “neutral” wire is carrying a full 83.33 A, just like each “hot” wire. Note that we are
still conveying 20 kW of total power to the two loads, with each load’s “hot” wire carrying 83.33 A as before.
With the same amount of current through each “hot” wire, we must use the same gauge copper conductors,
so we haven’t reduced system cost over the split-phase 120/240 system. However, we have realized a gain in
safety, because the overall voltage between the two “hot” conductors is 32 volts lower than it was in the split-
phase system (207.85 V instead of 240 V).
The fact that the neutral wire is carrying 83.33 A of current raises an interesting possibility: since its
carrying current anyway, why not use that third wire as another “hot” conductor, powering another load
resistor with a third 120 V source having a phase angle of 240°? That way, we could transmit more power
(another 10 kW) without having to add any more conductors. (Figure 2.9)

source: (Kuphaldt, 2007)

Figure 2.9 3rd load phased 120° to the other two, currents magnitudes are all equal in all loads

Sure enough, we get 120 V across each load resistor, with (approximately) 208 volts between any two
“hot” conductors and conductor currents equal to 83.33 A. At that current and voltage, each load will be
dissipating 10 kW of power. Notice that this circuit has no “neutral” conductor to ensure stable voltage to all
loads if one should open. What we have here is a situation like our split-phase power circuit with no “neutral”
conductor: if one load should happen to fail open, the voltage drops across the remaining load(s) will change.
To ensure load voltage stability in the event of another load opening, we need a neutral wire to connect the
source node and load node together.
So long as the loads remain balanced (equal resistance, equal currents), the neutral wire will not have
to carry any current at all. It is there just in case one or more load resistors should fail open (or be shut off
through a disconnecting switch). This circuit we’ve been analyzing with three voltage sources is called a
polyphase circuit so the development of Three Phase power system. (Kuphaldt, 2007)

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c. Basics of Alternating Current waveforms and parameters

AC – Alternating Currents
- meaning voltage or current that changes polarity or direction, respectively overtime
Alternators
- AC electromechanical generators are of simpler construction than DC electromechanical generators.

source: https://appliantology.org/gallery/image/1255
Figure 2.10 Sinusoidal Waveform Components

Degrees - Period of a wave

Frequency - Is the rate of that back & forth oscillation and the number of complete cycles that a wave
completes in each amount of time.
Amplitude - AC magnitude or intensity

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Study of electricity begin with what is known as Direct Current, which is electricity flowing in a
constant direction, and possessing a voltage with constant polarity. DC is the kind of electricity made by a
battery. As useful and as easy to understand as DC is, it is not the only “kind” of electricity in use. Sources of
electricity like electro-mechanical generators naturally produce voltages alternating in polarity, reversing
positive and negative over time. Either as a voltage switching polarity or as a current switching direction back
and forth, this “kind” of electricity is known as Alternating Current: Figure 2.10 Whereas the familiar battery
symbol is used as a generic symbol for any DC voltage source, the circle with the wavy line inside is the generic
symbol for any AC voltage source. One might wonder why anyone would bother with such a thing as AC. It is
true that in some cases AC holds no practical advantage over DC. In applications where electricity is used to
dissipate energy in the form of heat, the polarity or direction of current is irrelevant, so long as there is enough
voltage and current to the load to produce the desired heat (power dissipation). However, with AC it is possible
to build electric generators, motors and power distribution systems that are far more efficient than DC, and
so we find AC used predominately across the world in high power applications. (Kuphaldt, 2007)

Examples of phase shifts:

source: (Kuphaldt, 2007)

Figure 2.11 Phase Shifts Types

Phase Shift – is where two or more waveforms are out of step w/ each other
Leading waveform – is defined as one waveform that is ahead of another in its evolution
Lagging waveform – one that is behind another

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d. Basic AC Circuits Calculation

source: (Kuphaldt, 2007)

Figure 2.12 Series AC Resistive Circuits

With a given sample in above figure a purely resistive circuit calculation will be the same as of DC
circuits but in case of the circuit is not purely resistive anymore, meaning component of reactance are available
either in the form of inductor or capacitor. Calculation will require complex numbers application and will be
further discussed on your more advance subjects in Electric Circuits 1 to 3.

𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟓𝟎𝟎 + 𝟒𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝛀 = 𝟏 𝒌𝛀

𝑬𝑻 𝟏𝟎
𝑰𝑻 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 𝑨 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝑨
𝑹𝑻 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑬𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎(𝟎. 𝟎𝟏) = 𝟏 𝑽 ; 𝑬𝟐 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎(𝟎. 𝟎𝟏) = 𝟓 𝑽 ; 𝑬𝟑 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎(𝟎. 𝟎𝟏) = 𝟒 𝑽

Series resistances still add, parallel resistances still diminish, and the Laws of Kirchhoff and Ohm still
hold true. It’s just that we must express the quantities of voltage, current, and opposition to current in more
advanced mathematical forms. With purely resistive circuits, however, these complexities of AC are of no
practical consequence, and so we can treat the numbers as though we were dealing with simple DC quantities.

B. Introduction to Alternators
a.1 Construction
DC & AC generators are similar in terms of they both generate alternating emfs. In DC generators the
alternating voltage is rectified through a commutator and brushes attach to the armature unit, whereas AC
generator has no rectifier and delivers AC electrical energy to its loads. So, a DC generator can be used as an
AC generator by placing a set of collector rings on the shaft and connecting this ring to the proper points on
the armature winding; brushes riding on the rings are now connected to the load.
AC generators must be driven at a very definite constant speed because the frequency of the
generated emf is determined by that speed, for this reason these machines are frequently called synchronous
alternators or synchronous generators.
It should be clear that is possible to construct an alternator with a stationary field and a moving
armature or with a stationary armature and a moving field. The latter arrangement is the preferable one for
the following reasons:
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1. The armature winding is more complex than the field and can be constructed more easily on a
stationary structure.
2. The armature winding can be braced more securely in a rigid frame.
3. It is easier to insulate and protect the high-voltage armature windings common to alternators.
4. The armature winding is coiled more readily because the stator core can be made large enough and
with many air passages or cooling ducts for force air circulation.
5. The low-voltage field can be constructed for efficient, high speed operation.

Commutation is a serious limiting factor in the design of very large DC machines, the reason being that
voltages are comparatively low and currents high for large kilowatt ratings.

a.2 Three common types of prime movers

1. Steam turbines
2. Steam engines
3. Water wheels

b.1 Frequency

As the poles of a two-pole alternator revolve, the generated emf in the stationary armature winding
changes direction every half revolution; therefore, one complete positive and negative pulse is equivalent to
one cycle or one revolution. It follows the frequency in cycles per second will depend directly upon the number
of revolutions per second (rpm/60) made by field. In case of multipolar the frequency per revolution is equal
to the number of pairs of poles. Combining both statements:

1. The speed in revolution per second (rpm/60 or N/60) where N is the revolution per minute
2. The number of pairs of poles (P/2)

The relationship may be written as,

𝑷 𝑵 𝑷𝑵
𝒇= × =
𝟐 𝟔𝟎 𝟏𝟐𝟎
EXAMPLE:

1. An alternator has six poles and operates at 1200rpm. a) What frequency does it generate? b) At what
speed must the machine be operated if it is to have a frequency of 25 cycles? 50 cycles?
Answer: 60Hz, 500rpm, 1000rpm
2. What is the maximum speed at which the field of an alternator can be operated 60 cycles? 25 cycles?
50 cycles?
Answer: 3600, 1500, 3000 rpm

b.2 Generated Voltage

The fundamental law of generator action may be stated as follows:

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The concept of Faraday's Law is that any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will
cause a voltage (emf) to be "induced" in the coil. No matter how the change is produced, the voltage will be
generated. The change could be produced by changing the magnetic field strength, moving a magnet toward
or away from the coil, moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field, rotating the coil relative to the magnet,
etc.

source: hyperphysics

Figure 2.13 Variation of Faraday’s Law

At upper left in the illustration, two coils are penetrated by a changing magnetic field. Magnetic
flux F is defined by F=BA where B is the magnetic field or average magnetic field and A is the area
perpendicular to the magnetic field. Note that for a given rate of change of the flux through the coil, the
voltage generated is proportional to the number of turns N which the flux penetrates. This example is relevant
to the operation of transformers, where the magnetic flux typically follows an iron core from the primary coil
to the secondary coil and generates a secondary voltage proportional to the number of turns in the secondary
coil.

Proceeding clockwise, the second example shows the voltage generated when a coil is moved into a
magnetic field. This is sometimes called "motional emf", and is proportional to the speed with which the coil
is moved into the magnetic field. That speed can be expressed in terms of the rate of change of the area which
is in the magnetic field.

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The next example is the standard AC generator geometry where a coil of wire is rotated in a
magnetic field. The rotation changes the perpendicular area of the coil with respect to the magnetic field
and generates a voltage proportional to the instantaneous rate of change of the magnetic flux. For a
constant rotational speed, the voltage generated is sinusoidal.
The final example shows that voltage can be generated by moving a magnet toward or away from a
coil of wire. With the area constant, the changing magnetic field causes a voltage to the generated. The
direction or "sense" of the voltage generated is such that any resulting current produces a magnetic field
opposing the change in magnetic field which created it. This is the meaning of the minus sign in Faraday's Law,
and it is called Lenz's law. (HyperPhysics, nd)

An average of 1 volt is generated in one turn of wire if the flux passing through that turn changes at
the rate of 100,000,000 (108 ) maxwells per second.

𝝓
𝑬𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝑵 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 volts
𝒕

Where: 𝑬𝒂𝒗𝒆 = average generated voltage

𝑵 = number of turns in coil
𝝓 = flux per pole
𝒕 = time, in seconds, for flux to change by 𝝓

Referring to the previous page figure, note that there is a flux change of 𝜙 maxwell through a coil as the latter
moves a distance equal to ½ of a pole pitch, or more specifically, the distance a coil must travel to generate ¼
of a cycle of voltage. Since one cycle occurs in 1/𝑓 sec. The elapsed time for ¼ of a cycle will be 1/4𝑓 sec.
Therefore, when 1/4𝑓 is substituted for 𝑡, it becomes;

𝑬𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝟒𝒇𝑵𝝓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔

The equation is quite general and applicable to all alternators regardless of the flux-density distribution under
the poles. However, if the alternator is so designed that the flux density distribution is sinusoidal, the so-called
effective value or rms value of voltage, usually designated by 𝐸, is equal to 1.11 times the average value. Thus

𝑬 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝒇𝑵𝝓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔

EXAMPLE:

1. Calculate the effective voltage in one phase of an altenator given the following particulars: 𝑓 = 60 𝐻𝑧,
𝑁 = 240 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒, 𝜙 = 2.08 × 106 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒.

Answer: 1330 volts

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Objectives:
III. After the 3rd week the students will be able to understand and apply some basic calculation on the ff:
a. Induction motor principle
b. Squirrel-cage rotor and Wound rotor types
c. Slip, counter emf and rotor frequency equations
d. 1ø VS 3ø Motors

Topic/Content:

A. Introduction to AC Motors
a. Principle of operation
b. Types and construction
c. Basic Calculations
d. Comparison of a single phase to three phase motors

Lesson # 3:

A. Introduction to AC Motors

a. Principle of Operation, Types, Construction and Basic Calculations

Figure 3.1 Classification of Electric Motors

Most common type of ac motor, electric power is not conducted to the rotor directly, the rotor
receives its power inductively in the same way as the secondary of a transformer receives its power. For this
reason, this type is called induction motor.

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR – rotates exactly at the supply frequency

INDUCTION MOTOR – turns slightly slower and typically not necessarily takes the form of the squirrel cage
motor.

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Figure 3.2 Stator of a Motor

source: quora.com

Figure 3.3 Squirrel Cage Rotor

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Single phase Induction motors perform a great variety of useful services at home, office, farm, factory
and in business establishments. Single phase motors are generally manufactured in fractional HP ratings below
1 HP for economic reasons. Hence, those motors are generally referred to as fractional horsepower motors
with a rating of less than 1 HP. Most single-phase motors fall into this category. Single phase Induction motors
are also manufactured in the range of 1.5, 2, 3 and up to 10 HP as a special requirement.
A single-phase induction motor is similar in construction to that of a polyphase induction motor
with difference that its stator has only one winding. If such a stator is supplied with single phase
alternating current, the field produced by it changes in magnitude and direction sinusoidally. Thus, the
magnetic field produced in the air gap is alternating one but not rotating as a result these kinds of
motors are not self-starting. Fig: 3.3 shows the squirrel cage type of rotor of induction motor.

WOUND ROTOR TYPE – is employed when speed control is required on the motor or to provide high starting
torque. Brushes riding on the slip rings are connected to a resistor controller which is used for speed and
starting torque control. Mostly used on 3-phase motors as showed below.

source: brighthubengineering.com

Figure 3.4 Wound Rotor Type

𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒇
𝑵𝒔 = ; 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝑵𝒔 − 𝒔𝒚𝒏𝒄𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑷
𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓

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The rotor always rotates at a lower speed, its value depending upon the mechanical load on the
motor. Obviously, the revolving field speed is constant for a constant frequency.

Slip and Rotor Speed

The difference between the synchronous speed and the actual rotor speed is called the slip speed.

𝑵𝒔 − 𝑵𝒓 𝑵𝒔 − 𝑵𝒓
𝒔 ≤ 𝟓%; %𝒔 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%; 𝒔 = ;
𝑵𝒔 𝑵𝒔

𝑵𝒓 = 𝑵𝒔 (𝟏 − 𝒔); 𝑵𝒔 > 𝑵𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓

Example:
@ 60Hz P 𝑵𝒔 𝑵𝒓
S=0.05 2 3600 3420
4 1800 1710
6 1200
8 900
10 720

b. Single Phase Motors

Single phase power system is widely used as compared to three phase system for domestic purpose,
commercial purpose and to some extent in industrial purpose. As the single-phase system is more economical
and the power requirement in most of the houses, shops, offices are small, which can be easily met by single
phase system. The single-phase motors are simple in construction, cheap in cost, reliable and easy to repair
and maintain. Due to all these centrifugal pumps, blowers, washing machine, small toys etc. The single-phase
ac motors are further classified as advantages the single-phase motor finds its application in vacuum cleaner,
fans, washing machine, (Electrical 4 U, 2019)

1. Single phase induction motors or asynchronous motors.

2. Single phase synchronous motors
3. Commutator motors

Construction of Single-Phase Induction Motor

Like any other electrical motor asynchronous motor also have two main parts namely rotor and stator.
Stator as its name indicates stator is a stationary part of induction motor. A single phase ac supply is given to
the stator of single phase induction motor. Rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is connected
to the mechanical load through the shaft. The rotor in single phase induction motor is of squirrel cage rotor
type. The construction of single phase induction motor is almost similar to the squirrel cage three phase motor
except that in case of asynchronous motor the stator have two windings instead of one as compare to the
single stator winding in three phase induction motor.

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The construction of the stator of asynchronous motor is similar to that of three phase induction motor
except there are two dissimilarity in the winding part of the single phase induction motor. (Electrical 4 U, 2019)

1. Firstly, the single-phase induction motors are mostly provided with concentric coils. As the number
of turns per coil can be easily adjusted with the help of concentric coils, the mmf distribution is
almost sinusoidal.
2. Except for shaded pole motor, the asynchronous motor has two stator windings namely the main
winding and the auxiliary winding. These two windings are placed in space quadrature with respect
to each other.

Rotor of Single-Phase Induction Motor

The construction of the rotor of the single phase induction motor is similar to the squirrel cage three
phase induction motor. The rotor is cylindrical in shape and has slots all over its periphery. The slots are not
made parallel to each other but are bit skewed as the skewing prevents magnetic locking of stator and rotor
teeth and makes the working of induction motor more smooth and quieter i.e. less noise. The squirrel cage
rotor consists of aluminum, brass or copper bars. These aluminum or copper bars are called rotor conductors
and are placed in the slots on the periphery of the rotor. The rotor conductors are permanently shorted by
the copper or aluminum rings called the end rings. In order to provide mechanical strength these rotor
conductors are braced to the end ring and hence form a complete closed circuit resembling like a cage and
hence got its name as "squirrel cage induction motor". As the bars are permanently shorted by end rings, the
rotor electrical resistance is very small and it is not possible to add external resistance as the bars are
permanently shorted. The absence of slip ring and brushes make the construction of single phase induction
motor very simple and robust. (Electrical 4 U, 2019)

Why Single-Phase Induction Motor is not Self Starting?

According to double field revolving theory, any alternating quantity can be resolved into two
components, each component have magnitude equal to the half of the maximum magnitude of the alternating
quantity and both these components rotates in opposite direction to each other. For example - a flux, φ can
be resolved into two components

Each of these components rotates in opposite direction i.e. if one φ m / 2 is rotating in clockwise direction then
the other φm / 2 rotates in anticlockwise direction. When a single-phase ac supply is given to the stator winding
of single-phase induction motor, it produces its flux of magnitude, φ m. According to the double field revolving
theory, this alternating flux, φm is divided into two components of magnitude φm /2. Each of these components
will rotate in opposite direction, with the synchronous speed, N s. Let us call these two components of flux as
forward component of flux, φf and backward component of flux, φb. The resultant of these two components
of flux at any instant of time, gives the value of instantaneous stator flux at that instant.

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Now at starting, both the forward and backward components of flux are exactly opposite to each
other. Also, both components of flux are equal in magnitude. So, they cancel each other and hence the net
torque experienced by the rotor at starting is zero. So, the single-phase induction motors are not self-starting
motors. (Electrical 4 U, 2019)

Methods for Making Single Phase Induction as Self-Starting Motor

From the above topic we can easily conclude that the single-phase induction motors are not self-
starting because the produced stator flux is alternating in nature and at the starting the two components of
this flux cancel each other and hence there is no net torque. The solution to this problem is that if the stator
flux is made rotating type, rather than alternating type, which rotates in one direction only. Then the induction
motor will become self-starting. Now for producing this rotating magnetic field we require two alternating
flux, having some phase difference angle between them. When these two fluxes interact with each other they
will produce a resultant flux. This resultant flux is rotating in nature and rotates in space in one direction only.
Once the motor starts running, the additional flux can be removed. The motor will continue to run under the
influence of the main flux only. Depending upon the methods for making asynchronous motor as Self Starting
Motor, there are mainly four types of single phase induction motor namely, (Electrical 4 U, 2019)

1. Split phase induction motor,

2. Capacitor start inductor motor,
3. Capacitor start capacitor run induction motor,
4. Shaded pole induction motor.
5. Permanent split capacitor motor or single value capacitor motor.

c. Comparison between Single Phase and Three Phase Induction Motors

1. Single phase induction motors are simple in construction, reliable and economical for small power rating
as compared to three phase induction motors.
2. The electrical power factor of single phase induction motors is low as compared to three phase induction
motors.
3. For same size, the single phase induction motors develop about 50% of the output as that of three phase
induction motors.
4. The starting torque is also low for asynchronous motors / single phase induction motor.
5. The efficiency of single phase induction motors is less as compare it to the three phase induction motors.
6. Single phase induction motors are simple, robust, reliable & cheaper for small ratings. They are generally
available up to 1 KW rating. (Electrical 4 U, 2019)

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Assessment Procedures

- Participate on the Q&A portion

- You will be having an online quiz using MS Forms after the live discussion. Please attach the scanned
image of your handwritten solution on the quiz form if required. Write your solution legibly.

- Assignment must be submitted on your MS Team notebook or files on or before our next live online
meeting.

- For Offline submit all accomplish assignments soft copy thru my TUP e-mail add
edwin_espinas@tup.edu.ph or thru messenger. Portfolio type hardcopy is required via LBC or other
courier services if totally no net availability but subject for approval.

Learning Resources
References:
Dr. Shahl, S. I. (n.d.). Three-Phase Induction Machines. Retrieved from
https://www.uotechnology.edu.iq/ dep-eee/lectures

Electrical 4 U. (2019, June 2). Fleming's Left and Right Hand Thumb Rules Explained. Retrieved from E4U:
https://www.electrical4u.com

Electrical 4 U. (2019, July 11). Single-Phase Induction Motors. Retrieved from E4U:
https://www.electrical4u.com

HyperPhysics. (n.d.). Variations of Faraday's Law. Retrieved from

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/farlaw2.html

Ibraheem Alnaib, A. M. (2019, May). Single-Phase Induction Motors. Retrieved from ResearchGate:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332835297

Kuphaldt, T. R. (2007, July 25). Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume II – AC, 6th ed. Retrieved from
https://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/AC/AC.pdf

RV TechMag Electrical Tutorial. (2017). Chapter 1. Introduction to Elecricity. Retrieved from RV TechMag:
https://www.rvtechmag.com

Siskind, C. S. (1966). Electrical Machines Direct and Alternating Current, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill.

Theraja, B. a. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology Vol. II AC & DC Machineries, 1st Multicolor ed.
Retrieved from https://www.engbookspdf.com/Electrical-Books

Other Resources
- Power Point Lecture, YouTube Videos, Module 1-5 Lecture Notes

Prepared by: Engr. Edwin C. Espinas, for TUP COE-EE Department

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Republic of the Philippines
Technological University of the Philippines
Ayala Blvd. cor. San Marcelino St. Ermita, Manila
• MODULE 1

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING - ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP 2

Prepared by: Engr. Edwin C. Espinas, for TUP COE-EE Department

31