THE CELL

“A cell is the basic structure and functional unit of all life forms”
● It is the smallest living building block of all organisms.
● The cell is a latin word for “a small room”
● Study of structure and composition of cells as cytology.
● Cell was first observed by Robert Hooke in a dead cork slice.
● First living cell was discovered by A.V.Leeuwen hooke,Which he named as Animatules.
● The first who give cell theory-H.J.Dutrochet
● Outlined the basic features-Matthias Schleiden & Theodor Schwann
● “Cells arise from pre-existing living cells”was explained by-Rudolf Virchow
TYPES OF CELLS
I) BASED ON THE NUMBER:
1) Unicellular organisms - Organisms made up of only one cell
Eg: Bacteria,Amoeba,Chlamydomonar
2) Multicellular organisms - Organisms made up of many cells
Eg: Plants and animals
II) BASED ON THE CELLULAR ORGANIZATION:
( difference table )
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANIMAL & PLANT CELL
(difference table)
CELL THEORY
Cell theory was proposed by Schleiden (1888) and Schwann (1839)
The cell theory postulates are given below
● All living things are composed of cells.
● Cells serve as the fundamental building blocks for the growth of tissues and organs.
● Cells can only develop from other cells,which is the third and possibly most important
characteristic of the theory.

COMPONENTS OF CELL
Cell membrane Cytoplasm Nucleus

Cell organelles Cell Inclusions

1) Endoplasmic reticulum 1) Granules

2) Mitochondria 2) Vacuoles
3) Golgi apparatus
4) Ribosomes
5) Lysosomes
6) Centrosomes
7) Plastids
 CELL MEMBRANE
STRUCTURE:
➔ Cell membrane is also called plasma membrane.
➔ It is boundary of each cell that separates the living cell from its surroundings
➔ It is found in both plants as well as animal cells.
➔ It is made up of proteins & lipids.
➔ It is selectively permeable in nature,it means it is choosy about what enters
and leaves the cell.
➔ It is flexible & can be folded,broken & reunited.
FUNCTION OF PLASMA MEMBRANE:
● It provides protection & definite shape to the cell. It transports
nutrients into the cell & also to transport toxic substances out of the
cell.

CELL WALL
STRUCTURE
● Cell wall is the outermost protective covering of cell.
● It is present in bacteria,fungi and plants whereas it is absent in animal cell.
● It was first observed by Robert Hooke.
● It is an actively growing portion
● In bacteria it is composed of- Peptidoglycan
In fungi - Chitin
In algae - Cellulose galactans & mannans
In plant - Cellulose,pectin,lignin,cutin,suberin,silica.
● Cell wall shows 3 distinct regions in plant
1) Primary wall
2) Secondary wall
3) Middle lamellae
● Plasmodesmata act as a channel between the protoplasm of adjacent
cells through.
FUNCTIONS
● Offers definite shape and rigidity to the cell
● Provides protection to the internal protoplasm against mechanical
injury.
● Prevents the bursting of cells by maintain the osmotic pressure.
TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS BETWEEN THE
CELL & ITS SURROUNDING:
● Oxygen moves in and out of the cell through DIFFUSION.
DIFFUSION: Movement of oxygen from high concentration to lower
concentration.
➔ The inward and outward of movement of water takes place through a
phenomenon called OSMOSIS.
OSMOSIS: Osmosis is the spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules
through a selectively permeable membrane from a region of high water
potential to a region of low water potential to equalize the solute,
★ Molecules transport through energy dependent process-active transport
and energy independent process passive transport
★ Cell surface membrane are able to transport individual molecules and
ions through
endocytosis. Cell membrane infolds around the material to form a vacuole and
brings it into cytoplasm.
There are two types of endocytosis
Phagocytosis ,-Solid particles are engulfed
Pinocytosis → Fluid droplets are engulfed

Signal Transduction

The process by which the cell receives information from outside and responds is
Called signal transduction. Plants, fungi and animal cell cells use nitric oxide as
one of the main signaling molecules. The cell membrane is the site of chemical
interactions of signal transduction. Receptors receive the information from the first
messenger and transmit the message through a series of membrane proteins. It
activates the second messenger which stimulates the cell to carry out specific
functions.
Protoplasm

Definition:
Protoplasm is defined as the organic and living inorganic substances that
constitute the living nucleus, cytoplasm, plastics and mitochondria of the cell.

Protoplasm is the living part of the cell which comprises of different cellular
organelles It is a jelly-like, colorless, transparent s viscous living Substance present
within the cell

Components

● Cytoplasm is the initial component

● Nuckus is the second component
Cytoplasm is the substance between a cells membrane and its nucleus
cytosol is the fluid plant of cytoplasm. Cell organelles float in the cytosol.
Protoplasm = Cytoplasm + Nucleus (Cytosol + Cell organelles)
Cytoplasm = Cytosol + cell organelles

Cytoplasm
Present between Plasma membrane and nucleus membrane
Cytoplasm is a jelly -like substance. Autonomic movement of cytoplasm in a cell is
called Cytoplasmic streaming (or)cyclosis.
Cytoplasmic structure comprise 3 groups

● Cytoplasmic Matrix
● Cytoplasmic organelles
● cytoplasmic inclusion

Cytoplasmic matrix exists in two states

1) Ged or plasmagel Thick semi solid
ⅱ) Sol or Plasmasol liquid
Functions
 ● Site for cell organelles and inclusions
● Site for metabolic reaction
● Pseudopodia formation.
Cell Organelles

Cell organelles are specialized structures found within cells that perform specific
functions necessary for the survival and proper functioning of the cell.

● Cell organelles que have membrane bound structures responsible for

carrying out various cellular processes such as energy production, protein
synthesis and waste disposal.

● Each cell organelle is unique in structure, function and composition.

● Cell organelles are classified into 3 types based on the membrane.
● organelles without membrane :
The cell wall, Ribosomes, Cytoskeletal non membrane cell organelles.
They are present in both Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells.
Single Layered membrane organelles :
Vacuoles, Golgi-apparatus, lysosomes and endoplasmic reticulum.

Twofold layer membrane organelles :

These organelles are Covered via 2 layers include - nucleus, mitochondria and
chloroplast.
Structure and function of cell organelles
1) Endoplasmic Reticulum:
● In 1897 observed by Gaunier and named it as ergastoplasm
● In 1945 first described by Porten, Chaude and Fullman
● In 1953 given by Porten Present in all eukaryotes
Components
Cisternae
● Formed by projection of nuclear membrane
● They bean ribosomes on the surface. Contain ribophorin that binds the
ribosomes.
vesicles

● They are oval (or) rounded vacuole like element

● Many vesicles are free in the cytoplasm

Tubules

● They are tube-like extensions.

● Tubules ave irregular and branched
● Free of ribosomes.

Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum

1) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
● Ribosomes with help of ribophorin.Mainly composed of cisternae.
● Abundantly occurs in cells which are engaged in Protein synthesis and
Secretion.
● Mass of RER in cyton is called missals granules.
E.g Liven, Pancreas s goblet cells

2) Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum

● Ribosomes and ribophorin are absent

● .Mainly composed of tubules.Occurs especially in these cells which aye
almost inactive in protein synthesis .
● It is well developed in lipid synthesis cell .
● Mass of SER in retinal cells is called myeloid bodies .
Functions

● It gives mechanical support so also

● Cytoskeleton of a cell.Intracellular exchange
● Transport of material in cytoplasm from one place to another through the
ER.
● Provide site for protein synthesis, became rough ER has ribosomes .
● Lipids synthesis by smooth.
● ER Detoxification of drugs
Golgi Complex

● Observed by George
● Morphological structure given by Camillo Golgi
● Ultra structure given by Dalton.
● Golgi Complex also known as Dalton Complex Lipochondria, Dictyosome
& golgisome
● It is located in the cytoplasm
● Animal cells contain but Plant cells contain one Golgi complex more than
100.
● Golgi body size is bigger in secretory cells.
● Clear cytoplasm Golgi body is called the zone of exclusion.
Structure of Golgi Complex
D Cisternae:

● These slightly curved s sacs like

● Many cisternae are avenged parallel to each other
● Convex Surface touch nucleus is called cis face or forming face
● Concave Surface touch cell membrane is called trans face or maturing face
● Cis & tram faces are inter connected.

11) Vacuole :

● spherical and bigger in size

● Found closer to the Concave Surface.

11) Vesicles:

● They are spherical sac like structure

● Found close to the convex surface.

Functions of Golgi complex:

I ) Secretion
Major function of the Golgi body is secretion.
It involve 3 steps:
Golgi body receives the materials from ER
These materiah are chemically modified
After modification materials are packed in Vesicles. These vesicles are pinched off
from the trans face and discharged outside the cell.
11) Middle Man of cell

All macro moleculy which to be Sent out side cell, move through the Golgi body
you noti

ill) Formation of Lysosome:

ER buch off small vesicles containing hydrolases This vesicle transfer to Galgi
complex Cistemae of Golgi Complex bud off this Vesicle called Primary
lysosomes.

Lysosome
● Discovered by Christian De Duve in 1955 * In 1956 Novikoff Coined the
term lysosome
● Found in all eukaryotic cells except yeast, Plant cell - Menistamatic cells,
Animal cell - RBC.
● In animal lysosomes are abundant in leucocytes, macrophages.
● Lysosomes are small, sphurical & single membrane bounded organelles.
● Thy Contain more than 50 enzymes, important enzymes are lipase, protease
& caubohydrases
Types of Lysosomes
● I Primary Lysosomes
These cure store acid hydrolases in inactive form
These are newly formed lysosomes

Secondary Lysosomes
 Formed by fusion of primcury lysosomes It's active form (active acid
hydrolases)

Tentiary Lysosomes:

Lysosomes Containing undigested material These ave eliminated by

exocytosis.

Auto Lysosomes:

Lysosomes containing cell organells digest the hole cell. These cure Called
suicidal bags.

Functions of Lysosomes:

Intra cellulau digestion:

They digest Carbohydrates, Proteins and lipics present in cytoplasm.

Autophagy:
● During adverse condition they digest their Own cell organelles like
mitochondria & endoplasm reticulum.

Autolysis
● Selt destruction of cell on disease they destroy the cell. insight of
● Unwanted orgam are clestroyed by autolysis.
Exocytosis:
Release out sice to digest other cells.
Ribosomes :
● Observed by Claude in 1941 and named as microsomes.
● Palade coined the teum ribosomes
● Ribosomes found in all cells
Structure
 Ribosomes are spherical bodies contain two sub units lange s small sub units
Subunits occur separately & they join together to form ribasomes only at the
time of protein Synthesis. Many ribosomes lined up on mRNA are called
Polyribosomes. Small sub unit hold mRNA

Lauge sub unit have 3 slots

A site tRNA first binch to mRNA
P site Amino acid added to polypeptidecha
E site Exit site.

Types

1) 70s ribosome

● Found in prokaryotic cells

● Smalleu in size.
● Made up of two sub units large-50s,Small - 30s

2) 80s ribosome
● Found in a eukaryotic cell.
● Made up of two sub units - large 60s,small 40s.
● Lauge in size

Functions
Protein Synthesis
Newly formed polypeptide is protected from degradation by cytoplasmic enzymes.
Mitochondria
● Discovered by Kolliker (1880)
● Mitochondria teum given by Latey Benda (1898)
● Power house of cell er ATP Mill in cell
Number of Mitochondria
Depending upon the type & physiological activity of cell One per cell in
chlorella chlamydomonas 50,000 per cell in Amoeba 5 Lakhs per cell in flight
muscle of insects.
Size of mitochondria

Smallest mitochondria is seen in yeast (1um)

Largest mitochondria is seen in docytes of amphibian (20-40Mm)

Structure

● Mitochondria Consists of a double membrane, the outer and inner

membrane.
● Outer membrane is smooth, highly permeable to small molecules and
contains Protein - Porim Porins form channels that allow photosynthetic
diffusion of molecules.
● Inner membrane divides the mitochondrion into two compartments, Outer
chamber between two membranes
Plastids
Plastids is a pigment containing cell organelle found in photosynthetic cells. It
is double membrane organelle Discovered by Haeckel (1865) Plastics classified
into two groups

1)Leucoplast
2) Chromoplast
Leucoplast

● Leucoplasts cure colorless plastic

● oval spherical rod like
● Act as storage organelles
● Found in sees, tubeus s ribor rhizomes- Classified into three types on the
basis of the material stored.
1. Amyloplast - stores starch
2. Aleuroplast - store protein
3. Elaioplast stores droplets of oil or fat.
Chromoplast:
 chromoplasts are coloured plastids It is responsible for colors in flowers
ripening fruits, autumn leaves. Chromoplast again classified into 3 groups
Chloroplast:
They contain chlorophyll pigment Found in green pants of plants
Phaeoplast:
They contain Fucoxanthin pigment Found in Brown algae diatoms.
Rodo plast
● They contain phycoerythrin pigment
● Found in Red algae.
Chloroplast
Discovered by Anton van Leuwenhoek
Chloroplast acts as a factory for the synthesis of Sugar in autotrophic
eukaryotes.
No of chloroplast varies:

● chlamydomonas Ulothrix contain I per cell

● Higher plants contain 20-40 cell
● chaya Contain 500 peu cells.
Size & shape varies
● Chlamydomonas- cup shaped
● Spirogyra- ribbon shaped
● Ulothrix- girdle shaped
● Zygnema- star shaped.

Structure
● Chloroplast is covered with a double membrane so two membranes are
Separated by space.
● Innen content of chloroplast is matrix. Contain lipo - proteinaceous fluid
called Stroma Contain circular DNA
● Inside the stroma there are flat inter - connected sacs called thylakoids.
● The membrane of thylakoid encloses a Space called thylakoid lumen.
● Thylakoids are arranged in stacks like piles of Coins called grana.
● Each chloroplast contains about 20-100
● Each granum is composed of 10-100 thylakoids.
 ● Membrane of the thylakoid contains a number of minute particles called
quantasomes.

Functions:

Photosynthesis:
Trap light energy of sun and transform it into chemical energy
Stauch storage:
Store stauch during day time.
Protein Synthesis:
Have own DNA & ribosomes so produce certain amount of protein
Oxygen Supply:
Utilize Carbon dioxide & release Oxygen.

Centrosomes
Centrosome given by Theoday Bov.
Centrosome contain two Centrioles
Centrioles are cylindrical and made up of microtubules protein
Centrioles Occur in nearly all animal cells and motile plant cells by sunny
These are also called
It looks like a cant wheel.

Structure
● Centrioles contain a peripheral micro .
● Microtubules are absent in the center. So the arrangement is called 9+0
● Each microtubule is in triplet, linked with the help of A-C link
● Central part of the centriole is proteinaceous Called hub.
● Hub Connected with peripheral triplets by radial spokes.
● Centrioles have self duplicating units.

Functions:
In animal cells centrioles play important role in cell division by arranging spindle
fibers Centrioles form the basal body of flagella
Cilia and Flagella
Fig 15

Cilia:

* Cilia ave small hair like structure

* Around 5-10 Mm in length

* Only found in eukaryotic cells.

* occur throughout the cell.

* Involved in processes like locomotion s feeding.

* Types: Kinocilia s stariocilia. (motile) (Non motik)

Flagella:

* Flagella ave long whip like structure.

* Around 150 um in length

* Found in both cells.

* Occur at one end of a involved in locomotion cell

* Types: whiplash & Tinsel

Structure of cilia & flagella

Made up of Plasma membrane and axoneme In axoneme have a peripheral doublet

microtubules and 2 central singlet microtubules This arrangement is called 9+2
The central tubules are Conneeted by brid and enclosed by central sheath Central
tubules also connected to peripheral
cloublets by radial spoke. Peripheral doublets interconnected by linkeus

Vacuoles

Fig-16

* Discovered by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

* Vacuole is single membrane bound space found

in cytoplasm * vacuole is filled with sap

* Sap Contain water excretory product s other materiah

* In plant cell the vacuole can occupy up to 90% of the volume of cell.

* In animal cell Small sized vacuoles ave Present.

*Vacuole retain ios & other materials against Concentration gradient.

Types of vacuoles :

Sap vacuole

* Bubble like sac

* Contain Cell Sap

* Contain pigments like anthocyanin s anthoxanthine.

* Present in plant cell

sactile vacuoles:

Found in freshwater protozoans. Helps in osmoregulation and excretion

Food vacuole:

Occur in protozoan, protists & lower animals

Contain digestive enzymes

Air vacuole :

Poored Found in aquatic plants Store gases, regulate buoyancy of cell provide
mechanical support.

Functions:

Removing unwanted structural debris Isolating material that might be harmful

Containing waste products Exporting unwanted substances from the cell.

Microbodies

Fig-14

* Discovered by Rhodin in 1954

* Found in all eukaryotic cells.

* Microbodies are minute, simple bounded by a single unit membrane.

* Microbodies bud off from the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

* Microbudies are of 2 main types.

1) Peroxisomes

2) Glyoxy Somes
Cytoskeleton
Cytoskeleton is hetwerk of filamentous p in cytoplasm

It is made up of Microtubules & microfilam

Microtubules

hollow rod like structure Maintain cell shape & help cell division

Microfilaments

Solid rod like structure Support, movement of villi formation of spindle.

Cell Inclusions

All non living things Known as in cytoplasm are cell inclusions They are formed
during metabolism of the Cell. Three types of cell inclusions.

Reserve food substance

Secretary substance Excretory Substance

Nucleus

Fig-(18)

Discovered by Robeut brown in 1831 Study of nucleus is known as Karyology

Nucleus is the control centre of the cell for cell metabolism s reproduction.
Nucleus present in all eukaryotic cells
mben of nuclei: Usually one but may be

more than I as in few protists. Position of nuchi : Centric in animal cells Ecentric in
Plant cell Basal in Columnay cell

Structure:
1) Nuclear membrane:

* Nuclear contents are covered by a double membrane called nuclean envelope.

* Outer membrane Connected with endoplasmic reticulum & its outer surface
contain Ribosomes

* Inner membrane is smooth & its devoid of ribosomes.

* Nucleay membrane contain many pores called nuclear pores, Surrounded by

circulay Structure known as annulus.

* Nuclear pore + annulus = nuclear pore comple

* Exchange of materials occurs through the nuclear pores.

Function:

* Maintain the shape of the nucleus

* Regulates the flow of materias into & out of the nuchus.

2) Nucleoplasm

* Nucleus filled with semi solid substance is called nuchoplasm.

* Also known as Kauyolymph or nuchau sap. matria

* Nuchoplasm Contains nucleotides, enzy and metal ions.

Function

It is the site of Synthesis of DNA ARNA It provides tuigidity of nucleus.

3) Nucleolus:
* Discovered by Fontana in 1781

* Teum Coined by Bowman in 1840

* The nucleolus is lange, spherical and dense body composed of RNA & phospho
Proteins.

Function:

Center for the formation of mRNA Stores mRNA.

4) Chromatin!

Nucleoplasm contain many elongated thread like & coiled structure known
chromatin fibeus. as

During cell division the chromatin become

thick & form chromosomes. chromosomes contain DNA & nuchoprotein.

Type:

Euchromatin Active paut contain gene Hetero chromatin Inactive paut contain
RNA
action.

Control all the activities of the cell It play significant role in hespedity Contain
genetic code for protein synthesis. Synthesis of ribosomal RNA takes place in
nuchus.

Chromosomes

fig - (19)

* Discovered by Holfmeisten in 1848 * Term was coined by Waldeyer in 1888

* chromosome is highly condensed form of the Chromatin

* No of chromosomes varies from species to specios

* Lower number of chromosomes found in Ascauls(2) Maximum number of

chromosomes found in radiolanian (1400)

Structure of chromosome

Main pauts

Pellicle

Matrix

chromatid

Centromeve

Secondary constriction

Telomere

Chromonema.
Pellice:

It is the outer envelope It is very thin.

Matrix:

Ground substance of chromosome which Contains the chromonemata Matrix is

enclosed in a sheath known as pellich. Matrix & pellicle aue non-genetic material.

Chromatid:
Two longitudinal subunits of chromosome is called chromatid. Both chromatich
joined together by common Centromeve.

chromosomes have two chromatids in Prophase & metaphase.

Chromosomes have single chromatid in anaphase & telophase.

Each chromatid is consist of DNA associated with histone protein.

Centromere:

Sister chromatich are joined by the centromere. The contromere is called primary
constriction- It divichs chromosome into two parts Short cum -p'aum $ longer
aym- It contain dise-shaped kinetochore qaum
netochore Spindles is actual site of attachment to chromosome during cell division.

Secondary Constriction!

Constricted region other than that of centromere is called secondary constriction.

Satellite: chromosome segment separated from the main body of chromosome by

Secondary constriction. one

Telomere:

Terminal region of a chromosome on either sice Telomeres cave palau, which

prevents the fusion of chromosomal segments.

chromonem

Thread like coiled structure Embedded in the matrix Chromonemata formed of a

double helix of DNA.

Types:
Basis of location of centromere Fig-(20)

Metacentric

Centromere lies in the middle Two cums are almost equal of chromosome Found in
chromosomes 1, 3, 16, 19 20
Submetacentric

Centromere slightly away from the mil Two aums alue unequal. Chromosomes
2,4-12, 17, 18, X

Acrocentric

Centromere occupying a sub-terminal position. One aum is very long is the other is
very short Chromosomes 13-15,21,22,4

Telocentric:

Centromere present on the terminal position No p (shert aum) Telomeric

chromosomes are not present in humas.

Based on function

- Controlling somatic characteristics

Autosomes

Sex chromosomes

(or) involved in the determination of sex.

Allosomes

Functions
* Genetic material required for development & growth.

* X Chromosomes XX female

Chromosomes xy Male so sex cdetermination done by chromosome.

* Formation of protein & storage.