Mechanical &Aerospace

Department
Materials Engineering
MECH 390
Spring 2023
Dr. Ibrahim Shaban
Lecture -7 Metals and
Alloys
Class Objectives
Upon studying this part of the chapter student should be
able to:.
• Understand different factors that account for wide spread application of
ferrous alloy.
• Describe a classification scheme for the various ferrous alloys (steels and
cast irons).
• List different applications for different types of ferrous alloys.
• To be aware of the AISI/SAE designation system of plain carbon steel.
• Understand the limitations of ferrous alloys and the characteristic of
nonferrous alloys.
• Introduce supperalloys and list their groups and applications.
 Flashback….
Four Types of Engineering
Materials
Metals

Ceramics

Polymers

Composites
 Why Metals Are Important
High stiffness and strength - can be alloyed for high rigidity, strength, and hardness

Toughness - capacity to absorb energy better than other classes of materials

Good electrical conductivity - Metals are conductors

Good thermal conductivity - conduct heat better than ceramics or polymers

Cost – the price of steel is very competitive with other engineering materials

4
Metals and Alloys
An Alloy = A metal composed of two or more elements

• At least one element is metallic

Enhanced properties of alloys versus those of pure metals

• Strength
• Hardness
• Corrosion resistance

Two main categories of Alloys

• Solid Solutions
• Intermediate Phases

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 Alloys

Intermediate
Solid Solutions
Phases

Substitutional Metallic Inter-metallic

Interstitial
Compounds Compound
 Solid Solutions
An alloy in which one element is dissolved in another to form a single-phase structure

 Base element is metallic (Solvent)

 Dissolved element, metallic or non-metal

What is a phase (in a material structure)?

A phase = any homogeneous mass of material,

such as a metal, in which the grains all have
the same crystal lattice structure!
Two Forms of Solid Solutions

Substitutional solid solution Interstitial solid solution

Zinc dissolved in Copper = ?? Brass Carbon dissolved in Iron = ?? Steel

In both forms, the alloy structure is generally stronger and

harder than either of the component elements
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 Intermediate Phases
 There are usually limits to the solubility of one element in another

 When the amount of the dissolving element in the alloy exceeds

the solid solubility limit of the base metal, a second phase forms in
the alloy

 Its crystalline structure is also different from that of the pure

metals

13
Metals

14
 Classification of Metals

 Ferrous - those based on iron

 Steels
 Cast irons

 Nonferrous - all other metals

 Aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium, zinc, lead, tin,
molybdenum, tungsten, gold, silver, platinum, and others
 Superalloys

6
Classification of Metal Alloys
Metal Alloys

Adapted from Fig. 13.1,

Ferrous Nonferrous Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons
<2.1 wt% C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt%C
2.1-4.5 wt% C

T(ºC) microstructure: ferrite,

1600 graphite/cementite
δ
1400 L
Fig. 11.23, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
γ+L [Adapted from Binary Alloy Phase
1200 γ 1148ºC L+ Fe3C Diagrams, 2nd edition, Vol. 1, T. B.
austenite Massalski (Editor-in-Chief), 1990. Reprinted
Eutectic: by permission of ASM International,
1000 4.30
Materials Park, OH.]

γ + Fe3C
α 800 727ºC Fe 3 C
ferrite Eutectoid: cementite
600 0.76 α + Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
Co , wt% C
Classification of Metals
Ferrous Metals

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Ferrous Metals

Based on iron, one of the oldest metals known to man

 Ferrous metals of engineering importance are alloys of iron and carbon

 These alloys divide into two major groups:

 Steel
 Cast iron

 Together, they constitute approximately 85% of the metal tonnage in the United States

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 Steel and Cast Iron Defined

Steel = an iron-carbon alloy containing from 0.02% to 2.1% carbon.

Cast iron = an iron-carbon alloy containing from 2.1% to about 4% or 5%

carbon.

 Steels and cast irons can also contain other alloying elements besides
carbon.
An alloy of iron containing from 0.02% and 2.11% carbon
by weight.
 Often includes other alloying elements: nickel,
manganese, chromium, and molybdenum.

 Steel alloys can be grouped into four categories:

1. Plain carbon steels
(i) Low carbon (ii) Medium carbon (iii) High carbon
2. Low alloy steels
3. Stainless steels High alloy
4. Tool steels
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 Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6 wt% C 0.6-1.4 wt% C

heat
Name plain HSLA plain plain tool stainless
treatable
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 43 40 1095 4190 304, 409
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ varies
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ varies
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades Very corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
Based on data provided in Tables 13.1(b), 14.4(b), 13.3, and 13.4, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Plain Carbon Steels
 Carbon is the principal alloying element, with only small amounts
of other elements (about 0.5% manganese is normal)

 Strength of plain carbon steels increases with carbon content, but

ductility is reduced

Carbon Strength Carbon Ductility

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Tensile strength and hardness as a function of carbon content in plain
carbon steel.

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 AISI-SAE Designation Scheme
Specified by a 4-digit number system: 10XX, where 10 indicates plain
carbon steel, and XX indicates carbon % in hundredths of percentage
points

 For example, 1020 steel contains 0.20% C

 Developed by American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE), so designation often expressed as AISI
1020 or SAE 1020

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 Plain Carbon Steels
1. Low carbon steels - contain less than 0.20% C
 Applications: automobile sheet metal parts,
plate steel for fabrication, railroad rails

2. Medium carbon steels - range between 0.20% and

0.50% C
 Applications: machinery components and
engine parts such as crankshafts and
connecting rods
3. High carbon steels - contain carbon in amounts
greater than 0.50%
 Applications: cutting tools and blades, wear-
resistant parts
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 Low Alloy Steels
Iron-carbon alloys that contain additional alloying
elements in amounts totaling less than  5% by
weight
 Mechanical properties superior to plain carbon
steels for given applications
 Higher strength, hardness, wear resistance,
toughness, and more desirable combinations of
these properties
 Application: bridges, towers, support columns in high
Large diameter pipeline
rise buildings, pressure vessels, large diameter
pipeline
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 AISI-SAE Designation Scheme

AISI-SAE designation uses a 4-digit number system: YYXX, where YY indicates

alloying elements, and XX indicates carbon % in hundredths of % points
 Examples:
13XX - Manganese steel
20XX - Nickel steel
31XX - Nickel-chrome steel
40XX - Molybdenum steel (0.20 ~ 0.30%)
41XX - Chrome-molybdenum steel
43XX - Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.40 - 0.90%), Mo (0.20 - 0.30%)
44XX - Mo (0.5%)

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 High Alloy Steels: Stainless Steel
(SS)
Highly alloyed steels designed for corrosion resistance
 Principal alloying element is Chromium, usually greater than 15%
 Cr forms a thin oxide film that protects surface from corrosion

 Carbon is used to strengthen and harden SS, but high C content reduces
corrosion protection

Carbon Strength Carbon Corrosion protection

 Nickel (Ni) is another alloying ingredient in certain SS to increase corrosion

protection
 Stainless steels are noted for their combination of strength and ductility
 Tool Steels

A class of (usually) highly alloyed steels designed for use as

industrial cutting tools, dies, and molds.
 To perform in these applications, they must possess high
strength, hardness, wear resistance, and toughness under
impact.
 Tool steels are heat treated.

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 Cast Irons

Iron alloys containing from 2.1% to about 4% carbon and from 1% to 3%

silicon
 This composition makes them highly suitable as casting metals
 It has low melting – relatively easy to cast;
 Generally brittle

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Types of Cast Irons

Gray cast iron

Ductile iron

White cast iron

Malleable iron
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 Types of Cast Irons
Gray cast iron is the most important one.

Gray cast iron accounts for the largest tonnage among the cast irons. It has a composition
in the range 2.5% to 4% carbon and 1% to 3% silicon.

This chemistry results in the formation of graphite (carbon) flakes distributed throughout the
cast product upon solidification.

The structure causes the surface of the metal to have a gray color when fractured; hence
the name gray cast iron.

Ductility of gray cast iron is very low; it is a relatively brittle material.

37
 Types of Cast Irons

 Gray cast iron

 The dispersion of graphite flakes accounts for two attractive properties:
1. Good vibration damping, which is desirable in engines and other machinery.
2. Internal lubricating qualities, which makes the cast metal machinable.
 Products made from gray cast iron include automotive engine
blocks and heads, motor housings, and machine tool bases.

38
 Types of Cast Irons 39

Ductile Cast Iron

 This is an iron with the composition of gray iron in which the molten metal is chemically treated
before pouring to cause the formation of graphite spheroids rather than flakes.
 This results in a stronger and more ductile iron, hence its name.
 Applications include machinery components requiring high strength and good wear.

Chemical
treatment

Ductile cast iron

 Types of Cast Irons
 White cast iron has less carbon and silicon than gray cast iron.
 It is formed by more rapid cooling of the molten metal after pouring, thus causing the
carbon to remain chemically combined with iron in the form of cementite (Fe3C),
rather than precipitating out of solution in the form of flakes.
 When fractured, the surface has a white crystalline appearance that gives the iron its
name.
 White cast iron is hard and brittle, and its wear resistance is excellent. Strength is
good.
 These properties make white cast iron suitable for applications in which wear
resistance is required. E.g. railway brake shoes.

40
 Types of Cast Irons
Malleable Cast Iron
 When castings of white cast iron are heat treated to separate the carbon out of solution and
form graphite aggregates, the resulting metal is called malleable iron.
 The new microstructure can possess substantial ductility (up to 20% elongation.
 Typical products made of malleable cast iron include pipe fittings and flanges, certain machine
components, and railroad equipment parts.

Heat treatment
Metals
Part 2

42
METALS
Alloys and Phase Diagrams

Ferrous Metals

Nonferrous Metals

Superalloys

43
 Nonferrous Metals

Metal elements and alloys not based on iron

Most important nonferrous metals are aluminum, copper, magnesium, nickel, titanium, and zinc, and
their alloys.

Although sometimes not as strong as steels, certain nonferrous alloys have corrosion resistance and/or
strength-to-weight ratios that make them competitive with steels in moderate to high stress applications.

Many nonferrous metals have properties other than mechanical that make them ideal for applications in
which steel would not be suitable.
 Aluminum and
Magnesium
 Aluminum (Al) and magnesium (Mg) are light metals
 They are often specified in engineering applications
for this feature

 Both elements are abundant on earth, aluminum on

land and magnesium in the sea
 Neither is easily extracted from their natural states
 Properties of Aluminum
• High electrical and thermal conductivity

• Excellent corrosion resistance due to formation of a hard thin

oxide surface film

 Very ductile metal, noted for its formability

 Pure aluminum is relatively low in strength, but it can

be alloyed and heat treated to compete with some
steels, especially when weight is taken into
consideration

46
 Magnesium and Its Alloys
 Lightest of the structural metals

 Relatively easy to machine

 In all processing of magnesium, small particles of the

metal (such as small metal cutting chips) oxidize rapidly,
and care must be taken to avoid fire hazards
Ipod case
 As a pure metal, magnesium is relatively soft and lacks sufficient strength for
most engineering applications
 In particular, its strength-to-weight ratio is an advantage in aircraft and
missile components
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 Copper

One of the oldest metals known to mankind

Good electrical conductor commercially pure

copper is widely used as an electrical conductor

Also an excellent thermal conductor

One of the noble metals (gold and silver are

also noble metals), so it is corrosion resistant

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 Copper Alloys

 Strength
and hardness of copper is relatively low; to
improve strength, copper is frequently alloyed
 Bronze - alloy of copper and tin (typical  90% Cu, 10%
Sn), widely used today and in ancient times (i.e., the
Bronze Age)
 Brass - alloy of copper and zinc (typical  65% Cu, 35%
Zn).
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 Nickel and Its Alloys

 Similar to iron in some respects:

 Magnetic
 Modulus of elasticity  E for iron and steel
 Differences with iron:
 Much more corrosion resistant - widely used as an
alloying element in steel, e.g., stainless steel,
 High temperature properties of Ni alloys are much
superior.
 Retains good strength at elevated temperatures.
 Applications requiring high temperature (up to 1100˚C)
and corrosion resistance.
Titanium and
Its Alloys
 Abundant in nature, constituting  1% of
earth's crust (aluminum is  8%)

 Density of Ti is between aluminum and

iron

 Importance has grown in recent decades

due to its aerospace applications where its
light weight and good strength-to-weight
ratio are utilized.
 Applications of Titanium
At room temperature Ti forms a thin adherent (titanium alloy)
oxide coating (TiO2) that provides excellent
corrosion resistance
In the commercially pure state, Ti is used for
corrosion resistant components, such as marine
components and prosthetic implants
(Co-Cr-Mo alloy)
Titanium alloys are used as high strength
components at temperatures ranging up to
550C (1000F), especially where its excellent
strength-to-weight ratio is utilized.
(titanium alloy)

52
Superalloys

53
 Superalloys

 Superalloys are High-performance alloys designed to meet demanding

requirements for strength and resistance to surface degradation at high service
temperatures.
 Many superalloys contain substantial amounts of three or more metals, rather
than consisting of one base metal plus alloying elements.
 Commercially important because they are very expensive.
 Technologically important because of their unique properties.
 Examples are Hastelloy, Inconel, Waspaloy, Rene alloys, Incoloy, MP98T, TMS
alloys, and CMSX single crystal alloys.
 Room temperature strength properties are good but not
outstanding

High temperature performance is excellent - tensile strength,

creep resistance, and corrosion resistance at very elevated
Why temperatures

Superalloys Operating temperatures often around 1100C (2000F)

are Important
Applications: gas turbines - jet and rocket engines, steam
turbines, and nuclear power plants (all are systems in which
operating efficiency increases with higher temperatures)
Three Groups of Superalloys
1. Iron-based alloys - in some cases iron is less than 50% of total
composition
 Alloyed with Ni, Cr, Co
2. Nickel-based alloys - better high-temperature strength than alloy
steels
 Alloyed with Cr, Co, Fe, Mo, Ti
3. Cobalt-based alloys -  40% Co and  20% chromium
 Alloyed with Ni, Mo, and W

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Compositions for Several Superalloys
 Nonferrous Alloys
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -low ρ: 2.7 g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurities aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear) NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
Cu-Be : -very low ρ: 1.7 g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength - aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys
-relatively low ρ: 4.5 g/cm3 • Refractory metals
-high melting T’s
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T’s -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. - oxid./corr. resistant 51

Based on discussion and data provided in Chapter 13, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.